water

Article
Rainwater Harvesting Techniques to Face Water
Scarcity in African Drylands: Hydrological
Efficiency Assessment
Paolo Tamagnone 1, * , Luis Cea 2 , Elena Comino 1 and Maurizio Rosso 1
1 DIATI, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy; elena.comino@polito.it (E.C.);
maurizio.rosso@polito.it (M.R.)
2 Environmental and Water Engineering Group, Department of Civil Engineering, Universidade da Coruña,
15071 A Coruña, Spain; luis.cea@udc.es
* Correspondence: paolo.tamagnone@polito.it




Received: 7 August 2020; Accepted: 16 September 2020; Published: 22 September 2020


Abstract: The sub-Saharan climate is experiencing a marked increase in temperature and intensification
of precipitation intensity and variability. Besides, longer dry spells are compromising the reliability
of local agricultural practices. The present study provides a comprehensive investigation about
the benefits induced by using indigenous rainwater harvesting techniques (RWHT) against
hydrometeorological threats affecting the Sahelian areas. Different RWHT have been tested in
term of runoff retention, infiltration increase into the root zone, and soil water stress mitigation.
To achieve these purposes, hydrological processes at the field scale have been investigated using
a two-dimensional distributed hydrological model. To make the study representative of the whole
Sahelian areas, several simulations were carried out adopting a wide range of input parameters
based on conventional values of those areas. The results reveal that RWHT may lead to a runoff
retention up to 87% and to double the infiltration. Intercepting and storing runoff, RWHT increase the
water content in the root zone and the right design can diminish the crop water stress. Furthermore,
the results show that adopting RWHT makes it possible to extend the growing season up to 20 days,
enhancing the yield. These benefits contribute to the reduction of the climate-related water stress and
the prevention of crop failure.

Keywords: climate-smart agriculture; sustainable land and water management; rainwater harvesting
techniques; hydrological modeling; water balance; crop water stress; Sahel

1. Introduction
Sub-Saharan countries are the poorest regions in the world. Notwithstanding, sub-Saharan
Africa has one of the highest fertility rates with 5.4 children per woman, which results in extremely
fast population growth [1,2]. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
reports that roughly 30% of the population is undernourished and 40% of infants risk their life due
to malnutrition. To face the constant hazard of famine, farmers strive to boost the local agricultural
production in their scarcely fertile lands, naturally poor in organic matter. During the last 50 years,
the increase in food production was achieved mainly by expanding the extent of cropland but with
a scarce cereal yield compared with the rest of the world, since the artificial fertilizers were too
expensive for the majority [3,4]. Moreover, the ongoing climate changes are forcing Sahelian farmers
to find innovative strategies to deal with droughts, unpredictable rainfall, and depletion of soil
nutrients. Climate scientists are studying how global warming is intensifying the hydrological cycle [5].
The warmer atmosphere can store a higher degree of moisture and generate catastrophic rainstorms.

Water 2020, 12, 2646; doi:10.3390/w12092646 www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2020, 12, 2646 2 of 23

The study of Taylor et al. [6] showed how the higher temperature is responsible for tripling the
frequency of extreme storms in West African Sahel. The Sahelian storms are among the most powerful
on the planet, with intensities exceeding hundreds of mm per hour [7]. The higher frequency of
extreme events tied with the incessant land cover changes is leading to severe floods [8–10]. Evident
examples are the massive downpour that deposited 263 mm of rain over the capital of Burkina Faso,
flooded half of the city, and forced 150,000 people to leave their homes, in 2009, and the Niger River
flood of 2012, the highest flood ever registered in the Middle Niger Basin. On the other side, studies
have confirmed that the amount of precipitation that falls every year is slightly increasing [11,12].
This suggests that more resource is available in a place where the most used farming system is
rainfed agriculture. In response, innovative farmers are starting to adopt improved land and water
management practices to gain benefits from this climate pattern. Many studies have demonstrated how
agroforestry, such as farmed managed natural regeneration (FMNR), and sustainable land and water
management (SLWM) practices can help farmers to deal with ecological degradation and significantly
boost the food production in drylands [13–18]. Recently these techniques have been labeled as
climate-smart agriculture for the attitude of mitigating the impacts of climate changes [19,20].
According to the WRI’s investigation (World Resources Institute) [3], improving water and land
management on just 25% of sub-Saharan Africa’s cropland would provide an additional 22 million tons
of food, moving towards food security. In this paper, we focus on Rainwater Harvesting Techniques as
practices used by African farmers to capture rainfall, increase the water use efficiency, reduce crop
water stress, and increase the crop survival expectation. The characteristics of simplicity, adaptability,
replicability, and the low cost of realization and maintenance make the usage of rainwater harvesting
techniques (RWHT) apt in a wide variety of contexts [21]. Furthermore, nearly two-thirds of the
sub-Saharan population is employed in the agropastoral sector and could potentially put their effort
into expanding the use of these techniques on a wider range of drylands [22].
Among various techniques, some practices have demonstrated to be very effective such as
half-moon and planting pits, known locally as demi-lunes and zai/tassa. They are widely used in
Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Mali, and Niger. The study of Zouré et al. [23] clearly showed the multiple
benefits of using these farming practices in mitigating the effect of dry spells and improving the crop
yield. The functions of catching surface runoff, reducing erosion of fertile topsoil, and increasing
infiltration are effective in contrasting the ongoing desertification that affects drought-prone areas [24].
The majority of the investigations related to RWHT are carried out on experimental sites in
which experimental plots are instrumented and records are analyzed [23,25–29]. On the contrary,
very few research studies have investigated the effect of RWHT through numerical modeling.
Welderufael et al. [30] set up a Morin and Cluff (MC) runoff model with the purpose of exploring the
rainfall–runoff relationships on treated/nontreated fields in Dera, Ethiopia. The software HYDRUS-2D
(distributed by PC Progress, Prague, Czech Republic) was used by Verbist et al. [31] to assess the
effectiveness of an infiltration trench installed in a Chilean hillside.
This paper continues previous investigations carried out in the study of RWHT through the
numerical modeling approach [32]. The study aims to solve some previous constraints and provides
further eco-hydrological analyses. The numerical model chosen for the hydrological analysis is Iber [33].
The capability of simulating the entire hydrological balance permitted to span the temporal scale
of analyses from the single event to the entire hydrological season and investigate the subsurface
processes. To achieve the objectives and include ecological investigations, a new methodology to
account for the crop life cycle into the water balance was implemented in the model and tested.
Two different implementations were carried out in this work aiming to afford an assessment of (1)
the hydrological performances of RWHT in terms of infiltration and storage increase, and how the
physical characteristics of the site affect them; (2) the ecological benefit induced by the mitigation of
crop water stress.
The outcomes show the remarkable benefits induced by the use of such RWHT practices.
The enhanced infiltration provides a faster recharge of groundwater, which is available early for
Water 2020, 12, 2646 3 of 23

Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

crop and later represents a precious storage for plants with a deeper root system. In terms of water
management, this means an increase in green water availability for the benefit of a reduction in blue
water consumption (groundwater extracted for irrigation) [34,35]. Additionally, the increment of the
soil water content prevents crops from reaching the conditioncondition of soil
soil water
water stress,
stress, maximizing
maximizing the
yield. Upscaling the diffusion of these simple and affordable techniques would
yield. Upscaling the diffusion of these simple and affordable techniques would represent represent the first
the step
first
towards the enactment
step towards of adaptation
the enactment strategies
of adaptation to cope
strategies with with
to cope climate changes
climate and food
changes and scarcity.
food scarcity.
The paper is structured into four parts. The The first
first part
part reports
reports the
the contextualization
contextualization of of this
thisstudy.
study.
The second
second describes
describes the core of the numerical model and delineates the methodology.
methodology. The third part
sets out outcomes.
outcomes. Section
Sectionfour
4 argues
arguesthethediscussions
discussionscame
cameoutoutfrom
fromthetheresults.
results. In
In the last section,
conclusions and future perspectives are drawn.
future perspectives are drawn.

2. Geographical and
2. Geographical and Climatological
Climatological Context
Context
The
The Sahel,
Sahel, aa semiarid
semiarid area area setset inin aa fragile
fragile context,
context, has has been
been undergoing
undergoing dramatic
dramatic climate
climate and
and
land-use
land-use changes since the middle of the 20th century. The Sahelian belt stretches from the
changes since the middle of the 20th century. The Sahelian belt stretches from the parallel
parallel
17 ◦ ◦
17° NN toto 10
10°N, N,from
fromnorth
northtotosouth,
south,and and spans
spans fromfrom thethe
Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean coasts
Ocean to the
coasts coasts
to the of Red
coasts Sea,
of Red
from west to east (Figure 1). Its climate is predominantly arid at
Sea, from west to east (Figure 1). Its climate is predominantly arid at the border with the Saharathe border with the Sahara Desert,
with
Desert,rainfall
with almost
rainfall absent,
almost and absent,semiarid towardstowards
and semiarid the south thewith
south anwith
annual pluviometry
an annual that ranges
pluviometry that
from 600 to 800 mm [36,37]. In the next years, this area will be
ranges from 600 to 800 mm [36,37]. In the next years, this area will be one of the most affectedone of the most affected by climateby
changes [5]. The [5].
climate changes studyTheconducted
study conducted by the University of Notre Dame
by the University of Notre showed
Damethat the Sahelian
showed that thecountries
Sahelian
are amongare
countries countries
among with the highest
countries with the level of vulnerability
highest to climate to
level of vulnerability changes
climate[38]. Indeed,
changes countries
[38]. Indeed,
such as Niger, Chad, Sudan, and Mali occupy the last positions in
countries such as Niger, Chad, Sudan, and Mali occupy the last positions in the global rankings. the global rankings.
The
The study
study of of Todzo
Todzo et et al.
al. [39]
[39] reveals
reveals that,
that, over
over the the Sahel,
Sahel, aa faster
faster increase
increase of of temperature
temperature and and
precipitation
precipitation than the global average is expected. Moreover, accordingly also with the findings of
than the global average is expected. Moreover, accordingly also with the findings of
Seidou
Seidou [12],
[12], the
the rainfall
rainfall pattern
pattern is is expected
expected to to become
become more more intense
intense andand less
less frequent,
frequent, leading
leading toto
lengthening
lengthening of of dry
dry spells
spells and and increase
increase the the likelihood
likelihood of of droughts. Different studies
droughts. Different studies showed
showed thatthat
roughly
roughly 50% 50%of ofannual
annualprecipitation
precipitationfalls inin
falls thethe
occurrence
occurrence of aofsmall number
a small number of extremely
of extremely intense and
intense
short rainstorms [7,40]. This type of climate and future perspective are
and short rainstorms [7,40]. This type of climate and future perspective are not in favor of a farmingnot in favor of a farming system
based
systemonbasedrainfedon agriculture. In the paper
rainfed agriculture. In the“Climate change and
paper “Climate changevariability in the Sahel
and variability in theregion:
Sahelimpacts
region:
and adaptation strategies in the agricultural sector” it is reported that two
impacts and adaptation strategies in the agricultural sector” it is reported that two Sahelian countries, Sahelian countries, Chad and
Niger,
Chad and could likelycould
Niger, lose nearly
likely alllose their agriculture
nearly all theirthat dependsthat
agriculture on rain by 2100
depends on[41].
rain For these[41].
by 2100 reasons,
For
farmers living in arid or semiarid areas and Non Governmental Organizations
these reasons, farmers living in arid or semiarid areas and Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) (NGOs) operating in
these areas are striving to develop suitable and efficient water management
operating in these areas are striving to develop suitable and efficient water management practices. practices.
Along
Along withwith the
the harsh climate, the
harsh climate, the ongoing
ongoing land land degradation
degradation due due to
to desertification
desertification and and anthropic
anthropic
deforestation is reducing the land fertility and increasing the exposure
deforestation is reducing the land fertility and increasing the exposure of soil to crustification. of soil to crustification.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Geolocation
Geolocation of
of the
the Sahelian
Sahelian strip.
strip. Long-term
Long-term climate
climate data:
data: average
average temperature
temperature (1970–2000)
(1970–2000)
and isohyets (1960–2014) of the sub-Saharan area [37,42].
and isohyets (1960–2014) of the sub-Saharan area [37,42].
Water 2020, 12, 2646 4 of 23

