ADHESIVE BONDING

Adhesive bonding is used to fasten two surfaces together, usually producing a smooth bond. This joining
technique involves glues, epoxies, or various plastic agents that bond by evaporation of a solvent or by curing a
bonding agent with heat, pressure, or time. Historically, glues have produced relatively weak bonds. However,
the recent use of plastic-based agents such as the new “super-glues” that self-cure with heat has allowed
adhesion with a strength approaching that of the bonded materials themselves. As a result, gluing has replaced
other joining methods in many applications—especially where the bond is not exposed to prolonged heat or
weathering. A large fraction of modern glues are carbon-based petrochemical derivatives. These can be used to
bond almost any combination of surfaces, either by direct contact or by fastening both surfaces to a third as with
adhesive tapes. Glues can serve as bonding agents in strong structural materials—one of the earliest, and still
common use is the fabrication of plywood. Other related composites include fiberglass and various fiber-epoxies
such as boron-epoxy and carbon-epoxy.
Many of these materials make superior stress-bearing components. Whether bonding metal to metal, plastic,
glass, rubber, ceramic, or to another substrate material, adhesives distribute stress load evenly over a broad
area, reducing stress on the joint. As they are applied inside the joint, adhesives are invisible within the
assembly. They resist flex and vibration stresses, and form a seal as well as a bond, which can protect the joint
from corrosion Adhesives easily join irregularly shaped surfaces, increase the weight of an assembly negligibly,
create virtually no change in part dimensions or geometry, and quickly and easily bond dissimilar substrates and
heat sensitive materials. Adhesives are one-size-fits-all, and assembly can be easily automated. Limitations
include the amount of time required for adhesives to fixture and develop full strength, surface preparation
requirements, and the problems associated with joint disassembly.

ADHESIVE TECHNOLOGIES
Adhesives and sealants have been used for centuries, with the earliest adhesives and sealants being made of
natural materials, such as tree sap, beeswax and tar. Later, processed natural products were used such as
animal protein, resin, natural latex.
With the emergence of the chemical industry and synthetic polymers, the range of adhesive and sealant
formulations exploded. Today’s adhesives and sealants may be classified in many different ways, such as by
cure (bonding) mechanism, chemistry type, and even application (e.g. structural vs. non-structural).
• Physically Hardening
• Chemically Curing
• Pressure Sensitive

PHYSICALLY HARDENING
Physically hardening adhesives are adhesives which, on application, are already present in their final chemical
state. Only polymers that can be liquefied can be used for this category of adhesive, namely thermoplastics that
can be melted, soluble thermoplastics or elastomers, or polymer dispersions. Although poorly crosslinked
elastomers with good swelling properties are strictly speaking insoluble, they can still be used in certain cases to
produce adhesives if they swell enough for the substrates to be wetted. Physically hardening adhesives provide a
wide range of adhesive properties, generally good bond flexibility, and are used in a variety of applications. Four
physically hardening adhesives are
• Hot Melts
• Organic Solvent Adhesives
• Plastisols
• Water-Based Adhesives
HOT MELTS
Hot melt adhesives are generally 100% solids formulations based on thermoplastic polymers. They are solid at
room temperature and are activated upon heating above their softening point, at which stage they are liquid, and
hence can be processed. After application, they retain the ability to wet the substrate until they solidify. Upon
solidification, they return to a physical state that has structural integrity and can function as an adhesive. The
adhesive is applied by extruding, rolling, or spraying and joining is carried out immediately after application or
after reheating the solidified layer. The variety of polymers in this class is very wide and includes both natural and
synthetic polymers. The high viscosity of the melt makes them particularly suitable for porous and permeable
substrates which otherwise would be more difficul to bond with a solvent system. A feature of hot melts is that on
cooling they very rapidly build up their internal strength allowing rapid assembly and further processing. Because
they are based on thermoplastic polymers, hot melts can be repeatedly heated to melt and cooled to solidify. This
property limits the temperature resistance of hot melt bonds and they also have a tendency to creep when
subjected to continuous stress or elevated temperatures. On the plus side, these adhesives can be used to
create bonded joints that are thermally detachable and can also be re-attached.
Hot melts are used in industry for a wide range of applications. The packaging industry (manufacturing of
packaging from paper, cardboard, and corrugated board) is one of the major users. Hot melts are also used in
the printing industry for bonding the spines of books, in the textile industry for bonding appliqué, and in the shoe-
making industry for bonding for example shoe soles. The wood processing industry uses hot melts for veneer
surrounds and edging. The automotive industry employs hot melts for a host of applications including bonding
insulating and cushioning materials, bonding headlight covers into metal frames and for wheel covers. The
electronics industry also uses hot melts, for example for bonding coil windings and coil ends.
Application Using Hotmelt Guns

Furniture-making industry

Packaging Industry

Electronics Industry
Most hot melt adhesives are formulations tailored to meet handling, performance, and application methods
required for specific uses. The form in which these materials are supplied is also varied:
• Hot Melt Rod (stick) for handheld hot melt glue guns
• Hot Melt Block, granular, power for bulk melt processors
• Hot Melt Film
ORGANIC SOLVENT ADHESIVES
These more traditional adhesives are formulated from solvents containing polychloroprene, polyurethane, acrylic,
and natural and synthetic rubbers (elastomers). Solvent based adhesives contain significant levels of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), which are considered to be precursors to smog formation, asthma irritants and are
often subject to regulations across the United States and worldwide. These adhesives are applied by brush,
roller, and spray or as beads or ribbons either manually or automatically. Solvent based adhesives are available
with a variety of drying and bonding times to match the application method and assembly process. These
adhesives are typically intermediate in final bond strength and heat resistance providing good bond line flexibility.
Because they contain organic solvent, they are less sensitive than other types of adhesives to contaminates on
the surfaces to be bonded.
Two major classes exist:
1. Wet Bonding Adhesives
These adhesives build strength through the evaporation of the solvent. After application of the
adhesive, the substrates must be bonded while the adhesive is still liquid. Final bond strength is
obtained after the remaining solvent evaporates from the bond line.
2. Contact Adhesives
For this class of adhesive, both substrates are coated with adhesive and any solvent present is
allowed to evaporate before the bond is made. The bond is formed by bringing the two coated
substrates together using only enough pressure to insure intimate contact of the two adhesive
films, the adhesive having sufficient tack or auto-adhesion to provide early bond strength. Bond
strength builds over time as the two adhesive surfaces remain in contact and the films co-
mingle. Contact adhesives provide much higher initial strength and generally have higher final
strength, heat resistance, and creep resistance than wet bonded solvent based adhesives.

PLASTISOLS
Plastisols are single-component adhesives that are applied as a paste to the substrate. The paste consists of
solid polyvinylchloride (PVC) particles dispersed in plasticizer. In order to form a bond, the applied adhesive is
heated so that the thermoplastic PVC swells and can take up the plasticizer. The two-phase system (sol)
converts to a single-phase system (gel) by incorporating the plasticizer in the swollen polymer. This process
occurs at a temperature between 300 and 360°F (150 and 180°C) and results in an adhesive film consisting of a
plasticized polymer.
Plastisols have high flexibility and good peel resistance. They do; however, have the disadvantage that they are
sensitive to shear stress and they also tend to undergo creep when subjected to loads. For most applications, as
an adhesive sealant this has no adverse effects. Being thermoplastics, they only have limited resistance to heat.
If overheated, for example during spot welding, there is also the risk of liberating hydrochloric acid. A typical area
of application for plastisols is in vehicle body construction. Besides their bonding function, they also serve to seal
joints against moisture, to dampen vibrations and to increase the rigidity of the body. Plastisols can also be used
to bond non-pretreated metal sheets as they have the ability to take up oil. On the down side, PVC plastisols give
rise to environmental problems (PVC issue) when recycling the bonded components, and consequently have
become increasingly replaced by alternative adhesives, such as epoxy resins.

