Virtual and Physical Prototyping

ISSN: 1745-2759 (Print) 1745-2767 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/nvpp20

Acoustic absorptions of multifunctional polymeric

cellular structures based on triply periodic
minimal surfaces fabricated by stereolithography

Wenjing Yang, Jia An, Chee Kai Chua & Kun Zhou

To cite this article: Wenjing Yang, Jia An, Chee Kai Chua & Kun Zhou (2020): Acoustic
absorptions of multifunctional polymeric cellular structures based on triply periodic
minimal surfaces fabricated by stereolithography, Virtual and Physical Prototyping, DOI:
10.1080/17452759.2020.1740747

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2020.1740747

Published online: 19 Mar 2020.

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VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING
https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2020.1740747

Acoustic absorptions of multifunctional polymeric cellular structures based on

triply periodic minimal surfaces fabricated by stereolithography
Wenjing Yanga, Jia Ana, Chee Kai Chuab and Kun Zhoua
a
Singapore Center for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore;
b
Engineering Product Development Pillar, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, Singapore

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Polymeric cellular structures based on triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS) have been widely Received 4 March 2020
studied for applications in multiple disciplines due to their multifunctionality. However, there is Accepted 6 March 2020
limited acoustic application by TPMS-based structures as their acoustic properties remain largely
KEYWORDS
unknown. In this paper, TPMS-based structures are fabricated by additive manufacturing and Additive manufacturing;
investigated as a novel solution to sound absorption in the upper midrange frequency. acoustic absorption; triply
Structures based on three typical surface types (Primitive, Gyroid and Diamond) with three periodic minimal surfaces;
geometry-related parameters (volume fraction, unit cell size and height) are manufactured by multifunctional;
stereolithography and tested by two-microphone impedance method in the frequency range of stereolithography
2000-6000 Hz. The results show that the structures based on Diamond surfaces exhibit excellent
absorption abilities among the three types in a wide bandwidth. High absorption coefficients
can be achieved by a large volume fraction or a small unit cell size while the effective frequency
ranges can be adjusted by the height. This study extends the multifunctionality of TPMS-based
cellular structures to include acoustic absorption and will facilitate the development of
guidelines on designing the optimal acoustic absorbers by cellular structures in future.

Introduction
properties can even be customised for different design
Architected cellular structures are cellular solids with requirements (Lee et al. 2016b). These structures also
voids arranged in periodicity, for example, naturally hon- exhibit optimal energy absorption abilities (Maskery
eycombs and synthetic lattices. These structures are et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2018), thermal and electrical con-
potential replacements of bulk structures owing to ductivities (Torquato and Donev 2004), fluid permeability
their competitive mechanical properties while the (Jung and Torquato 2005) and vibration isolation abilities
weight and materials of the structures are reduced by (Elmadih et al. 2019), and thus have the potential for mul-
the voids (Gibson and Ashby 1999; Al-ketan, Rowshan, tifunctional engineering applications.
and Al-Rub 2018). The recent research has focused on The research on TPMS was restricted to theoretical
cellular structures based on triply periodic minimal sur- studies until the introduction of additive manufactur-
faces (TPMS). TPMS are mathematically defined continu- ing (AM). AM has enabled the fabrication of the
ous surfaces that exhibit periodicity in three complex structures including TPMS-based structures
perpendicular dimensions with zero mean curvatures for multi-discipline applications through layer-by-layer
and locally-minimised surface areas (Lord and Mackay buildup of pre-designed computer models (An et al.
2003; Chen, Kwon, and Thornton 2009). These surfaces 2015; Zhuang et al. 2018; Yuan, Chua, and Zhou
divide the space into two interlocked sub-domains 2019a; Lee et al. 2016a; Ng, Chua, and Shen 2019;
while maintaining the voids (Wohlgemuth et al. 2001; An, Chua, and Mironov 2016; Sing et al. 2015; Lee,
Rajagopalan and Robb 2006). The unique geometrics An, and Chua 2017b, 2017a; Yuan et al. 2019b; Low
motivated various studies on the properties of the struc- et al. 2001; Cheah et al. 2002). The advanced AM tech-
tures based on TPMS for multifunctional applications. niques, selective laser melting (SLM) and selective laser
The TPMS-based cellular structures can be employed sintering (SLS) have been mostly utilised for manufac-
for structural engineering owing to the superior mechan- turing of TPMS-based structures made of metal and
ical properties such as high stiffness and strength (Yan polymers respectively, for investigations on the mech-
et al. 2014; Abueidda et al. 2017), and these mechanical anical and multifunctional properties of the structures

CONTACT Kun Zhou kzhou@ntu.edu.sg Singapore Center for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological
University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 W. YANG ET AL.

