Chapter 7 - Practical Considerations in Modeling: Learning Objectives

CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 7 - Practical Considerations in Modeling 1/44
Chapter 7 – Practical Considerations in Modeling
Learning Objectives
•To present concepts that should be considered when
modeling for a situation by the finite element method,
such as aspect ratio, symmetry, natural subdivisions,
sizing of elements and the h, p, and r methods of
refinement, concentrated loads and infinite stress,
infinite medium, and connecting different kinds of
elements
•To describe some of the approximations inherent in

finite element solutions
•To illustrate convergence of solution and introduce

the patch test for convergence of solution
Chapter 7 – Practical Considerations in Modeling
Learning Objectives
•To discuss the interpretation of stresses in an
element, including a common method of averaging
the nodal values (also called smoothing)
•To present a flowchart of typical finite element

processes used for the analysis of plane stress and
plane strain
•To describe a computer assisted step-by-step

solution of a bicycle wrench
•To demonstrate various real-world applications

where plane stress/strain element models are
applicable
Practical Considerations in Modeling

Introduction
In this section we will discuss some modeling considerations

and guidelines, including mesh size, natural subdivisions,
and the use of symmetry and associated boundary
conditions.
We will also introduce the concept of static condensation,

which enables us to apply the basis of the CST stiffness
matrix to a quadrilateral element.

Finite Element Modeling
Finite element modeling is partly an art guided by visualizing
physical interactions taking place within a body.
In modeling the user is confronted with the difficult task of

understanding physical behavior taking place and
understanding the physical behavior of various elements
available for use.
Matching the appropriate finite element to the physical

behavior being modeling is one of many decisions that must
be made by the modeler.
Understanding the boundary conditions can be one of the

most difficult tasks a modeler must face in construction a
useable finite element model.

Aspect Ratio and Element Shape
The aspect ratio is define as the ratio of the longest
dimension to the shortest dimension of a quadrilateral
element.
In general, as the aspect ratio increases, the inaccuracy of the

finite element solution increases.
Good Bad

Consider the five different finite element model shown in the
figure below.

A plot of the resulting error in the displacement at point A of
the beam verse aspect ratio is given.

In addition, the numerical answers are given in the following
table.
Case Aspect Number of Number of Point A Point B % Error

Ratio Nodes Elements
1 1.1 84 60 -1.093 -0.346 5.2
2 1.5 85 64 -1.078 -0.339 6.4
3 3.6 77 60 -1.014 -0.238 11.9
4 6.0 81 64 -0.886 -0.280 23.0
5 24.0 85 64 -0.500 -0.158 56.0
Exact Solution -1.152 -0.360

In general, elements that yield the best results are compact
and regular in shape will: (1) aspect ratios near one; and (2)
corner angles of quadrilaterals near 90°.

Minimum Support Conditions to
Suppress Rigid Body Motions in 2D
stable stable unstable


Use of Symmetry
The use of symmetry will often expedite the modeling of a
problem.
Symmetry allows us to consider a reduced problem instead of

the actual problem.
This will allow us to use a finer discretization of element with

less computational cost.

Use of Symmetry
problem.

Use of Symmetry
problem.

Use of Symmetry
problem.

Use of Symmetry
problem.

Use of Symmetry
problem.

Natural Subdivisions at Discontinuities
There are a variety of natural subdivisions for finite element
discretizations.
For example, natural locations of nodes occur at concentrated

loads or discontinuities in loading, other types of boundary
conditions, and abrupt changes in geometry of materials.

Sizing of Elements and Mesh Refinement
A discretization depends on the geometry of the structure, the
loading, and the boundary conditions.
For example, areas of high, rapidity changing stresses require

a finer mesh than regions where the stress is constant.

Where Finer Meshes Should Be Used

Use of Symmetry
Here the use of symmetry is applied to a soil mass subjected
to a foundation loading (66 nodes and 50 elements).

Use of Symmetry
Note that at the place of symmetry the displacements in the
direction perpendicular to the plane must be zero.

Use of Symmetry
This is modeled by rollers at nodes 2 - 6.

Use of Symmetry
The figure below illustrates the use of triangular elements for
transitions from smaller quadrilaterals to larger
quadrilaterals.

Use of Symmetry
The transitions are required since CST elements do not have
immediate nodes along their edges.

Use of Symmetry
If an element had an intermediate node, the resulting
equations would be inconsistent with the energy formulation
for the CST equations.