WATER-BASED ADHESIVES
This category of adhesives includes a wide variety of polymeric materials (usually thermoplastics or elastomers)
dispersed or dissolved in a continuous aqueous phase. One of the major advantages of water based (or
waterborne) adhesives is the absence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). A feature of these materials is the
ease of cleanup of liquid adhesive. Water can be used to clean application equipment and excess adhesive off
substrates. Emulsion systems are readily suited to high-speed production equipment and rapid bonding. For
many water based adhesives, it is a requirement that at least one of the substrates be permeable to allow water
to escape from the system. It is not surprising, then, that these materials have found wide use bonding wood,
paper, fabrics, leather and other porous substrates. Emulsions can accept solid fillers, and, therefore, pastes are
possible. Such material can be used for tile adhesives, wall panel adhesives and sealants.
Water based products can be classified as either Solutions or Dispersions:
 1. Solutions
Water-based solution adhesives are based on natural and synthetic polymers that can be
dissolved in water. Bonds are formed by the evaporation of water or by absorption of water into
the substrate. These adhesives are used in bonding paper and paper products as well as in
moistenable adhesives such as those used on stamps, envelopes, labels, and packing tape.
2. Polymer Dispersions/Emulsions
Water based dispersion adhesives are typically formulated from compounds including vinyl
acetate polymers and copolymers (PVAC), ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), acrylics, styrene-
butadiene rubber (SBR), natural rubber latex and synthetic elastomers, and polyurethane (PUR).
Like latex paint, these adhesives are heterogeneous systems comprising a solid polymer phase
dispersed in an aqueous phase. They can be applied by brush, roller, spray, or in beads or
ribbons. Wet adhesive can be cleaned up using water or soapy water. However, dried adhesive is
no longer water dispersible requiring solvent and often mechanical abrading to clean up. Two
major classes exist:
1. Wet bonding adhesives: After adhesive application, substrates are joined while
the adhesive is still wet. The bond forms as a result of water being lost either by
evaporation or absorption by the substrate. These adhesives are often used in the
paper processing industry, in the packaging sector and in furniture-making.
2. Contact adhesives: As with solvent based contact adhesives, both substrates
are coated with adhesive. The water is then allowed to evaporate before the bond
is made. The bond is formed by bringing the two coated substrates together using
only enough pressure to insure intimate contact of the two adhesive films, the
adhesive having sufficient tack or auto-adhesion to provide early bond strength.
Bond strength builds over time as the two adhesive surfaces remain in contact
and the films co-mingle. Contact adhesives provide much higher initial strength
and generally have higher final strength, heat resistance, and creep resistance
than wet bonded water-based adhesives

CHEMICALLY CURING
Chemically curing adhesives are reactive materials that require chemical reaction to convert them from liquid (or
thermoplastic) to solid. Once cured, these adhesives generally provide high strength, flexible to rigid bond lines
that resist temperature, humidity, and many chemicals. They may be classified into two groups:
I.Single Component (1-C)
1. Anaerobic
2. Cyanoacrylates
3. Heat Cure
4. Moisture Cure
5. Radiation Cure
6. Silicones
II. Two Component (2-C)
1. Epoxies
2. Methyl Methacrylates
3. Silicone Adhesives
4. Urethanes

SINGLE COMPONENT (1-C)

With single component adhesives, the adhesive components are premixed in their final proportions. They are
however chemically blocked. As long as they are not subjected to the specific conditions which activate the
hardener they will not bond. They require either high temperature or substances or media (light, humidity) from
the surroundings to initiate the curing mechanism. The containers in which this type of adhesive are transported
and stored must be carefully chosen to prevent any undesired reactions. These adhesives are usually 100% solid
systems. The six major sub-classes are:
1. Anaerobic
2. Cyanoacrylates
3. Heat Cure
4. Moisture Cure
5. Radiation Cure
6. Silicones
1. Anaerobic
Anaerobic adhesives cure under the absence of oxygen. Oxygen inhibits the reaction thus
preventing cure. When the adhesive is placed in a bond line and the accessibility of oxygen is
restricted, cure proceeds quite rapidly. So that the adhesive does not cure prematurely, the
adhesive in its container must remain in contact with oxygen up until the time it is used. This is
achieved using air-permeable plastic bottles which are only half filled and which, prior to filling,
are flushed with oxygen. Anaerobic adhesives are themosets and the resulting bonds have high
strength and high resistance to heat. These bonded joints are, however, very brittle and are not
suitable for flexible substrates. Curing occurs exclusively in the joined area and only relatively
small gap widths can be bridged (maximum gap: about 0.1 mm).
Besides their bonding function, anaerobically curing adhesives are often simultaneously used for
their sealing properties because they are very resistant to oils, solvents and moisture. All these
properties make this type of adhesive suitable for mounting engines in the automotive industry.
Other typical areas of application are for securing screws and for bonding concentric parts, e.g. in
bearings and electric motors.

Screws on a motor housing are secured against self-loosening using an adhesive. By exceeding
a certain breakaway torque, the screw can be loosened again.
2. Cyanoacrylates
Cyanoacrylates (CA’s) are known for their “instant” bonding to most surfaces. They are used for a
wide range of industrial applications as well as the ever-popular Super Glue and Krazy Glue®
consumer products. Most manufacturers warn that caution should be used in handling CA’s
because of the danger of bonding skin to itself. Some users have found that cyanoacrylates are
subject to degradation when exposed to moisture. They are thermoplastic when cured and
consequently are limited in temperature capability and chemical resistance. CA’s are suitable for
bonding many combinations of materials and are in general used for bonding small components.
CA’s are popular for bonding all types of glass, most plastics, and metal. In addition to many
applications in optics, microelectronics and transportation, there is a growing and diverse
spectrum of applications for special cyanoacrylates in the area of medical technology, e.g. as a
textile adhesive and for spray-on bandages.
3. Heat Cure
Single component heat curing adhesives require high temperatures for a specified period of time
to achieve cure. Because they are heat cured, cured adhesives generally provide the highest
strength, heat resistance and chemical resistance. Although adhesion to plastic substrates is
generally good, they can only be used to bond plastics that have softening points sufficiently
above the cure temperature of the adhesive. These adhesives are supplied as liquid, paste, and
film. Three main types of materials are used to formulate single component heat curing
adhesives:
1. Epoxy Resin
Epoxy resin is the most widely used raw material for formulating heat curing one component
adhesives. They are encountered everywhere – in the automotive industry, aerospace industry,
and metal fabrication sector. In microelectronics, they are used with silver powder added as
electrically conducting adhesives. Other additives can be used to formulate adhesives with heat-
 conducting properties. Cured adhesives are hard and rigid but tough with excellent chemical and
heat resistance.
2. Phenol-formaldehyde Resins
Phenol-formaldehyde adhesives (usually called phenolic resins for short) cure at temperatures
between 212 and 285oF (100 and 140°C) depending on the composition of the adhesive. During
the cure, water is liberated from the adhesive. As the curing process requires temperatures above
212oF (100°C), the liberated water is present in gaseous form. In order to avoid foaming,
phenolic resins are cured under pressure. Pure phenolic resins are very brittle and sensitive to
peel stress. That is why they usually contain additives to increase the elasticity. Modified phenolic
resin adhesives generally give high bond stability and bonds with good mechanical properties.
They also have good temperature stability. Phenolic resin adhesives are mostly used for wood
structures that require resistance to water and weathering (boat adhesives) and for bonding wood
in furniture manufacture. In addition they are used in the bonding of brake and clutch linings in