(Al-ketan, Rowshan, and Al-Rub 2018; Abueidda et al. parameters of these regular cellular structures are able
2017; Zhang et al. 2018; Maskery et al. 2018; Elmadih to tune the frequency range and bandwidth of the
et al. 2019). In addition to metal and polymers, absorbed sound wave. Furthermore, the wideband
ceramic was applied as the material of TPMS-based acoustic absorption in high frequency ranges by
structures as bone tissue scaffolds printed by fused TPMS-base structures are expected in acoustic engin-
deposition modelling (FDM) technique (Restrepo eering as the common sound absorbers including
et al. 2017). The unit cell sizes of the structures fabri- micro-perforated panels, traditional porous materials
cated by SLM, SLS and FDM range from 7 to 20 mm, and newly-introduced metamaterials are focusing on
while stereolithography (SLA) technique can fabricate wideband absorptions in low-frequency ranges, wide-
structures in smaller sizes (less than 5 mm in unit band absorptions in middle frequency ranges and nar-
size) with high dimension accuracy and good surface rowband absorptions with extremely high efficiency,
finish(Melchels et al. 2010; Yu, Sun, and Bai 2019). respectively (Yang and Sheng 2017).
As one of the ideal solutions to complex structures, In this paper, structures based on TPMS of Gyroid,
AM has been introduced to the manufacturing of Primitive and Diamond surfaces were designed and
various acoustic devices since 2007 (Godbold, Soar, and fabricated by SLA for the investigations on the acous-
Buswell 2007; Yang et al. 2020). However, the studies tic absorption abilities of the TPMS-based structures, as
on the acoustic properties of the TPMS-based structures these three types of structures have optimal energy
are very limited. The acoustic absorption abilities of these absorption abilities and excellent mechanical proper-
structures remain largely unknown. Until recently, only ties (Montazerian et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2018). The
the acoustic band gaps and the sound attenuation of acoustic absorption tests were applied to the manufac-
the TPMS-based structures have been reported, and tured TPMS-based structures. The optimal type of the
the results showed that wide band gaps in high fre- TPMS for acoustic absorption was determined and
quency ranges (over 6000 Hz) could be obtained by analysed. In addition, the effects of the cell size,
these structures (Abueidda, Jasiuk, and Sobh 2018). volume fraction and the heights of the structures on
This study suggests that TPMS-based structures are mul- the absorption abilities and the absorption frequency
tifunctional structures with sound attenuation ability as ranges were studied and analysed for optimum
an additional function. However, the conclusions were absorptions in aimed frequency ranges.
based only on simulation results without experimental
validations and therefore motivated the acoustic tests
Materials and methods
on physical cellular structures in this paper to investigate
the sound absorption properties in the upper midrange Three types of the surfaces, Primitive (P), Gyroid (G) and
(2000–6000 Hz), a frequency band that is most sensitive Diamond (D) were employed to create the cellular struc-
to human hearing. tures for acoustic absorption. The three structures can be
TMPS-based cellular structures have several advan- generated by the following approximation equations
tages compared to the traditional cellular structures (Wohlgemuth et al. 2001):
and materials (fibres and foams). Traditional cellular
FP = cos (vx) + cos (vy) + cos (vz) − t (1)
structures and materials including fibres and foams
have been widely used as the sound absorbers with FG = cos (vx) sin (vy) + cos (vy) sin (vz)
strong absorption abilities while the poor mechanical
+ cos (vz) sin (vx) − t (2)
properties have restricted the applications (Liu and
Chen 2014; Duan, Cui, and Liu 2011). However, TPMS- FD = sin (vx) sin (vy) sin (vz)
based cellular structures are multifunctional, providing
+ sin (vx) cos (vy) cos (vz)
not only acoustic absorption abilites but also excellent
mechanical and thermal performances. Moreover, + cos (vx) cos (vy) sin (vz) − t, (3)
studies on the optimal energy absorption abilities of where x, y, z are spatial coordinates and ω is the function
the TPMS-based structures indicate the potential to periodicity given as
absorb sound wave energy in multiple means rather
2p
than transmission and reflection (Maskery et al. 2017; v= , (4)
Zhang et al. 2018). In addition, compared to the tra- L
ditional fibres and materials whose acoustic absorption where L is the length of unit cell. The arbitrary parameter
abilities and absorbed sound wave frequency ranges t is the controller of the volume fraction of the lattice cell.
are determined by the intrinsic structures and the prop- The regions are defined to be solid when Φ ≤ 0 and to be
erties of the materials, the adjustable geometric void when Φ > 0. The isosurface is defined at Φ = 0 to
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 3