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. The Numerical Model

Iber is a two-dimensional distributed model originally developed for hydraulic computations of
overland and river flow [33,43], and later on expanded to the simulation of hydrological processes
of rainfall–runoff transformation [44,45] and subsurface flow [46,47]. The surface runoff depth and
velocity fields are obtained from the resolution of the 2D shallow water equations (SWEs), computing
the bed friction with the Manning formulation, and including rainfall and infiltration as source terms.
The equation system can be written as follows:

∂h ∂q ∂q y
+ ∂xx + ∂y = R − I
 2 ∂t
∂qx ∂ qx ∂ qx q y
= −gh ∂z
2  
 
∂t
+ ∂x h + ∂y h ∂x
s
− g hn7/3 qqx (1)
2
!
∂q y ∂ qy ∂ qx q y
 
∂zs n2  
 
∂t
+ ∂y h + ∂x h = −gh ∂y
− g h 7/3 q qy

where h is the water depth, qx,y are the unit discharge components along x and y, respectively, R is the
rainfall intensity, I is the infiltration rate, g is the gravity acceleration, zs is the free surface elevation,
and n is the roughness coefficient of Manning. The model equations are solved with an unstructured
finite volume solver. The spatial domain is represented by an unstructured mesh with cells sizes
proportional to the analyzed geometry. The Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy (CFL) stability criterion controls
the computational time step based on the flow velocity, the water depth, and the computational
cell size. In order to guarantee a high level of stability, the Courant number was set to 0.5 for all
analyses. For further details on the model equations and numerical schemes see the studies of Cea and
Bladé [33,43,44].
The infiltration is evaluated through the Green-Ampt method [48]. The formulation allows
calculating the infiltration rate from the water depth over the surface, computed through the resolution
of SWEs, and the physical properties of the soil. The soil characteristics are described by several
parameters: the saturated hydraulic conductivity (ks ), the suction head in the nonsaturated layer (Ψ ),
the soil porosity (∅), and the initial soil moisture content (θi ).
The Green-Ampt model allows linking the spatio-temporal distribution of surface water with the
subsurface flow through the soil water content variation. The mass conservation between the surface
and subsurface is based on the 2D Boussinesq equation-based model for homogeneous unconfined
aquifer and can be written as

∂b ∂ ∂H ∂ ∂H
! !
∅ = T + T + I − DP − ET (2)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y

where ∅ is the soil porosity, b is the saturated soil thickness, T is the horizontal transmissivity, H is the
hydraulic head, DP is the deep percolation rate, and ET is the evapotranspiration rate. The first term
represents the variation of the soil moisture over time, considering the following relation guaranteed
by the infiltration model:
b
θ=∅ (3)
ds
where θ is the soil moisture and ds is the soil depth. Note that the saturated thickness (b) is always
smaller or equal to the soil depth (ds ) and thus, the soil moisture is always smaller or equal to the
soil porosity. Considering the small scale of the spatial domain in our study case (see Section 3.2.1),
the horizontal transmissivity was neglected.
The water that percolates out of the considered soil layer towards deeper layers is estimated by
using the relation proposed by Famiglietti and Wood [49]
Water 2020, 12, 2646 5 of 23

(3+2/λ)
θ

DP = ks,p (4)
∅
where ks,p is the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the deep soil, and λ is a model parameter,
meaning the pore size distribution index based on the soil layer texture. The soil structure might
change along with the vertical profile, varying its permeability. Seeing as how the infiltration and
percolation processes occur at a different depth, distinct values of hydraulic conductivities were
adopted. The infiltration model’s ks represents the topsoil-saturated hydraulic conductivity that
controls the partition of rain between runoff and infiltration. On the other hand, the percolation
model’s ks,p is the saturated hydraulic conductivity that characterizes deep percolation.
The evapotranspiration rate was calculated combining the potential evapotranspiration computed
through the empirical relation reported in the work of Doorenbos and Pruitt [50] adjusted following the
FAO 56 single-crop coefficient method [51], in order to consider the phenological properties of crops.
The present approach follows three steps:

1. The potential evapotranspiration equation is based on a single climatic data widely available, the
temperature:
ETP = −2 + b [ξ (0.46 T + 8.13)] (5)

where T is the air temperature in ◦ C, ξ is the percentage of total daytime hours in which the
evapotranspiration occurs (approximately 12 h) out of total daytime hours of the year (365 × 12 h),
and b is a parameter for calibration.
2. The ETP is adjusted for a specific crop using a crop coefficient Kc , resulting in:

ETc = ETP Kc,ij (6)

where ETc represents the crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions and Kc,ij is the
crop coefficient that accounts for the evapotranspiration capability during each growth stage i of
an individual crop j. Values of Kc are listed in the FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56 [51].
3. When the soil becomes dry, a limited amount of water is available for plant root extraction. If the
depletion of the soil water storage overcomes a threshold, the crop is said to be water stressed
and its crop transpiration capability is reduced by a water stress coefficient Ks

ET = ETc Ks (7)

4. The water stress coefficient Ks [0,1] can be determined by the equation

θ − θWP
Ks = (8)
(θFC − θWP )(1 − p)

where θWP and θFC are the water content at wilting point and field capacity, respectively, and p is
the soil water depletion fraction, which is characteristic for each crop and represents the fraction
of the total available water that the plant can uptake without suffering stress.

3.2. Model Set-Up

The present study applies the numerical model described in the previous section in two different
analyses. The first analysis aims to assess the entire range of possible hydrological performances
of RWHT, evaluating multiple scenarios typical of Sahelian agricultural fields, at the time scale of
the single rainfall event. In the second, the hydrological balances over the entire wet season were
performed for each RWHT, and the potential crop water stress mitigation was evaluated. The first and
second analyses will be called “short-term analysis” and “long-term analysis”, respectively, throughout
the manuscript.
Water 2020, 12, 2646 6 of 23

3.2.1. Geometry
Many RWHT have been developed by Sahelian farmers over the centuries. Common practices
are small planting pits (zai, tassa), small basins (negarims, meskats, half-moons), semicircular bunds,
hand-dug trenches, mechanized Vallerani trenches, or eyebrow terraces. Precisely, we focused on the
two most used microcatchment RWHT (half-moons and planting pits) as described in the guidelines of
Mekdaschi Studer and Liniger [52].
The geometrical inputs that were used to represent each RWHT follow the conceptualization of
the agricultural field delineated in Tamagnone et al. [32]. RWHT were shaped following the technical
specification reported into the Global Database on Sustainable Land Management [53]. Frequently,
semicircles with a radius of 4 m, spaced 2 m, are dug for half-moons, while circles with a diameter of
0.4 m, spaced about 1 m, are dug for small planting pits. The geometrical schemes and features of the
spatial domains are reported in Figure A1 (see Appendix A). Moreover, supplementary simulations
were carried out varying the entity of the excavation in order to observe how the storage volume affects
their hydrological performances.
The hydrological efficiency of these RWHT was compared to a plain configuration that represents
the case in which no agricultural technique is implemented.
For the long-term analysis, the plain configuration was manipulated to simulate the traditional
sowing method used by Sahelian farmers. This method consists of breaking the surface crust along
rows with rudimentary hand hoes or pickaxes (locally called “iler” or “daba”). The rows are commonly
tilled 1 m apart transversely to the slope.
Identification codes were used to label each configuration, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Characteristic and identification codes for the different rainwater harvesting techniques
(RWHT) configurations analyzed.

Configurations Excavation Depth (cm) Identification Code

Plain 0 PL
Traditional sowing method 0 TM
10 HM10
Half-moon 20 HM20
30 HM30
10 PP10
Planting pits
20 PP20

3.2.2. Meteorological Data

Iber is a fully distributed hydrological model which needs meteorological inputs to compute
the intensity of incoming and outgoing hydrological fluxes from the study domain [44]. The spatial
and temporal resolution of these inputs depends on the timescale of the simulations. Regarding
rainfall, the typical evolution of Sahelian storms can be associated to an Organized Convective System
(OCS) [54]. It generates hyetographs characterized by very fast and high-intensity peaks (frequently
shorter than 1 h) followed by a low-intensity tail [7]. Thus, a high-resolution of rainfall records is
necessary to detect every cloudburst. Consequently, hyetographs with a time resolution of 5 min were
generated for both analyses.
In the short-term analysis, the extreme rainfall hyetograph calculated in the previous work of
Tamagnone et al. [32] was adopted. This hyetograph is characterized by a rain depth of 40 mm with
a peak intensity of 80 mm/h (Figure 2a).
Instead, for the long-term analysis, a hyetograph representative of a rainy season was used.
The representative wet season was identified from the analysis of rainfall time series recorded at
a gauging station placed in central Sahel (Koyria station, 1997–2016), extracted from the AMMA-CATCH
(Analyse Multidisciplinaire de la Mousson Africaine—Couplage de l’Atmosphère Tropicale et du
Cycle Hydrologique) database [55]. From this time series, a representative year was selected as the
Water 2020, 12, 2646 7 of 23

Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23

one with the highest correlation with the following three statistical parameters of the complete time
series: the average of annual rainfall depth, the average of maximum hourly rainfall intensity, and the
time series: the average of annual rainfall depth, the average of maximum hourly rainfall intensity,
average number of rainy days.
and the average number of rainy days.
The second meteorological input needed to evaluate the water balance is the air temperature.
The second meteorological input needed to evaluate the water balance is the air temperature.
The variability of temperature over one characteristic year was calculated as the mean temperature
The variability of temperature over one characteristic year was calculated as the mean temperature
registered in the decade 2004–2014 at the Wankama gauging station [55], with a time resolution of
registered in the decade 2004–2014 at the Wankama gauging station [55], with a time resolution of 30
30 min. The rainfall and temperature data used in the long-term simulations are displayed in Figure 2b.
min. The rainfall and temperature data used in the long-term simulations are displayed in Figure 2b.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. (a)
(a)Hydrological
Hydrologicalinputinputfor
forthe
theshort-term
short-termanalysis: thethe
analysis: extreme rainfall
extreme hyetograph;
rainfall (b)
hyetograph;
meteorological
(b) meteorological input forfor
input thethe
long-term
long-termanalysis:
analysis:the
theaverage
averagedaily
dailytemperature
temperature (red
(red line) and the
the
rainfall pattern
rainfall pattern (blue
(blue bars)
bars)ofofthe
the wet
wetseason.
season.