vehicles.
3. Polyurethane
Heat cured urethane adhesives are typically cured between 200 and 390oF (100 and 200 oC).
Some systems contain small amounts of a component that becomes volatile at the cure
temperature. These systems can produce some foaming in the bond line. Bonds formed with heat
cured polyurethane adhesives are generally tough and hard with high strength but are still elastic.
Major applications are in the automotive industry for bonding body components and structures.
4. Moisture Cure
Moisture curing single component systems are viscous adhesives that typically consist of non-
volatile urethane prepolymers. These systems require moisture to trigger the curing reaction.
Cured adhesives range from hard and rigid to soft and flexible depending on formulation. A major
application for moisture curing urethanes is the installation of windshields in automobiles. Another
is the bonding of plastic (polycarbonate) window panes to an aluminum ship structure. Recently,
single component moisture curing polyurethane hot melts have been developed that combine the
initial strength of hot melts with the improved heat resistance of moisture cured adhesives.
 5. Radiation Cure
Radiation curing adhesives require no high temperatures, no solvents and no particularly complex
equipment to be cured. All that is needed are light waves of defined wavelength. Curing times
range from as little as 1 second up to several minutes. Typically, radiation curing adhesives only
cure during the time they are exposed to radiation. As a result, they must be irradiated after the
substrates are joined. This requires that at least one of the substrates must be permeable to the
specific wavelengths of light that initiate the cure of the adhesive.
The curing process for these adhesive does not merely depend on the wavelength of the light.
Optimum cure also depends on the dose of radiation used and thickness of the bond line. The
choice of raw materials determines the elasticity and the deformability of the cured adhesive.
Radiation curing adhesives are often used for bonding glass (optics, glass design). These
adhesives are also used for joining transparent plastics and as a liquid seal for metal/plastic
casings. They are also being increasingly used in dental technology.

Examples of Glass Design and Glass Structures

6. Silicones
Single component silicones cure by exposure to moisture. They are well known as
adhesive/caulks sold in a many colors for household use. There are a variety of formulations
available for industrial applications for bonding and sealing glass and metal.

TWO-COMPONENT (2-C)
Two component adhesives are 100% solids systems that obtain their storage stability by separating the reactive
components. They are supplied as “resin” and “hardener” in separate containers. It is important to maintain the
prescribed ratio of the resin and hardener in order to obtain the desired cure and physical properties of the
adhesive. The two components are only mixed together to form the adhesive a short time before application with
cure occurring at room temperature. Since the reaction typically begins immediately upon mixing the two
components, the viscosity of the mixed adhesive increases with time until the adhesive can no longer be applied
to the substrate or bond strength is decreased due to diminished wetting of the substrate. Formulations are
available with a variety of cure speeds providing various working times (worklife) after mixing and rates of
strength build-up after bonding. Final strength is reached in minutes to weeks after bonding depending on the
formulation. Adhesive must be cleaned from mixing and application equipment before cure has progressed to the
point where the adhesive is no longer soluble. Depending on worklife, two component adhesives can be applied
by trowel, bead or ribbon, spray, or roller. Assemblies are usually fixtured until sufficient strength is obtained to
allow further processing. If faster rate of cure (strength build-up) is desired, heat can be used to accelerate the
cure. This is particularly useful when parts need to be processed more quickly after bonding or additional worklife
is needed but a slower rate of strength build-up cannot be accommodated. When cured, two component
adhesives are typically tough and rigid with good temperature and chemical resistance.
Two component adhesives can be mixed and applied by hand for small applications. However, this requires
considerable care to insure proper ratio of the components and sufficient mixing to insure proper cure and
performance. There is usually considerable waste involved in hand mixing as well. As a result, adhesive suppliers
have developed packaging that allows the components to remain separate for storage and also provides a
means for dispensing mixed adhesive, e.g. side-by-side syringes, concentric cartridges. The package is typically
inserted into an applicator handle and the adhesive is dispensed through a disposable mixing nozzle. The proper
ratio of components is maintained by virtue of the design of the package and proper mixing is insured by use of
the mixing nozzle. Adhesive can be dispensed from these packages multiple times provided the time between
uses does not exceed the worklife of the adhesive. If the worklife is exceeded, a new mixing nozzle must be
used. For larger applications, meter-mix equipment is available to meter, mix, and dispense adhesive packaged
in containers ranging from quarts to drums.
Four major types of two component adhesives include:
1. Epoxies
2. Methyl Methacrylates
3. Silicone Adhesives
4. Urethanes
1. Epoxies
Two component epoxy resin based systems are the most widely used structural adhesives. They
can be formulated into fast curing systems with 2 to 5 minute worklife that give rigid bond lines
which are somewhat brittle. Longer worklife systems usually contain additives to provide flexible
or tough bond lines. Two component epoxy adhesives are used to bond metal, plastic, fiber
reinforced plastic (FRP), glass, and some rubbers.
2. Methyl Methacrylates
Methyl methacrylate (MMA) adhesives can provide faster strength build-up than epoxy adhesives
and are more tolerant of oil on the substrate. MMA adhesives are used for bonding plastics to
each other and for bonding metals to plastics. Classic applications for this type of adhesive are in
the automotive industry and in rail car manufacturing.
3. Silicone Adhesives
Two component silicones are generally used for production line assembly, e.g. in electronics and
the electrical industry as well as in the production of household appliances, in the automotive
industry, and for window manufacture. Cured properties are similar to single component moisture
curing silicones. Two component silicones are used instead of single component silicones when
adhesive film thicknesses of over 0.25 inches (6 mm) are required or for large bonding areas.
This type of silicone adhesive is also used when the available humidity in the air does not suffice
for the complete curing of single component silicone.
4. Urethanes
Two component urethane adhesives can be formulated with a wide range of cured properties
ranging from soft and flexible, to tough and elastic, to hard and rigid. They are used to bond
 materials with different flexibility or different thermal coefficients of expansion including glass to
metal, fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) to metal, and aluminum to steel.

PRESSURE SENSITIVE
The special feature of pressure sensitive adhesives is that they do not solidify to form a solid material, but remain
viscous. As a result, they remain permanently tacky and have the ability to wet surfaces on contact. Bonds are
made by bringing the adhesive film in contact with the substrate and applying pressure. If inadequate pressure is
applied or the processing temperature is too low, bonding faults such as bubbles or detachment can occur. Since
these adhesives are not true solids, the strength of pressure sensitive adhesives decreases when the
temperature is increased. Pressure sensitive adhesives also exhibit a tendency to undergo creep when subjected
to loads. They are typically formulated from natural rubber, certain synthetic rubbers, and polyacrylates.
Pressure sensitive adhesives can be supplied dissolved in organic solvents, as an aqueous dispersion, as a hot
melt, or coated on release liner as tape. Liquid applied (solvent or water based, hot melt) pressure sensitive
adhesives can be applied in bead or ribbon, sprayed, or roll coated. After coating (and drying of solvent or water
based systems), parts can be bonded or the adhesive covered with release liner for bonding later. The adhesive
can be coated in a pattern to provide bonded and unbonded areas, e.g. assembly of membrane switches, filter
frames. Pressure sensitive adhesives are often used to temporarily hold components like gaskets in position
during assembly.