separate the solid and the void regions and the triangu- photopolymerisation of the polymer resin for sound
lar mesh can be exported as an STL file for AM process. absorption in the high frequency range from 2000 to
Matlab was used to generate the surfaces, Blender was 6400 Hz. The SLA printer Form 2 with a laser power of
used to convert the surfaces to solid bodies and Materi- 250 mW and building speed of 6 ml/h along the z-axis
alise Magics was used to offset and repair the structures. was used and the printing material was a commercial
Tortuosity τ is the structure shape factor that resin (Tough FLTOTL04, Formlab). The structures were
describes the degree of the twist of the structures as cleaned by isopropyl alcohol and were cured by a
well as the path of the air flow passing through the struc- 405 nm UV light. Figure 1 shows the unit cell, the
tures. A larger τ will increase the length of the path and designed samples and the printed samples based on
thus also the viscous losses of the sound wave, thereby the three surface types.
achieiving larger acoustic absorptions (Newell 2008). The two-microphone impedance method with impe-
The values of the tortuosity τ of the P, G and D surfaces dance tube type 4206 (Brüel and Kjær Sound and
have been obtained by Nawada (2018) using Lattice- Vibration) was used to measure the sound absorption.
Boltzmann simulations. In this paper, the impedance tube with an inner diameter
Besides the surface types of the structures, the geo- of 29 mm was used to measure the frequency range
metric parameters will affect τ of the structures. For from 500 to 6400 Hz. The mechanical performances of
example, the complexity and the twist of the structures the printed structures were not tested here as the
can be increased by reducing the unit cell size and focus was on the acoustic properties. There was an
increasing the volume fraction (the volume portion of extensive literature on the mechanical properties and
the rigid parts of the TMPS-based structures) so that the structure-property requirements of photopolymer-
the path passed by the sound wave increases. To study based cellular structures or sandwich structures printed
the effects of the geometric parameters including unit by SLA (Dikshit et al. 2017, 2018; Mondschein et al.
cell size l, volume fraction ρ and sample height h on 2017; Abueidda et al. 2017; Yan et al. 2014).
the acoustic absorption coefficients and the effective
ranges of the frequency, the structures based on three
Results and discussion
types of TMPS with varied l, ρ and h were designed.
The designed parameters are listed in Table 1. This section presents the tested acoustic absorption per-
The samples were designed to be cylinders with a formances of the TPMS-based structures, discusses the
29 mm diameter and a wall thickness of 1 mm to fit effects of the surface type, the volume fraction ρ, the
the dimension of the experiment apparatus. The values unit cell size l and the height h on the acoustic absorp-
of the unit cell size l were designed by the largest tion coefficients and the effective absorption frequency
number of the cells of the top surface of the cylindrical ranges and concludes the preferable structural designs
samples. As the number decreased from 6 to 3, l for optimal sound absorption by TPMS-based structures.
increased from 4.7 to 9.3 mm. Similarly, the values of The parameters ρ, l and h are designed values as the
the height h were designed by the number of the cells accuracy of the SLA is high and the impact of the devi-
at the height of the cylindrical structures. As the ation on the parametric effect can be ignored (Chua
number of the cells increased from 1 to 3 cells, h and Leong 2017).
increased from 5.6 to 16.8 mm while the unit cell size l
was fixed at 5.6 mm.
Effect of the surface type
SLA, a vat photopolymerisation technology (Chua and
Leong 2017; Szymczyk et al. 2020; Lee et al. 2018), was Figure 2 shows the comparison of the acoustic absorp-
used to fabricate the designed small-size samples by tions of the structures based on the three types of