Use of Symmetry


Elements Must Not Cross Interfaces


Mesh Revision (Refinement)
Mesh revision or refinement is used to increase the accuracy
of the results produced by a finite element model.
First, start with a basic mesh using the fewest, reasonable
number of elements, and obtain a benchmark result.
Then refine the model by doing actions like increasing the
mesh density and compare the results.
This process continues until the results converge to some
user-defined criteria.
Consider this original mesh for the discussion of types of
methods:

Mesh Revision (Refinement)
Consider this original mesh for the discussion of types of
methods:

h Method of Refinement
In the h method, we use the particular element based on the
shape functions for that element.
Elements of the same kind are then added or made smaller.
Uniform or non-uniform refinements are possible as shown
below:

p Method of Refinement
In the p method, the polynomial p is increased to higher-order
polynomials based on the degree of accuracy specified.
These iterations are repeated until a convergence is reached.

r Method of Refinement
In the r method, the nodes are rearranged or relocated without
changing the number of elements of the polynomial degree
of the field quantities.

Infinite Medium
A typical example of infinite medium is a soil foundation
problem.
The guideline for the finite element model is that enough

material must be included such that the displacements at
nodes and stresses within the elements become negligibly
small at locations far from the foundation load.
The level of discretization can be determined by a trail-and-

error procedure in which the horizontal and vertical
distances from the load are varied and the resulting effects
on the displacements and stresses are observed.

Infinite Medium
For a homogeneous soil mass, experience has shown the
influence of a footing becomes insignificant if the horizontal
distance of the model is taken as approximately four and six
times the width of the footing and the vertical distance is
taken as approximately four to ten times the width of the
footing.

Infinite Medium
footing.

Infinite Medium
footing.

Checking the Model
The discretized finite element model should be checked
carefully before results are computed.
Ideally, a model should be checked by an analyst not involved

in the preparation of the model, who is then more likely to be
objective.
Preprocessors with their detailed graphical display capabilities

now make it comparatively easy to find errors, particularly
with a misplaced node or missing element or a misplaced
load or boundary condition.
Preprocessors include the ability to color, shrink, rotate, and

section a model mesh.

Checking the Results and Typical Postprocessor Results
An analyst should probability spend as much time processing,
checking, and analyzing results as spent in data preparation.

An analyst should probability spend as much time processing,
checking, and analyzing results as spent in data preparation.

The wrench in this example is modeled by 307 constraint
strain triangular elements (plane stress assumption). Below
is a plot of the deformed shape of the wrench over the
original mesh.


Equilibrium and Compatibility of Finite Element Results
An approximate solution for a stress analysis problem using
the finite element method based on assumed displacement
fields does not generally satisfy all the requirements for
equilibrium and compatibility that an exact theory-of-
elasticity solution satisfies.
However, remember that relatively few exact solutions exist.
Hence, the finite element method is a very practical one for

obtaining reasonable, but approximate, numerical solutions.

We now describe some of the approximations generally
inherent with finite element solutions.
1. Equilibrium of nodal forces and moments is satisfied.
This is true because the global equation F = Kd is a nodal

equilibrium equation whose solution for d is such that the
sums of all forces and moments applied to each node are
zero.
Equilibrium of the whole structure is also satisfied because

the structure reactions are included in the global forces,
and hence, in the nodal equilibrium equations.

2. Equilibrium within an element is not always satisfied.
However, for the constant-strain bar and the constant-

strain triangle, element equilibrium is satisfied.
Also the cubic displacement function is shown to satisfy

the basic beam equilibrium differential equation, and
hence, to satisfy element force and moment equilibrium.

3. Equilibrium is not usually satisfied between elements.
A differential element including parts of two adjacent finite

elements is usually not in equilibrium (see the figure
below).

A differential element including parts of two adjacent finite

elements is usually not in equilibrium (see the figure
below).

For line elements, such as used for truss and frame

analysis, interelement equilibrium is satisfied.
However, for two- and three-dimensional elements,

interelement equilibrium is not usually satisfied.
Also, the coarseness of the mesh causes this lack of

interelement equilibrium to be even more pronounced.

4. Compatibility is satisfied within an element as long as the

element displacement field is continuous; hence, individual
elements do not tear apart.
5. In the formulation of the element equations, compatibility is

invoked at the nodes.
Hence, elements remain connected at their common

nodes. Similarly, the structure remains connected to its
support nodes because boundary conditions are invoked
at these nodes.

6. Compatibility may or may not be satisfied along

interelement boundaries.
For line elements such as bars and beams, interelement

boundaries are merely nodes.
The constant-strain triangle remain straight sided when

deformed and therefore, interelement compatibility exists
for these elements. Incompatible elements, those that
allow gaps or overlaps between elements, can be
acceptable and even desirable.