STRUCTURAL ADHESIVE MATERIALS:

EPOXY ADHESIVES
Because of their ability to adhere to a wide variety of materials, their high strength, their resistance to chemicals
and environments, and their ability to resist creep under sustained load, epoxies are the most widely used
structural adhesive. They are available in one component, heat curing and two component, room temperature
curing systems. Unmodified epoxies cure to hard, brittle solids. Most adhesive formulations include modifiers to
increase flexibility or toughness of the cured adhesive. This results in bond lines that are able to resist more peel
and cleavage stress as well as impact.
One component systems typically cure at temperatures from 250 to 350oF (120 to 175oF). Cold storage is
required to provide sufficient shelf life. They provide rigid but tough bond lines and have excellent adhesion to
metals. Chemical and environmental resistance is excellent. Most formulations have a paste consistency and can
be applied by trowel or extruded as beads. They easily fill gaps and provide excellent sealing properties
particularly against harsh chemicals. They are often used as alternatives to welding and rivets. Some
formulations can tolerate processing oil on the substrate and still obtain satisfactory bond strength.

One component heat curing film adhesives are typically based on epoxy resin
formulated with curatives and modifiers. They are very high performance adhesives providing high strength, high
fatigue resistance, and high temperature resistance. These curing film adhesives require cold storage and have
limited shelf-life after warming to room temperature. They are especially suited for bonding and laminating large
areas. Epoxy film adhesives find most of their applications in the aerospace industry for assembly of components
such as aircraft panels and helicopter rotor blades. To obtain optimal performance and durability, aluminum
substrates are usually chemically treated.
Two component epoxy adhesives are found in all market segments. The worklife (time adhesive can be
processed and bonded after mixing) can vary from a few minutes to several hours. Assemblies must be fixtured
until the adhesive has cured sufficiently to have enough strength for handling and additional processing. Final
cure and ultimate strength is obtained over hours to weeks depending on formulation. High ambient temperature
accelerates the rate of cure and shortens the work life. Low ambient temperature slows the rate of cure and
extends the time before assemblies can be further processed. In general, adhesives that cure faster have lower
final strength than those that cure more slowly. The major advantage of two component epoxy adhesives is that
they are suitable for bonding nearly all substrates - metal, plastic, glass and ceramic, wood and wood products,
and many types of rubber. In general, they have high resistance to physical and chemical influences and in
addition they have high long-term stability because they only have a limited tendency to undergo creep.
Depending on the type, they can withstand continuous temperatures from 200oF (95°C) up to 390oF (200°C).
Cured adhesives are typically hard and rigid and range from brittle to tough depending on formulation.

METHYL METHACRYLATE ADHESIVES

Methyl methacrylate (MMA) adhesives have a different cure mechanism than other two component reactive
adhesives. The ratio of resin to hardener can vary from 100:3 to 1:1. MMA adhesives are typically less sensitive
to variations in mix ratio and variations in the degree of mixing. The cure profile of MMA adhesives can be
adjusted more readily than other types of two component adhesives. This allows formulation of adhesives that
have a slower reaction rate immediately after mixing to allow more time for adhesive application and assembly of
parts (longer worklife). After a short period of time (induction period), the rate of reaction increases to provide
more rapid strength build-up. This reduces the time components need to be fixtured before bonded assemblies
can be processed further.
Un-modified MMA adhesives cure to hard, brittle films. Most MMA adhesives are formulated with modifiers to
provide tough bond lines that resist peel and cleavage stresses as well as impact. Increasing the curing
temperature accelerates the process but the final strength is adversely affected. MMA adhesives cure as
thermoplastics. They can withstand temperatures between -60oF (-50°C) and ca. 200oF (95°C). They possess
good bonding properties to many different plastic surfaces and are relatively insensitive to surfaces that contain a
certain amount of oil/grease.
An interesting feature is the differing processing conditions used for MMA adhesives. Besides the techniques
normally used for two component adhesives (adhesive application using twin cartridges, direct addition of the
hardener to resin), the two components of a MMA adhesive can each be applied separately to one of the
substrates. The actual curing reaction then only takes place in the bonded joint after bringing the substrates
together. This process avoids having to mix difficult mixing ratios (for example, resin:hardener 100:3) and allows
use of fast curing adhesives that would have too short a worklife if the resin and hardener were mixed before
application.

SILICONE ADHESIVES
Silicones have special properties compared to other adhesives based on organic polymers because silicones
have a different chemical backbone. They remain highly elastic at low temperatures, -100oF (-75°C), and also
have very good temperature stability; up to 390oF (200°C) continuous exposure and up to 575oF (300°C) for
short periods. The properties of silicones remain virtually unchanged over this temperature range. Silicones are
nearly inert to chemicals and have excellent resistance to moisture and weathering. Bonds made with silicones
can, however, only be subjected to relatively small mechanical loads. That is why they are chiefly used as
sealants. Due to their low surface tension they cannot be painted. They are used for bonding metal when the low
bond strength is offset by the higher flexibility and resistance to low temperatures.

Single component silicone adhesives require a

humidity of 5% to 95% to cure. Besides the presence of humidity, a temperature of between 40 and 100oF (5 and
40°C) is required to cure the adhesive. Complete curing depends on the thickness of the adhesive film and can
take several days. The onset of curing is indicated by formation of a skin. For an adhesive film thickness of a few
millimeters the adhesive generally fully cures in 24 hours. Several types of moisture curing silicones are available
depending on the bonding conditions and substrates. Typical applications include bonding glass and ceramics,
metals, plastics, concrete, and brickwork. Special formulations are used in aircraft and aerospace applications.
Two component silicone adhesives are available with a range of properties and cure rates. The initial strength
and rate of strength build-up is typically higher than moisture cured silicones. The curing reaction can take up to
24 hours. Meter mix equipment is used to pump the two components from pails or drums in a metered amount
through a mixing element. The mixed adhesive is then dispensed in bead form. Two component silicone
adhesives are used extensively in the assembly of windows.

URETHANE ADHESIVES
Single component moisture curing adhesives cure on exposure to moisture either in the substrate or atmosphere.
A small quantity of carbon dioxide is released during cure that, usually, has no effect on the bonding process.
However, this can lead to foaming of the bond line in very high humidity or in very thick bond lines. The reaction
takes place from 40 to 100oF (5 to 40°C) with a relative humidity of 40 to 70% being required. For very low
humidity environments or where the substrates are impermeable to moisture, moisture can be added to the bond
line during the assembly process to facilitate cure. Curing of the adhesive film takes place from outside to inside
at a rate of a few millimeters per day. When processing adhesives, the so-called “skinning time” must be heeded,
namely the time after which the adhesive solidifies on its surface (forms a “skin”) and wetting of the second
substrate is no longer possible. In its cured state, the adhesive is elastic and flexible. This is why moisture curing,
single component polyurethane systems are used where materials with widely differing elongation under loads
and differing thermal coefficients of expansion must be joined such as the bonding of glass-fiber reinforced
plastics (FRP) to steel, and aluminum wall and floor plates to steel supports.

Moisture curing urethanes are also available in hot melt form (curing hot melts). These adhesives are formulated
from urethane prepolymers that are solid at room temperature and melt when heated for dispensing. Curing hot
melts combine the fast setting and high initial strength of hot melts with the improved creep and heat resistance
of traditional moisture curing urethane adhesives. As a result, components can be rapidly joined for further
processing. Final strength is reached later. Reactive polyurethane hot melts yield rubbery and plastic cured films.
Curing hot melts have the advantage that they can be applied at very low temperatures, 125 to 250oF (50 to
120°C). In contrast, standard hot melts are applied at higher temperatures 250 to 470oF (120 to 240°C).