Table 1. The surface types and parameters of the unit cell size, volume fraction and height of the designed celluar structures.
Sample Type ρ (%) l (mm) h (mm) Sample Type ρ (%) l (mm) h (mm)
S1 D 15 5.6 11.2 S10 D 25 7.0 11.2
S2 D 25 5.6 11.2 S11 D 25 9.3 11.2
S3 D 35 5.6 11.2 S12 G 25 7.0 11.2
S4 D 45 5.6 11.2 S13 P 25 7.0 11.2
S5 G 15 5.6 11.2 S14 D 25 5.6 5.6
S6 G 35 5.6 11.2 S15 D 25 5.6 16.8
S7 P 15 5.6 11.2 S16 G 25 5.6 16.8
S8 P 35 5.6 11.2 S17 P 25 5.6 16.8
S9 D 25 4.7 11.2
4 W. YANG ET AL.

most complicated structural configurations among the

three types, although the increase of the volume fraction
will benefit the acoustic absorption with higher absorp-
tion coefficients, the structures with a ρ larger than
50% are difficult to realise since the void parts of the
structures will be blocked by the materials of the solid
parts. In addition, the reduction of the weight and
materials of the acoustic absorbers is preferable in the
industrial and architectural applications. The structures
that can achieve the targeted absorptions at acceptable
absorption coefficients with the lightest weight (smallest
ρ) will be the ideal solution in the multifunctional
applications.
Figure 1. The unit cell, the tortuosity τ, the designed samples
and the printed samples based on the three surface types: Primi-
tive (P), G (Gyroid) and D (Diamond).
Effect of the unit cell size
Figure 4 shows the sound absorption abilities of S2, S9,
TPMS. The D-type structures exhibit obvious higher
S10 and S11. They are all D-type structures with increas-
absorption coefficients than the G-type and P-type struc-
ing l, the height h was kept at 11.2 mm while the volume
tures with the same l, h and ρ in the aimed frequency
fraction ρ was kept at 25% for these structures. It is
range. The D-type structures hold the optimal absorption
obvious that as l increases, the absorption coefficient
performance among the three types of structures
decreases while the effective frequency ranges do not
despite the changes of the designed l, h and ρ, while
change. It can be explained by the decrease of τ due to
the G-type and P-type structures show similar perform-
the increase of l. However, when the largest cell
ances and the G-type structures are able to achieve
number at the top surface increased to 7 and l decreased
slightly higher absorption coefficients. Only the peak
to 4 mm, the fabrication of the D-type structures failed
values of the absorption coefficients and the respective
due to the restricted spot size of the laser beam. For
frequencies at the peak values are affected by the
the applications of the D-type structures as acoustic
changes of l, h and ρ. The results agree with the predic-
absorbers, the designed l is suggested to be larger
tions that the larger τ will provide better absorptions
than 4 mm or an advanced printer with a smaller laser
with larger absorption coefficients. It can be concluded
spot size is required for the manufacturing.
that the D-type structures with the largest τ is the
optimal surface type among the three candidate types
for acoustic absorption. In the subsequent sections, to
Effect of the height
study the effects of l, h and ρ, all the structures were
designed in type D for highly effective acoustic Figure 5 shows the sound absorption abilities of S2, S14
absorption. and S15. They are D-type structures with increasing h.
The volume fraction ρ was kept at 25% while the unit
cell size l was kept at 5.6 mm. It can be observed that
Effect of the volume fraction
when h is 5.6 mm, the acoustic absorption is poor since
Figure 3 shows the sound absorption abilities of S1, S2, the overall absorption coefficients are low. When h is
S3 and S4. They are all D-type structures with increasing 11.2 cm, the effective absorption frequency range is
ρ. The height h was kept at 11.2 mm while the unit cell around 4000–6400 Hz and the absorption coefficients
size l was kept at 5.6 mm. The results show that the can achieve high values larger than 0.8. When h increases
overall absorption coefficients increase as ρ increases to 16.8 mm, the peak of the absorption curve shits to the
from 15% to 45% while the effective absorption fre- left, causing the effective absorption frequency range to
quency ranges are kept at around 4000–6400 Hz. A shift to 3000–5000 Hz and the peak value of the absorp-
similar tendency can be observed from Figure 3(a, b) tion coefficients to decrease to 0.74. Figure 2(d) reflects
that the G-type and P-type structures exhibit higher similar shifts of the effective frequency ranges of the G-
absorption coefficients with a larger ρ. The increase of type and P-type structures with large h while the
the volume fraction ρ has the positive effects on the overall absorption coefficients are lower when compared
absorption coefficients since τ is increased at the same with Figure 2(c). Thus, the effective absorption frequency
time. However, for the D-type structures that have the ranges can be tuned by adjusting the height of the
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 5