Convergence of Solution
When the mesh size is reduced - that is the number of
elements is increased - we are ensured of monotonic
convergence of the solution when compatible and complete
displacement functions are used.


Case Number of Number of Nodes Aspect

Elements Ratio Point A
1 12 21 2 -0.740
2 24 39 1 -0.980
3 32 45 3 -0.875
4 64 85 1.5 -1.078
5 80 105 1.2 -1.100
Exact Solution -1.152

Patch Test
The Patch test is used to test the convergence of a solution of
an element being used in the model.
The test requires that the element must be able to

accommodate both rigid-body motion and a constant state of
strain, as both are possible within a structure.
The test can also be applied to determine if sufficient Gauss

points have been used in the numerical integration process
to evaluate the stiffness matrix for isoparametric
formulations.



Interpretation of Stresses
In the stiffness or displacement formulation of the finite
element method, used in this course, the primary quantities
determined are the interelement nodal displacements of the
assemblage.
Secondary quantities, such as stress and strain, are computed

based on these nodal displacements.
In the case of the bar and constant-strain triangles, stresses

are constant over the element.
For these elements, it is common practice to assign the stress

to the centroid of the element with acceptable results.

An alternative procedure sometimes is to use an average
(possibly weighted) value of the stresses evaluated at each
node of the element.
This averaging method is often based interpolating the

element nodal values using the element shape functions.
The averaging method is called smoothing.
While the results from smoothing may be pleasing to the eye,

they may not indicate potential problems with the model and
the results.

You should always view the unsmoothed contour plots as well.
Highly discontinuous contours between elements in a region

of an unsmoothed plot indicate modeling problems and
typically require additional refinement of the element mesh
in the suspect region.

Static Condensation
Let’s consider the concept of static condensation and used it
to develop the stiffness matrix of a quadrilateral element.
Consider a general quadrilateral element as shown below.

Static Condensation
An imaginary node 5 is temporary introduced at the
intersection of the diagonals of the quadrilateral to create
four triangles.

Static Condensation
We can superimpose the stiffness matrices of the four
triangles to create the stiffness matrix of the quadrilateral
element, where the internal imaginary node 5 degrees of
freedom are said to be condensed out so that they never
enter into the final equations.

Static Condensation
Let’s start by partitioning the equilibrium equations:
K11 K12  de  Fe 

K     
 21 K22   di   Fi 
where di is the vector of displacements corresponding to the
imaginary internal node, Fi is the vector of loads at the
internal node, and de and Fe are the actual displacements
and loads, respectively.
Rewriting the above equations we gives:
K11de  K12d i  Fe
K 21de  K 22d i  Fi

Static Condensation
Solving the second equations for di gives:
di  K221K21de  K221Fi
Substituting the above equation, we obtain the condensed

equilibrium equation: k d  F
c c c
where k  K  K K 1K
c 11 12 22 21
Fc  Fe  K12K 22 1Fi
where kc and Fc are called the condensed stiffness matrix

and the condensed load vector, respectively.

Static Condensation
An advantage of the four-CST quadrilaterals is that the
solution becomes less dependent on the skew of the
subdivision mesh.
The skew means a directional stiffness bias that is built into a

model through certain discretization patterns.

Static Condensation
The stiffness matrix of a typical triangular element, call it
element 1, labeled with nodes 1, 2, and 5 is given as:
k11
(1) (1)
k12 (1)
k15 
 (1) (1) 
k (1)   k 21 (1)
k 22 k 25 
k51
(1) (1)
k52 (1)
k55 
 
where kij (1) is a 2 x 2 matrix.

Static Condensation
The assembled stiffness matrix
for the quadrilateral is:
(u1,v1 ) (u2 ,v 2 ) (u3 ,v 3 ) (u4 ,v 4 ) (u5 ,v 5 )

 k11
(1)
 k11
( 4) (1)
k12 0 ( 4)
k14 (1)
k15  k15
(4)

 (2) 
 k 21
(1) (1)
k 22  k 22
(2) (2)
k23 0 (1)
k 25  k 25 
 0 (2)
k32 (2)
k33  k33(3) (3)
k34 (2)
k35  k35
(3)

k    k ( 4) 0 (3)
k 43 (3)
k 44  k 44
(4) (3)
k 45 (4) 
 k 45
 41 
 k55  k55
(1) (2) 
 k51
(1)
 k51
( 4) (1)
k52  k52
(2) (2)
k53  k53
(3) (3)
k54  k54
(4)

  k55
(3)
 k55( 4)