Heat curing urethane adhesives are formulated using components (blocking agents) that temporarily react with
the urethane prepolymer. On heating to specified temperatures, the blocking agent “unblocks” allowing the
urethane prepolymers to react. Heat curing urethanes require a temperature of 200 to 390oF (100 to 200°C) to
cure with the cure time varying from a few minutes to several hours depending on the actual temperature
employed. Bonds formed using heat curing urethane adhesives are generally tough and hard and of high
strength, but still elastic. The heat employed for curing these adhesives may liberate isocyanate compounds from
the system. It is important to follow manufacturer’s directions for safe handling and proper ventilation.
 London’s City Hall, home of the Greater London Authority. Made possible by
window glazing adhesives and an advanced synthetic rubber membrane
system. Courtesy
of Sika Corporation.

BENEFITS OF ADHESIVES & SEALANTS

The development of new materials with diverse applications puts additional challenges on processing technology.
This is particularly so when different materials have to be joined to make components which retain their individual
beneficial properties in the composite product. This raises the question: which joining technique is able to join
these different materials in such a way that their specific properties are retained? Traditional joining techniques
have well-known disadvantages. With thermal techniques such as welding, the specific properties of the material
alter within the heat-affected zone. Mechanical techniques such as riveting or the use of screws in their turn only
allow force transfer at points; in addition, it is necessary to drill holes in the work pieces that are being joined, and
this “damages” and hence weakens the materials. In contrast, it is anticipated that bonding technology will
assume an ever more important role in industry and the handicraft sector in the future.
There are four key reasons for this:
1. Material:
With specialist application, bonding technology can be used to bond virtually any desired com-
bination of materials with each other, creating long-lasting bonds.
2. Processing:

The use of bonding technology in production processes in

general allows the material properties of the substrates to be retained. Compared to welding and
soldering/brazing, the bonding process requires relatively little heat input. No damage occurs,
unlike when rivets or screws are used.
3. Joining:
In product manufacture, the two aforementioned considerations enable the specific material prop-
erties of substrates to be optimally utilized in components. This allows new construction methods
to be employed.
4. Design:
 It is also possible to use bonding technology to introduce customized
additional properties into the component via the actual joining. In addition, the use of bonding
technology in industrial production can lead to time savings, can accelerate the production
process and hence give rise to specific economic benefits. In shipbuilding, for example, the inside
decks can nowadays be bonded into the primary structure, so eliminating time-consuming
straightening work that would be required if the inside decks were attached by welding.

Bonding technology also has the following further advantages:

• Transfer of high lap shear stresses due to the large bonding areas
• Removal of unevenness on material sufaces; greater tolerances possible using gap-filling adhesives.
• Prevention of contact corrosion for metal bonds, in contrast to when rivets or screws are used (the
adhesive functions as an insulator.)
The six key reasons you should consider adhesives and sealants in your next design are:
• Improved Product Durability and Reliability
• Increased Product Performance
• Increased Design Flexibility
• Increased Product Quality
• Enhanced Product Aesthetics
• Improved Process Productivity and Reduced Manufacturing Costs
AIRCRAFT INDUSTRIAL BENEFITS
The aircraft manufacturing industry provided the key technology impulse for modern bonding technology. The
basic need for weight saving was the driving force for new design and construction methods. In modern Airbus
aircraft, for example, about 30% of all components are joined using bonding technology.
In the car manufacturing industry, classic joining techniques are nowadays used in combination with bonding. In
some areas bonding has completely replaced the classic techniques. The increased demand put on engine seals
has resulted in bonding technology being used extensively in modern engines, for example for cylinder head
seals, in various components for cooling water provision and for the oil sump. Adhesives are also increasingly
being used as structural materials. Modern cars contain up to 40 feet (150 m) of bonded joints in the body
construction. In addition, bonded front and back windscreens increase the rigidity of the bodies and result in
weight reduction. A customized thick-film bonding system dampens vibrations and also improves the heat
insulation without using additional materials as is required in conventional designs. Optimized designs with
improved driving performance, reduced weight and lower susceptibility to corrosion result in significant energy
savings.
Bonding technology plays a special role for lightweight constructions with integrated functions. This means of
construction attempts to create products having additional functions, without adding extra components. For
example, suitably designed bonded joints between two metals, panes of glass or wooden slats can act as a
hinge.
In the area of electronics, the classic joining technique of soldering is being increasingly replaced by bonding, in
order for example to connect highly integrated components with each other in a stress-free way and without the
need to use excessive heat.

ADHESIVES VS. OTHER FASTENERS

COMPETITIVE FASTENERS
A variety of joining methods can be used to provide the assembly function. A general comparison of these joining
processes is provided in Table 1 as to their joint characteristics and their production features.

GENERAL COMPARISON OF JOINING CHARACTERISTICS

(Source: Harshorn, S. R., “Introduction”, Chapter 1, Structural Adhesives: Chemistry and Technology, Plenum
Press, New York, 1986)

Brazing and Mechanical

Welding Soldering Fastening Adhesive Bonding

Joint Features

Usually
permanent
(soldering may Threaded
Permanent be non- fasteners permit
Permanence joints permanent) disassembly Permanent joints

Good uniform load

Local stress Fairly good Points of high distribution over
Stress points in stress stress at joint area (except
distribution structure distribution fasteners in peel)

Joint
appearance
usually
acceptable.
Some dressing Surface
necessary for Good discontinuities No surface
smooth appearance sometimes marking. Joint
Appearance surfaces joints unacceptable almost invisible

Generally Some capability Most forms and

limited to of joining combinations of Ideal for joining
Materials similar material dissimilar materials can be most dissimilar
joined groups metals fastened materials

Very high High Poor resistance to

Temperature temperature temperature elevated
Temperature
resistance resistance resistance temperatures
resistance
 limited by filler
metal

Special Special provision Excellent fatigue

provision often for fatigue and properties.
necessary to Fairly good resistance to Electrical
Mechanical enhance fatigue resistance to loosening at resistance reduces
resistance resistance vibration joints corrosion

Production Aspects

Little or none Prefluxing often Hole preparation

on thin required and often
material. Edge (except for tapping for
Joint preparation for special brazing threaded Cleaning often
preparation thick plates processes) fasteners necessary

Usually no post-
processing --
Heat transfer Corrosive fluxes occasionally re-
sometimes must be cleaned tightening in
Post Processing necessary off service Not often required

Manual
Relatively equipment Only large multi-
expensive, cheap. Special Relatively cheap, feature, multi-
bulky and often furnaces and portable and component
required heavy automatic unit “on-site” dispensers are
Equipment power supply expensive assembly expensive

Some special Structural

brazing fillers adhesives
Wire, rods, etc., expensive. Soft somewhat
Consumables fairly cheap solders cheap Quite expensive expensive

Joint
preparation and
manual
tightening slow.
Automatic Mechanized
processes quite tightening fairly Seconds to hours,
Production rate Can be very fast fast rapid according to type

NDT methods
Inspection
Quality applicable to NDT methods
difficult, Reasonable
assurance most processes limited
particularly on confidence in
 soldered torque control
electrical joints tightening

All fastening and joining systems, including adhesives, fall into one of three general categories: (1) periodic, (2)
linear, and (3) area. Periodic joining methods attach two members by occasionally placing through-hole fasteners
or other individual mechanisms. This is the most widely used joining technique for structures requiring high
mechanical strength and a minimum of sealing or other non-strength functions. Linear processes provide a
continuous or occasional edge bead attachment, such as welding. In the area joining process, attachment is
achieved by full-face contact and complete union between the two mating surfaces. Soldering, brazing, and
adhesive bonding are examples of area attachment.
Although adhesive bonding can be successfully employed in periodic or linear attachment applications, the main
benefits and advantages are realized when adhesives are used in the "area" attachment designs. The reasons
for this are (1) economic advantage gained in applying a single uniform coating rather than individual
components (see Figure 1) and (2) stress distribution over a much larger area. With periodic or linear attachment
methods, there is generally significant stress concentration that adversely affects the strength and fatigue
properties of the joint.
Figure 1
The Economy of Metal-to-Metal Bonding Compared with Conventional Riveted Structures
(Source: Cagle, C. V., Adhesive Bonding Techniques and Applications, McGraw Hill, New York, 1968)

In evaluating the appropriate joining method for a particular application, a number of factors must be considered.
Usually, the decision of which fastening method to use involves several trade-offs. An analysis of requirements,
as shown in Table 2, can be useful in identifying potential fastening methods. When this is performed, the
possibility of using adhesives over other methods becomes apparent.