3.2.3. Input Parameters

3.2.3. Input Parameters
In order to investigate a vast range of cases characterizing the Sahelian farm fields, multiple Monte
In order to investigate a vast range of cases characterizing the Sahelian farm fields, multiple
Carlo simulations were run using different sets of model parameters. The parameter sets were sampled
Monte Carlo simulations were run using different sets of model parameters. The parameter sets were
using the Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS) method [56,57]. Many authors have revealed that LHS can
sampled using the Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS) method [56,57]. Many authors have revealed
significantly cut down on processing time versus a standard Monte Carlo random sampling [58].
that LHS can significantly cut down on processing time versus a standard Monte Carlo random
For the short-term analysis, 300 parameter sets were generated within defined ranges. Each set is
sampling [58].
composed of six parameters that we identified as the most influential on model performance. The first
For the short-term analysis, 300 parameter sets were generated within defined ranges. Each set
one is the roughness expressed by the Manning’s coefficient and the others are parameters of the
is composed of six parameters that we identified as the most influential on model performance. The
infiltration model. The parameter ranges are listed in Table 2.
first one is the roughness expressed by the Manning’s coefficient and the others are parameters of the
infiltration model. The parameter
Table ranges
2. Parameter are listed
ranges used ininthe
Table 2. Carlo simulations.
Monte

Table 2. Parameter ranges

Parameter used inRange
Sampling the Monte Carlo
Unitsimulations. Source
Manning coefficient
Parameter(n) [0.02–0.7]
Sampling Range s/m1/3
Unit Source[59–61]
Suction (Ψ )
Manning coefficient ( ) [110–290]
[0.02–0.7] mm
s/m 1/3 [59–61][48]
Total porosity (∅) [0.33–0.48] - [26,48]
Suction ( ) [110–290] mm [48]
Initial saturation (Is ) [0.07–0.1] - [62]
Total porosity (∅) [0.33–0.48] - [26,48]
Hydraulic (ks,sur f ace ) [0.5–3] crusted 1
mm/h [48,59,60,62,63]
conductivityInitial saturation
(ks,hole )
( ) [0.07–0.1]
[10–40] tilled 1
- [62]
( , ) [0.5–3] crusted 1
Hydraulic
1 in order to conductivity
simulate the mm/h
effect of crusted surface and tilled surface, two different [48,59,60,62,63]
sets of parameters were generated
( , ) [10–40] tilled 1
for such zones.
1in order to simulate the effect of crusted surface and tilled surface, two different sets of parameters
were generated for such zones.
The set of parameters adopted for the long-term analysis is composed of:
- the
Theprevious six parameters,
set of parameters adoptedcorresponding to the analysis
for the long-term simulation closest to the
is composed of: mean model behavior,
and the four soil parameters (Table 3);
- the previous six parameters, corresponding to the simulation closest to the mean model
- the phenological parameters for each analyzed crop (Table 4). During the growing period,
behavior, and the four soil parameters (Table 3);
the evapotranspiration potential of the given crop will vary accordingly to the development of
- the phenological parameters for each analyzed crop (Table 4). During the growing period, the
evapotranspiration potential of the given crop will vary accordingly to the development of its
height and leafage. The growing season can be divided into four different growth stages labeled
Water 2020, 12, 2646 8 of 23

its height and leafage. The growing season can be divided into four different growth stages
labeled as follows: L1 (initial), L2 (development), L3 (mid-season), L4 (late-season). To each stage
is associated a distinct value of crop coefficient Kc .

Table 3. Parameters used in the long-term analysis [51,64].

Parameter Values Unit

Manning coefficient (n) 0.34 s/m1/3
Suction (Ψ ) 122.16 mm
Total porosity (∅) 0.3 -
Initial saturation (Is ) 0.5 -
(ks,sur f ace ) 0.89
Hydraulic conductivity (ks,hole ) 18.11 mm/h
(ks,p ) 0.5
Pore size distribution index 0.5 -
Field capacity 0.25 -
Wilting point 0.15 -

Table 4. Phenological parameters used to describe the growth stages of selected crops.

Crop Coefficient Lengths of

Depletion Growing Season
(days) Growth Stages (days)
Type Crop Factor
(-) Length
Kc,j 1 ini Kc,j 1 Mid Kc,j 1 End L1 L2 L3 L4 Period
(Days)
Cereals Millet 0.55 0.3 1 0.3 15 25 40 25 105 Jul–Oct
Oil seed Sesame 0.6 0.35 1.1 0.25 20 30 40 20 110 Jun–Sep
Root crop Sweet potato 0.65 0.5 1.15 0.65 15 30 50 30 125 Jun–Oct
1 linear variation between extremes.