Example Problem
Consider the quadrilateral with internal node 5 and
dimensions as shown below. Apply the static condensation
technique.
Using the CST stiffness matrix for plain strain, we get:

1 2 5
3 4 5
 1.5 1.0 0.1 0.2 1.6 1.2 

 1.0 3.0 0.2 2.6 0.8 5.6 
 
E  0.1 0.2 1.5 1.0 1.6 1.2 
[k (1) ]  [k (3) ]   
4.16  0.2 2.6 1.0 3.0 0.8 5.6 
 1.6 0.8 1.6 0.8 3.2 0.0 
 
 1.2 5.6 1.2 5.6 0.0 11.2 

Example Problem
Consider the quadrilateral with internal node 5 and
dimensions as shown below. Apply the static condensation
technique.
Using the CST stiffness matrix for plain strain, we get:

4 1 5
2 3 5
 1.5 1.0 0.1 0.2 1.6 1.2 
 1.0 3.0 0.2 2.6 0.8 5.6 
 
E  0.1 0.2 1.5 1.0 1.6 1.2 
[k ]  [k ] 
(2) ( 4)
 
4.16  0.2 2.6 1.0 3.0 0.8 5.6 
 1.6 0.8 1.6 0.8 3.2 0.0 
 
 1.2 5.6 1.2 5.6 0.0 11.2 

Example Problem
The resulting assembled matrix before static condensation is:

Example Problem
The resulting assembled matrix before static condensation is:

Flowchart for the Solution of Place Stress/Strain Problems
The following flowchart is
typical for a finite element
process used for the
analysis of plane stress and
plane strain problems.


A bicycle company is disappointed with the negative feedback
they have received on their latest model, and they have
pinpointed the problem to an outdated bicycle crank design.
They have outsourced the task of analyzing the crank to you,

providing you with the geometry of the bicycle crank and
attached pedal shaft shown below.





Coarser Mesh Finer Mesh

DMX 0.026148 in 0.026651 in
SMX 25,308 psi 27,942 psi
The maximum displacement at the tip of shaft is 1.9% greater

and the maximum stress is 10% greater



Below is a finite element model and the von Mises stress plot
for a beam welded to a column by top and bottom fillet
welds. The material is steel with E = 205 GPa and  = 0.25

Below is a finite element model and the von Mises stress plot
for a beam welded to a column by top and bottom fillet
welds. The material is steel with E = 205 GPa and  = 0.25

After mesh refinement around the top weld to double the
number of elements in the weld, the maximum Von Mises
stress was determined to be 87.3 Mpa compares reasonably
well with that obtained by the classical method where a
value of 94 MPa was obtained.

After mesh refinement around the top weld to double the
number of elements in the weld, the maximum Von Mises
stress was determined to be 87.3 Mpa compares reasonably
well with that obtained by the classical method where a
value of 94 MPa was obtained.

Problems
14. Do problems 7.2, 7.3, and 7.4 on pages 421 - 436 in your
textbook “A First Course in the Finite Element Method” by
D. Logan.
15. Work problems 7.13, 7.16, and 7.22 on pages 421 - 436 in
your textbook “A First Course in the Finite Element Method”
by D. Logan.
End of Chapter 7

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CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 7 - Practical Considerations in Modeling 1/44

Chapter 7 – Practical Considerations in Modeling

•To describe some of the approximations inherent in

•To illustrate convergence of solution and introduce

Chapter 7 – Practical Considerations in Modeling

•To present a flowchart of typical finite element

•To describe a computer assisted step-by-step

•To demonstrate various real-world applications

Practical Considerations in Modeling

In this section we will discuss some modeling considerations

We will also introduce the concept of static condensation,

Practical Considerations in Modeling

In modeling the user is confronted with the difficult task of

Matching the appropriate finite element to the physical

Understanding the boundary conditions can be one of the

Practical Considerations in Modeling

In general, as the aspect ratio increases, the inaccuracy of the

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Case Aspect Number of Number of Point A Point B % Error

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

stable stable unstable

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Symmetry allows us to consider a reduced problem instead of

This will allow us to use a finer discretization of element with

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

For example, natural locations of nodes occur at concentrated

Practical Considerations in Modeling

For example, areas of high, rapidity changing stresses require

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

The guideline for the finite element model is that enough

The level of discretization can be determined by a trail-and-

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling

Practical Considerations in Modeling