HOW JOINING METHODS COMPARE

(Source: Nielsen, P. O., “Selecting An Adhesive: Why and How”, Chapter 5, Adhesives in Manufacturing, G. L.
Schneberger, ed., Marcel Deckker, Inc., New York, 1983)

Adhesive
Riveting Welding Brazing Bonding

Preliminary machining P E P E
 With thin metals P P F E

Limits on metal combinations F P P E

Surface preparation E G F P

Tooling E F F F

Need for access to joint P P E E

Heat requirements E P P F-G

Stress distribution P F-G E E

Sealing function P F E G

Rate of strength development E E E P

Distortion of assembly F P F E

Final machining G-E F E E

Final heat treatment E F F E

Solvent resistance E E E F

Effect of temperature E E E P

Ease of repair G P P F

Level of skill required E G E E

Notes: E - Excellent, G - Good, F - Fair, P - Poor

In many applications adhesive bonding is the only logical choice. In the aircraft industry, for example, adhesives
make the use of thin metal and honeycomb structures feasible because stresses are transmitted more effectively
by adhesives than by rivets or welds. Plastics, elastomers, and certain metals (e.g., aluminum and titanium) can
be more reliably joined with adhesives than with other methods. Welding is usually at too high a temperature, and
mechanical fastening destroys the lightness and aesthetics of the final product.
Adhesive bonding does not have many of the disadvantages of other methods. Welding or brazing, useful on
heavy-gauge metal, is expensive and requires great heat. Dissimilar metals usually have different coefficients of
thermal expansion or thermal conductivities making them more difficult to weld. Some metals have unstable
oxides that also make welding difficult. Many light metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and titanium are
difficult to weld and are weakened or distorted by the heat of welding. High temperature metallurgical joining
methods can cause thin sheets to distort. Beneficial properties obtained from metallurgical heat-treating
processes could be lost because of a high temperature joining process. Adhesives, on the other hand, provide a
low temperature, high strength, joint with many of these substrates. They thereby avoid many of the problems
commonly encountered with other methods of joining.

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS
Design Advantages
Adhesives offer certain valuable design advantages. Unlike rivets or bolts, adhesives produce smooth contours
that are aerodynamically and aesthetically beneficial. Adhesive bonding offers a method of joining that is not
affected by the unevenness of surfaces. Greater part tolerances are possible using gap-filling adhesives.
Adhesives also offer a better strength-to-weight ratio than other methods of mechanical fastening.
Adhesives can join any combination of solid materials regardless of shape, thickness, or mismatch in physical
properties such as coefficient of thermal expansion or elastic modulus. Certain substrates may be too thin or too
small to weld reproducibly without distortion. Thus, medical products and microelectronics are often assembled
with adhesives. Non-metallic materials, such as plastics, elastomers, ceramics, and many paper products, can be
joined together and to one another more economically and efficiently with adhesive bonding than with other
methods.
Adhesives may also be a good way of adding options or additions to a line of modular manufactured items that
share a common design. This allows the elimination or reduction of extra holes for mechanical fasteners and can
eliminate expensive machining or stamping steps on the common part.
Design Disadvantages
The adhesive joint must be carefully designed for optimum performance. Design factors include the type of
stress, environmental influences, and production methods to be used.
Many rigid adhesives do not work well when the service stress acts to peel or cleave the substrates from one
another. Such stresses can often be reduced or eliminated by careful joint design. Seldom can a joint, which is
designed for mechanical fastening, be used successfully for adhesive bonding without minor revision. Sometimes
such revisions result in added expense or manufacturing steps.
There are no standards to guide the user with regard to design limits or to provide a safe design margin. These
will depend on the adhesive and substrate, on the production methods, on the specific end-use environment, and
on many other factors that are often not foreseen at the time of design development. Therefore, it is very difficult
to predict the useful life of a bonded joint.
Simple life estimation processes used in other industries (such as Arrhenius plots to predict the aging of electrical
wire insulation) are not effective with adhesives because of the numerous and sometimes competing reactions
that can occur within a bonded joint. The only effective method of estimating the useful life of an adhesive bond is
to do prototype testing under environmental conditions that will accelerate aging. Yet, one must be certain that
these accelerated conditions do not cause reactions that are normally not experienced in the actual application.

PRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS
Production Advantages
Adhesive bonding is, at times, faster and less expensive than conventional fastening methods. It is well suited for
high-volume production or assemblies requiring large bonded areas. As the size of the area to be joined
increases, the time and labor saved by using adhesives instead of mechanical fasteners become progressively
greater because the entire joint area can be bonded in one operation. Figure 1 shows the economy of large area
metal-to-metal bonding compared with riveting.
Figure 1
The Economy of Metal-to-Metal Bonding Compared with Conventional Riveted Structures
(Source: Cagle, C. V., Adhesive Bonding Techniques and Applications, McGraw Hill, New York, 1968)
Some adhesives are especially well suited to applications requiring rapid assembly especially if the end-use
requirements (i.e., strength, heat, and chemical resistance) are not too severe. The packaging industry and much
of the decorative furniture industry use adhesives because they are fast and reliable. In the medical products
industry, use of ultraviolet curing permits rapid assembly of syringes and other articles. Certain automotive
materials are chosen for their ability to be ultrasonically welded, thereby, allowing efficient, fast, and high volume
assembly operations.
At times, adhesive bonding may be more expensive than other fastening methods. However, the overall cost of
the final part may be less through reduced material requirements, weight savings, elimination of other operations
such as drilling, countersinking, welding, etc., and simplified assembly. Using associated production processes
such as a paint-drying oven to cure the adhesive may also save costs.
Production Disadvantages
Slow and critical processing requirements can be a major disadvantage of using adhesives particularly in high
volume production operations. Several production concerns must be considered when bonding operations are
first projected. All adhesives require clean surfaces to obtain the best results. Depending on the type and
condition of the substrate and the bond strength desired, surface preparations ranging from a simple solvent wipe
to chemical etching are necessary. Adhesives should never be applied over other coatings unless the
characteristics of the initial coating are accurately known. The resulting bond strength will be no greater than the
"weakest link in the chain".
If the adhesive has multiple components, the parts must be carefully weighed and mixed. The setting operation
often requires heat and pressure. Lengthy set time makes jigs and fixtures necessary for assembly. Rigid
process controls are also necessary, because the adhesive properties are dependent on the curing parameters
and surface preparations.
The inspection of finished joints for quality control is very difficult. This necessitates strict control over the entire
bonding process to ensure uniform quality. Non-destructive test techniques cannot quantitatively predict joint
strength.
Since the true “general-purpose” adhesive has not yet been developed, the end-user should allow time to test
candidate adhesives and bonding processes. Everyone involved in the design, selection, testing, and
manufacture of adhesive bonded assemblies should be trained as to the critical requirements and processes.
Adhesives and sealants are sometimes composed of materials that may present personnel hazards, including
flammability and dermatitis, in which case the necessary precautions must be considered. Often regional or
national regulations will attempt to control the personal exposure with these materials. Workers must be trained
how to handle these materials safely.
The following items contribute to a “hidden cost” of using adhesives, and they also could contribute to serious
production difficulties when neglected:
 • The storage life of the adhesive may be unrealistically short; some adhesives require refrigerated
storage.
• The adhesive may begin to solidify before the worker is ready.
• The cost of surface preparation and primers, if necessary, must be considered.
• Ease of handling, waste, and reproducibility can be essential cost factors.
• Cleanup is a cost factor, especially where misapplied adhesive may ruin the appearance of a
product.
• Once bonded, samples can't easily be disassembled; if misalignment occurs & the adhesive cures,
usually the part must be scrapped.
Many of these hidden costs can be minimized by the proper choice of adhesives and processes. However,
storage, cure, and waste disposal are seldom a concern in joining with mechanical fasteners, and with welding,
the joining material is essentially free of charge.