Figure 2. Comparison of the acoustic absorptions of structures: (a) S1, S5 and S7, (b) S3, S6 and S8, (c) S10, S12 and S13, and (b) S15, S16
and S17.

Figure 3. Comparison of the acoustic absorptions of the D-type Figure 4. Comparison of the acoustic absorptions of the D-type
structures with various ρ. structures with various l.
6 W. YANG ET AL.

effective frequency range. All of the factors including the

surface type of the structures indicated that the absorp-
tion abilities would increase as the tortuosity of the struc-
ture increased. When designing the TPMS-based
structures for sound absorption applications, the geo-
metric parameters with a lager tortuosity resulting in
the optimum absorption performance should not be
the only factor to be considered, the restrictions on
space, weight and manufacturing should not be
ignored. Overall, the feasibility of TPMS surfaces serving
as multi-functional structures especially on acoustic
absorption has been demonstrated. There is a great
potential to provide the guidelines on designing the
TPMS-based structures as the optimal sound absorbers
Figure 5. Comparison of the acoustic absorptions of the D-type in the upper midrange (the most sensitive band to
structures with different h. human hearing) in future.

absorbers when applying the TPMS-based structures in

acoustic absorption. Acknowledgement
However, the wall of the cylindrical samples for the
This research is supported by the National Research Foun-
tight contact between the testing tube and the struc- dation, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore under its Medium-
tures can change the propagation routes of the sound Sized Centre funding scheme.
wave in the cellular structures, and thus the height of
the wall, which equals to the height h, is preferably to
be small to reduce the effects of the wall for the Disclosure statement
testing samples with the restricted size. The designed No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
structure sizes will depend on the requirements of the
applications, and the suitable h for the acoustic absorp-
tion in the aimed frequency ranges will be varied for Funding
different structure sizes. Furthermore, the height
This research is supported by the National Research Foun-
should be minimised to reduce the space and weight dation, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore under its Medium-
of the structures for the industrial and architectural Sized Centre funding scheme
applications.

Notes on contributors
Conclusion
Wenjing Yang is Ph.D. Candidate Singapore Centre of 3D Print-
In this paper, TPMS surfaces as sound absorbers have ing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang
been investigated. Structures based on D, G, and P Technological University.
types of surfaces with varying geometric parameters Jia An is Research Fellow Singapore Centre of 3D Printing,
have been designed and tested for acoustic absorption. School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang
Technological University.
The samples for the acoustic tests have been realised
by SLA. The results showed that the D-type structure Chee Kai Chua is Head of Pillar, Engineering Product Develop-
ment (EPD), Cheng Tsang Man Chair Professor Singapore Uni-
was ideal to absorb the sound wave with high absorption
versity of Technology and Design.
coefficients in the high frequency ranges while the tra-
Kun Zhou is Associate Professor School of Mechanical and Aero-
ditional cellular structures focused on the acoustic
space Engineering, Nanyang Technological University.
absorption in the low and middle frequency ranges
The effective frequency ranges were tunable by adjust-
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