3.3. Evaluation of the Hydrological Efficiency

The impact of the analyzed configurations in the hydrological processes related to rainfall–runoff
transformation was evaluated in terms of three different efficiency measures:

- outflow reduction: calculated as the reduction on the cumulated volume of water that
flows out of the domain with and without the implementation of RHWT (Vol.outRWHT and
Vol.outPL , respectively)
Vol.outRWHT
φV = 1 − (9)
Vol.outPL

- infiltration increase: calculated as the increase on the cumulated volume of water infiltrated in
the subsurface with and without the implementation of RHWT (IRWHT and IPL , respectively)

IRWHT
φI = −1 (10)
IPL

- stress mitigation: calculated as the increase on soil moisture needed to reach the availability
threshold with and without the implementation of RHWT (θRWHT and θTM , respectively)

(θRWHT − θTM )
φS = ·100 (11)
(p·θFC − θWP )

4. Results

4.1. Hydrological Behaviour

The hydrological behavior of each RWHT configuration was analyzed in terms of surface runoff
generated, water retention, and infiltration, using for that purpose the output of the Monte Carlo
Water 2020, 12, 2646 9 of 23

simulations performed with the fully distributed hydrological model. The computed hydrographs at
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 23
the outlet of the considered Sahelian farming plot, as well as the cumulative infiltration in the field are
displayed in Figure 3, showing the different responses of each RWHT configuration to the extreme
are displayed in Figure 3, showing the different responses of each RWHT configuration to the
rainfall
extremeevent. In addition
rainfall to all
event. In the Monte
addition to allCarlo results,Carlo
the Monte the average
results,and
thethe 25–75%
average percentiles
and the 25–75% were
added to each graph.
percentiles were added to each graph.

Figure
Figure 3. 3. Hydrographs
Hydrographs and
and infiltration
infiltration computed
computed forfor
thethe Monte
Monte Carlo
Carlo simulations
simulations in the
in the PL PL (first
(first row),
row), HM 30 (second row), and PP20 (third row) configurations. Red solid lines are the mean discharge
HM30 (second row), and PP20 (third row) configurations. Red solid lines are the mean discharge and
andinfiltration,
mean mean infiltration, respectively.
respectively. Red dashedRed dashed lines represent
lines represent the first
the first and thirdand thirdofquartile
quartile of the
the distribution.
distribution. Red area delineates the 95%
Red area delineates the 95% confidence interval. confidence interval.

The
The hydrographscomputed
hydrographs computed for for the
the PL
PL and
and HM
HM30 configurations show a wide difference in
30 configurations show a wide difference in
magnitudebut
magnitude butaasimilar
similar shape,
shape, since
sincethe thehalf-moons
half-moons dodo notnot
get get
filled and and
filled just the
justrainfall that isthat
the rainfall not is
intercepted by them contributes to the outlet hydrograph. On the other
not intercepted by them contributes to the outlet hydrograph. On the other hand, the hydrographs hand, the hydrographs
computedfor
computed forthe
thePPPP20 configuration
configuration show showtwo twodistinct
distinctbranches.
branches.At theAt beginning
the beginningof theof
event, the
the event,
20
discharge increases very slowly because the planting pits are still being filled with water. Once they
the discharge increases very slowly because the planting pits are still being filled with water. Once they
get filled, there is a sharp increase in the hydrographs, reaching peak discharges in between the PL
get filled, there is a sharp increase in the hydrographs, reaching peak discharges in between the PL
and the HM30 configurations. This behavior showing two branches and a delayed peak has already
and the HM30 configurations. This behavior showing two branches and a delayed peak has already
been described in Tamagnone et al. [32], and it also occurs for certain parameter sets in the HM10
been described in Tamagnone et al. [32], and it also occurs for certain parameter sets in the HM10
configuration (see Figure A2). The outcomes computed for all the RWHT configurations defined in
configuration (see Figure A2). The outcomes computed for all the RWHT configurations defined in
Table 1 are included in Appendix A.
Table 1 The
are included
amplitudeinofAppendix
the resultsA.range is directly correlated to the sensitivity of model output to the
The amplitude of the results range is directly
input parameters. For the PP configuration, correlated
the Monte Carlotosimulations
the sensitivity of model
produce output to
hydrographs
thesignificantly
input parameters. For the PP configuration, the Monte Carlo simulations
different from each other, meaning that the hydraulic behavior of this type of produce hydrographs
significantly
configurationdifferent from each
is strongly other,by
affected meaning that the
the input hydraulic(and
parameters behavior
thus, ofbythis
thetype of configuration
terrain and soil
is strongly affectedConversely,
characteristics). by the inputthe parameters (and thus, by
HM30 configuration is the
lessterrain
affectedandbysoil
thecharacteristics).
input parameters, Conversely,
being
the shape and magnitude of the hydrograph mostly determined by the configuration geometry.
Water 2020, 12, 2646 10 of 23

Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 23

the HM30 configuration is less affected by the input parameters, being the shape and magnitude of the
hydrograph
Observing mostly determinedtrends
the infiltration by the inconfiguration
Figure 3, each geometry.
configuration presents a different behavior.
Observing
For the plain PL theconfiguration,
infiltration trends giveninthe Figure
absence3, each configuration
of retention, presents a different
the infiltration behavior.
trend follows the
For the plain
rainfall trend.PL configuration,
Thus, the infiltration givenfinishes
the absence
withof retention,
the end of the therainfall.
infiltration
For trend follows thethere
the half-moons, rainfall
is,
trend. Thus, the infiltration finishes with the end of the rainfall. For the half-moons,
on average, a return to the dry condition at 300 min (when the curve becomes horizontal), whereas there is, on average,
a return
the to the
planting drypresent
pits condition at 300 min
a positive (when the
infiltration curve
trend up becomes
to 400 min. horizontal),
The delaywhereas
betweenthe theplanting
end of
pits present
rainfall a positive infiltration
and infiltration contributes trend to theup to 400ofmin.
increase The delay between
the evaporation the end
of the water of rainfall
retained insideand
the
infiltration
ponds aftercontributes
the downburst. to the increase of the evaporation of the water retained inside the ponds after
the downburst.
The influence of each input parameter on model output was also investigated. The correlation
The the
between influence
runoff of each input
coefficient, parameter
evaluated on model
as the output was
ratio between also investigated.
the volume The correlation
of water flowing out of the
between
domain and the runoff coefficient,
the cumulated evaluated
rainfall, and theas the ratio
input between the
parameters volume
show of water
that the flowing
hydraulic out of the
conductivity
domain
outside ofand thethe cumulated
holes ( , rainfall,
) playsandthe the
maininput
roleparameters show of
in the formation that
thethe hydraulic
outflow conductivity
discharge (Table
outside
5). of the holes (k s,sur f ace ) plays the main role in the formation of the outflow discharge (Table 5).