APPLICATION
TRANSPORTATION
The Transportation & Marine Market is quite extensive and includes thousands of applications in such areas as:
• Aircraft & Aerospace
• Automotive Module Sealing using Liquid Gasket Sealants
• Electronic Circuit Board Protection using Liquid Potting and Encapsulants
• Exterior Vehicle Trim
• Interior Vehicle Trim
• Marine
• Powertrain and Under-the-Hood Components
• Rail
• Vehicle Assembly
Six specific areas discussed in more detail below are:
1. Bonding Metal Sheets in Vehicle Bodywork Construction
2. Safer Cars with Adhesives
3. Bonding Panes of Glass into Car Bodywork - Direct Glazing
4. Aircraft Manufacture
5. Rail Vehicle Manufacture
6. Construction of Containers

BONDING METAL SHEETS IN VEHICLE BODYWORK

CONSTRUCTION

Car bodies largely comprise steel sheets having a thickness of 0.6

to 0.8 mm. The trend in modern car bodies is towards a flatter design with as little wind resistance as possible,
low weight and hence ultimately reduced fuel consumption. Flat components such as the hood and trunk, and
also door and roof panels, are affixed to ridge-like struts and are hence stiffened. The most common method for
joining bodywork components, namely spot welding, cannot be used on the flat visible sides because this would
result in unsightly points and these would require time-consuming work (filling) to repair. The use of adhesives to
solve this problem was introduced about 40 years ago – adhesives are used to join the components together and
the number of welding points was reduced to a small number at the edges. The bonding process had to be
introduced into the relevant production line sequence. The construction of car bodies puts extremely high
demands on structural bonding technology: Special surface pretreatment of the metal sheets, which is essential
for creating high-strength bonds having high stability, is not possible on a mass production line. In addition, the
substrates are also still coated with corrosion protection oils during the production process. These can only be
removed before the final process step.
Key requirements of adhesives for use in vehicle bodywork construction are as follows:
• Ability to form structural bonds with defined properties over the lifetime of the component under
operating loads;
• Stability at 170 to 230°C for ca. 30 minutes during the painting/lacquering process;
• Resistance to running and washing away in the non-cured state;
• Ability to be processed automatically;
• Ability to penetrate for spot-welds as crack stoppers.
Only hot curing adhesives meet the above mentioned requirements. The adhesives specially developed for these
applications (curing at 180 to 230°C) are formulated in such a way that in the non-cured state up to 20 weight
percent of oil can be taken up via dissolution. However, in practice when using the adhesive, so much oil is
forced away by the adhesive that immediate initial bonding of the adhesive is usually guaranteed. The remaining
oil is taken up by the adhesive and forms part of the adhesive film.
The high temperatures accelerate the dissolution of the oil by the adhesive. The oil is essentially uniformly
distributed in the cured adhesive film and does not diffuse back to the surface.
Crash tests make clear that the alternating fatigue strength and the energy absorption, even after aging, can be
considerably improved by using adhesives for some of the joints, compared to wholly spot-welded constructions.
The current state-of-the-art involves a combination of bonding and spot welding, so-called spot-weld bonding,
and this is used on a large scale for vehicle bodywork construction.
The following adhesives are used for bonding sheet metal in vehicle bodywork construction: Plastisol adhesives,
essentially filler-containing pastes comprising powder-form PVC, plasticisers and adhesion promoters. For
special applications, single component hot curing epoxy resin adhesives are used.
Example applications are: stiffening and flange seams on hoods and trunks, doors and roof structures.

SAFER CARS WITH ADHESIVES

“Glued cars” are safer and more economical. It is no wonder then that adhesives have entered what used to be
the domain of welding in the automotive industry. For instance, in 2001, 33 linear feet (about 10 meters) of
adhesive were used for the body of the BMW 7 model, today 500 linear feet (about 150 meters) are used. About
9% of annual adhesive production is used in vehicle construction.
Today a car contains up to 40 lb (18 kg) of adhesives. And for good reason: crash tests have demonstrated that
glued cars do better than welded designs. What is more, adhesives do not affect how parts are assembled. Other
techniques including welding, riveting or bolting impact the rigidity of assembly materials. In the event of an
accident, adhesives behave like a buffer. That said, automotive engineers design car bodies so that as much
impact energy as possible is transformed into deformation energy, rendering it harmless. This gives maximum
protection to passengers. Today, so called crash-resistant adhesives are used for this purpose. However
enhanced safety is not the only benefit of adhesives in vehicle production. If doors were welded, the outside
would have to be laboriously reworked to ensure a good appearance.
For glued doors though, there is no need for reworking, resulting in lower production costs. In order to ensure that
the windshield, which is subject to enormous loads (imagine the headwind when riding down the highway at 80
mph) and remains perfectly in place in the frame, the automotive industry uses advanced high performance
adhesives. These guarantee perfect hold overall, even under extreme conditions including wind, rain or
hailstorm,blistering heat in the summer or bitter frost in the winter. Directly glued front and rear screens ensure
lower air resistance, thereby reducing gas consumption.
For modern cars, manufacturers use a range of materials besides steel sheets. This mix of materials is also held
together by adhesive. Incidentally, the use of adhesives is not limited to car production but is used in other
vehicles as well. While an average rail car built between 1981 and 1993 contained some 22 lb (10 kg) of
adhesive, some modern rail cars used today weigh in with up to 1100 lb (500 kg) of adhesive.
BONDING PANES OF GLASS INTO CAR BODYWORK -
DIRECT GLAZING
The panes of glass are fitted after painting and lacquering the car bodywork. In days gone by, the front and rear
windscreens were fitted into the bodywork using a profile made of an elastomer that surrounded the glass. A
cord-like tacky elastomer sealant was then applied to improve the seal.

Since the start of the 1970s, so-called direct glazing has been
increasingly used. Moisture curing 1-component (1-C) polyurethane adhesives, or alternatively modified
siloxanes (MS) polymers are used for this. Besides providing an excellent seal, the advantages of this technology
are that larger panes of glass can be used and this reduces the overall weight of the car bodywork. This is
because the glass panes become a structural material due to the adhesive curing as an elastomer. The rigidity of
the structure therefore increases and this so allows thinner metal sheets to be employed.

LIGHTWEIGHT DESIGN FOR AIRCRAFT, RAIL VEHICLE

AND CONTAINER MANUFACTURE
AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURE
The development of flight over the last six decades is pretty impressive. Today we jet all over the earth as if it
were the most natural thing in the world. However, no less impressive is the development of adhesives during the
same period. Over the years, this practical household helper has become a high-tech tool.
For several decades now, bonding has been one of the most important joining techniques in aircraft manufacture.
The specific reasons for this include the fact that bonds have lifetimes of up to 30 years, high resistance to
dynamic loads and media and resistance to extreme, and sometimes very rapid, temperature changes, from sub-
zero temperatures in the stratosphere to ground-level temperatures in desert climates.
For several decades now, bonding has been one of the most important joining techniques in aircraft manufacture.
The specific reasons for this include the fact that bonds have lifetimes of up to 30 years, high resistance to
dynamic loads and media and resistance to extreme, and sometimes very rapid, temperature changes, from sub-
zero temperatures in the stratosphere to ground-level temperatures in desert climates.

One advantage of the adhesive elements in paste form is obvious.

Because of its consistency, it can also be used locally and its compensatory tolerances allow for a stable bond.
Also, it offers high stability because the use of adhesives allows the structure to remain intact during the binding
process. This offers the chance for new composite materials to be developed.
Weight reduction is an economically advantageous aspect, in addition to the technical advantages offered by
adhesives. Every pound that is saved reduces the operating costs of an aircraft; and savings in the production
costs and -- based on the overall life of the vehicle extremely important for the auto and aviation industry. The
application of bonding technology in aircraft manufacture allows extremely lightweight design due to the
consequent use of light metal alloys, fibre-reinforced plastics and so-called sandwich components. Bonding is
used for internal structures for manufacturing structures with lightweight honeycomb sheets.

It is also used for creating high

stress joints, so-called primary structures, for example for the external stiffening of sheet metal of differing
geometric size, for sandwich structures made of aluminium or plastic honeycombs with bonded on veneers and
for bonding stacks of sheets. The Airbus vertical tail is an example of this. It is composed of an aluminium lattice
framework and veneers made of carbon-fibre reinforced epoxy resin adhesive. The individual components of the
veneers are pre-cured and the whole component is bonded in an autoclave.
In the aircraft manufacturing industry, it is mainly epoxy resin adhesives, especially prefabricated films with a
curing temperature of at least 120°C, that are used for bonding sheet and sandwich components. The lap shear
strengths that can be attained are about 20 MPa (static) and 1 MPa (dynamic). The effect of peel forces is
avoided by choice of design. However, a peel resistance of about 4 N/mm is sought for assurance.
Keeping in mind that today there are already around 250,000 adhesive formulas worldwide which are completely
specialized in application, it becomes clear that there is hardly any other method of combining components as
specialized as the adhesive industry. This is not only, but particularly, true in the aviation industry.

RAIL VEHICLE MANUFACTURE

In rail vehicle manufacture, new components such as those made

from glass-fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) have resulted in enormous weight reduction and have transformed the
production process. In Europe, ADtranz regional trains are manufactured using a frame structure consisting of
tensile and compression struts in a triangular arrangement. This is the lightest design for bearing structures. Due
to the frame structure, it is not necessary to weld on metal sheets to take up the shear stresses. There are only
tensile and compressive forces in the struts. In order to enclose the frame, large outer skin elements are bonded
to the supporting metal structure using moisture curing one-component (1-C) polyurethane adhesives. No
complex straightening and filling work is required, as is the case when welding is used to attach the metallic outer
skin elements. The GFRP elements that are used for the outer skin have a sandwich structure and hence provide
good thermal insulation and have very good acoustic properties. As no heat distortion occurs, contrary to when
welding, the outer skin gives the rail vehicle a ready painted/lacquered, level, smooth and flush outer surface with
no additional work having to be undertaken.
Joining a metallic framework structure with components made of fibre reinforced composite plastic can only be
economically and reliably achieved using bonding technology. In order to compensate the different linear
deformations of the structure and outer skin when they are exposed to heat, a highly elastic, thick film of
adhesive is used. The resulting bonds have high strengths, even when subjected to repeated temperature
fluctuations in the range between -40°C and +80°C and under impact-like stress. They also have very good
resistance to aging, even in moist environments. The thickness of the bonded joint varies between 4 and 18 mm.
This depends on the size of the components, which can be up to 8.5 meters long and therefore subject the
bonded joint to very high shearing deformation. Another advantage of this type of structure is the high damping
and the positive effect this has on the dynamic operating characteristics and ride comfort.
All in all, these regional trains are about 25% lighter than comparable conventional trains, and they also have
improved ride characteristics, lower production costs and reduced energy requirements for operation.

CONSTRUCTION OF CONTAINERS

Sandwich panels are widely

used for constructing containers and refrigerated containers. These panels are made by bonding core materials
such as plastic foams, sheets made of mineral materials or honeycomb sheets to cover plates made of
aluminium or glass-fiber reinforced plastic. Low and medium viscosity epoxy resin adhesives are used for this
purpose and decorative panels also being bonded using such adhesives. Of late, MS polymers are also being
increasingly used for this. They have good adhesion without prior application of a primer (even on
lacquered/painted surfaces) and they have universal application because of their good elastic properties and high
UV stability.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION
Courtesy The ChemQuest Group
This material was extracted from ChemQuest's North American Adhesive Bonding Professional Training
Course. To learn more and to register for the next course, click here.
Conventional test methods, such as overlap shear test, compression shear and cyclic fatigue all result in the
destruction of the joint. Such test methods are not suited for in-process control of adhesive joints. Test methods
that do not destroy the bonded part are needed. A number of non-destructive test (NDT) methods are available,
but their use is currently limited to a few industries.
NDT methods include:
• Visual Inspection
 • Tap Test
• Ultrasonic Testing
• Acoustic Emission
• X-ray Radiography
• Shearography
• Infrared Thermography

VISUAL INSPECTION
The principle behind the Visual Inspection Technique is, quite simply, to inspect the bonded component with the
naked eye. Often this process is standardized. Many leading aerospace companies, such as EADS Airbus,
Bombardier, and Boeing, have established test plans in place.
One of the shortcomings of this technique is the fact that it is limited by the resolution of the human eye, and
limited to visible external portions of the bonded component (unless the user has “X-ray” vision!).
The types of defects which are more commonly discovered using this technique include: condition of the surface
of the bonded component (i.e. are such flaws as scratches, imprints, cracks, corrosion present?) as well as
external portions of the bonded joint which may be contaminated by corrosion, blisters, cracks and voids.

THE TAP TEST

The Tap Test involves tapping the bonded component with a coin or small hammer (e.g. Boeing Hammer). The
sound produced differs between bonded areas which are considered intact (a good bond) vs. defects.
One of the shortcomings of this technique is that the human ear is limited in terms of how fine a resolution it can
pick up.
The types of defects which are more commonly discovered using this technique include those present near the
surface. However, it is often difficult to quantify the size or position of them.
Applications which commonly use this technique include: metal-to-metal bonded joints; voids, delaminations, and
disbonds (where the adhesive is not uniformly applied across the bond line). Several prominent aerospace
companies such as Airbus and Boeing have developed standardized approaches.

ULTRASONIC TESTING
 The Ultrasonic Test technique involves an ultrasonic transducer and
transmitter. The ultrasonic pulse which is generated is expressed in terms of burst length or cycles, most typically
ranging from 2 to 10 MHz. The ultrasound wave propagates through the bond joint and reaches defects and other
non-homogeneous characteristics. The transmitted wave undergoes attenuation and, sometimes, extinction. The
ultrasound receiver will detect transmission and reflection of the wave. The intensity of the wave received
correlates with defect size and specific adhesion properties. The time of flight (travel time) correlates with the
depth of a defect. The surface of the bonded component is scanned with a test head to asses the position of the
defects. A coupling agent, such as water, honey, or oil (viscous medium) is employed.