Table 5. Spearman’s correlation coefficients (ρ

Table 5. ( s ) between the runoff coefficient and input parameters
for each configuration.

PL PL30
HM HM
HM20 30 HM
HM1020 HM
PP20
10 PP PP
2010 PP10
Manningcoefficient
Manning coefficient (n) ( ) −0.34 −0.34
−0.13 −0.13
−0.09 −0.09
−0.30 −0.30
−0.41 −0.41
−0.45 −0.45
Suction
Suction (Ψ () ) −0.32 −0.32
−0.33 −0.33
−0.33 −0.33
−0.33 −0.33
−0.37 −0.37
−0.37 −0.37
Total
Totalporosity
porosity (∅)(∅) −0.20 −0.21
−0.20 −0.21
−0.21 −0.20
−0.21 −0.20
−0.20 −0.20
−0.20 −0.20
Initial saturation (Is ) −0.02 −0.02
Initial saturation ( ) 0.01 0.01 −0.02 0.02
−0.02 0.02
0.02 0.02
0.02 0.02
Hydraulic (ks,sur f ace ) −0.82 −0.86 −0.86 −0.83 −0.73 −0.71
conductivity (ks,hole )
( , -
) −0.82
0.08 −0.86
0.09 −0.86
0.07 −0.83
−0.16 −0.73
−0.15 −0.71
Hydraulic conductivity
( , ) - 0.08 0.09 0.07 −0.16 −0.15

The differences between

The differences between the the HM
HM and
andPP PPconfigurations
configurationsshow showthat
thatthe influenceofof ks,sur f ace is
theinfluence is
,
stronger for HM configuration, while the n more heavily affects PP (Figure 4).
stronger for HM configuration, while the more heavily affects PP (Figure 4). The explanation lies The explanation lies in
the behavior
in the behavior of of
PPPPwhich
which get
getoverfilled
overfilledduring
duringthe theevent.
event.When
WhenthethePPPP retention
retention fails,
fails, more
more water
water
flows on the surface between the ponds and this makes the correlation
flows on the surface between the ponds and this makes the correlation withs,sur, f ace with k weaker andand
weaker the
correlation withwith
the correlation the roughness
the roughness coefficient stronger.
coefficient This This
stronger. is also
is confirmed by thebyincrease
also confirmed of ρs value
the increase of
related to n in the HM
value related to in the configuration. The specular behavior might be seen in the
10 HM10 configuration. The specular behavior might be seen in the correlation correlation with
the total volume of water infiltrated during the event. Thus, with all positive correlations.
with the total volume of water infiltrated during the event. Thus, with all positive correlations. The The weak
correlation with ks,hole
weak correlation withmight bemight
linked
bewith thewith
linked fact that the entire
the fact runoff
that the harvested
entire by the RWHT
runoff harvested by the is
,
however infiltrated independently by the entity of the hydraulic conductivity.
RWHT is however infiltrated independently by the entity of the hydraulic conductivity.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Correlation
Correlation between
between runoff
runoff coefficient
coefficient and
and input
input parameters
parameters for
forHM
HM3030 (first
(first row)
row) and
and PP
PP20
20

(second row). ρs isisthe

theSpearman’s
Spearman’scorrelation
correlationcoefficient
coefficientbetween
betweenthe
thecouple
coupleofofdatasets.
datasets.
Water 2020, 12, 2646 11 of 23
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 23

4.2. Hydrological
4.2. HydrologicalEfficiency
Efficiency Assessment
Assessment
As reported
As reported inin Section
Section 3.3,
3.3, the
the hydrological
hydrological efficiency
efficiency of
of each
each RWHT RWHT analyzed
analyzed represents
represents the
the
degree of
degree ofimprovement
improvement in water
in waterretention, when when
retention, compared to the plain
compared configuration.
to the The comparison
plain configuration. The
was made simulation
comparison was made by simulation
simulation in order toin
by simulation compare
order tocouples
compareofcouplesconfigurations with the same
of configurations with
input
the parameters.
same input parameters.
Considering reductionφV (Figure
Considering outflow reduction (Figure5),5),
thethe
HMHM configurations
configurations show an efficiency
show of more
an efficiency of
than than
more 30% 30%higher thanthan
higher the the
PP PPconfigurations.
configurations. For both
For bothRWHT,
RWHT,the theconfigurations
configurations with bigger
with the bigger
excavationhave
excavation haveaahigher
higherperformance
performancethan thanthe
thesmaller
smallerones.
ones.For
Forhalf-moons,
half-moons, thethe efficiency
efficiency shows
shows a
a very slight variation between the three configurations, from 0.87 to 0.85 for the
very slight variation between the three configurations, from 0.87 to 0.85 for the deeper hole and the deeper hole and the
shallower hole,
shallower hole, respectively.
respectively. Instead,
Instead,in inthe
thePPPP configurations,
configurations,the thedepthdepthof of the
the holes
holes has
has aa higher
higher
impact on
impact on the
the water
water volume
volume retained
retained in in the
the plot.
plot. Indeed,
Indeed, halving
halving thethe depth
depth ofof the
the excavation
excavation leads
leads to
to
aa 15%
15% drop
drop in in φV. Moreover,
Moreover, from
from the results
results shown in Figure
Figure 5,
5, itit is
is clear
clear how
how thethe input
input parameters
parameters
strongly influence
strongly influence the
the PP
PP results, while they slightly impact the efficiency of the HM configurations. configurations.

Figure
Figure 5.
5.Boxplot
Boxplotof
ofoutflow
outflowreduction
reductionefficiency.
efficiency. InIn each
each box,
box, the
theupper
upper and
andlower
lower edges
edges indicate
indicate the
the
first
first and
and third
third quartile,
quartile, respectively,
respectively, the
the red
red central
central line
line is
is the
the median
median and
and the
the green
green xx symbol
symbol is
is the
the
mean.
mean. The
Thewhiskers
whiskerslength
lengthwas
wasset
setequal
equal to
to the
the interquartile
interquartile distance.
distance. Outliers
Outliershave
havebeen
been hidden.
hidden.

Commonly, the
Commonly, the Sahelian
Sahelian storms
storms drop
drop down
down aa consistent
consistent amount
amount of of rainfall
rainfallininaa few
few minutes.
minutes.
Thus, the process
Thus, processofofwater
waterretention
retentionstarts with
starts catching
with catchingthe the
runoff and and
runoff rainfall insideinside
rainfall the micro-basins
the micro-
and continues
basins with thewith
and continues infiltration of this amount
the infiltration of this of water into
amount the subsurface.
of water Thus, the infiltration
into the subsurface. Thus, the
efficiency φefficiency
infiltration I is dependent on
is the geometry
dependent on and
the changes
geometry over
and time.
changesFor this
over reason,
time. Forit was
this evaluated
reason, for
it was
different times
evaluated lags aftertimes
for different the extreme event
lags after occurs, labeling
the extreme the results
event occurs, in Figure
labeling 6 withinthe
the results subscript
Figure of
6 with
the subscript
the related time lag.related time lag.
of the
HM configurations have a storage volume large enough to harvest all the water that falls during
the simulated extreme event in almost all simulations, i.e., independently of the input parameters.
This means that each half-moon has the same volume of water that will infiltrate into the soil, although
the infiltration rate will vary depending on the soil parameters. Observing the differences between the
deepest and shallowest HM configurations (HM30 and HM10 , respectively), the variation of φI over
time is noticeable (Figure 6). At the end of the event (φI1h ), the HM10 shows an efficiency 10% higher
than HM30, meaning that more water has been infiltrated during the rainfall. At such early stages,
the infiltration in the shallower HM is higher due to the conformation of the excavation, that presents
a slightly wider hole bottom than in the HM30 . After 6 h (φI6h ) the two efficiencies are equal, while later
on the efficiency of HM30 becomes higher than that of HM10 . This highlights that, for this RWHT,
Water 2020, 12, 2646 12 of 23

the infiltration process is more affected by the geometry rather than by differences in water depth
inside the hole.
For the PP technique, the difference between the two configurations increases over time. Since both
configurations are overfilled during the event, the PP20 has a higher volume of water retained, and it
will produce more infiltration. Thus, the efficiency of PP20 is only 4% higher than PP10 at a time lag of
1 h (φI1h ),12,while
Water 2020,
it reaches a difference of 28% at 10 h (φI10h ).
x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23

Figure
Figure6.6.Boxplot
Boxplotof
of infiltration
infiltration increase efficiency.In
increase efficiency. Ineach
eachbox,
box,the
theupper
upper and
and lower
lower edges
edges indicate
indicate the
the first and third quartile, respectively, the red central line is the median, and the green x symbol
first and third quartile, respectively, the red central line is the median, and the green x symbol is the is
the mean. The whiskers length was set equal to the interquartile distance. Outliers have
mean. The whiskers length was set equal to the interquartile distance. Outliers have been hidden. been hidden.

4.3. HM
Water Stress Assessment
configurations have a storage volume large enough to harvest all the water that falls during
the simulated extreme event
Besides simulating in almost
infiltration and all simulations,
runoff i.e., independently
for the different configurations, of the
the hydrological
input parameters.
model
This means that each half-moon has the same volume of
was used to evaluate the impact of RWHT on soil water dynamics and their influencewater that will infiltrate into
onthe
the soil,
crop
although the infiltration rate
conditions over the growing season. will vary depending on the soil parameters. Observing the differences
betweenThethe deepest
rainfall andinshallowest
season the Sahel is HM configurations
always preceded by (HM 30 and HM10, respectively), the variation
a long dry period in which no precipitations
of over time is noticeable (Figure 6). At the end of the
occur. Thus, the initial conditions were considered strongly arid, meaning event ( ), thea HM
dry 10 showsand
surface an subsurface
efficiency
10% higher than HM 30, meaning that more water has been infiltrated during the rainfall. At such early
with a minimum soil water content equal to the permanent wilting point [23]. With the onset of the wet
stages,
season,thetheinfiltration
soil storage inrecharge,
the shallower HMand
uptake, is higher due to variation
the resulting the conformation of the excavation,
in soil moisture that
were calculated
presents
over theaentire
slightly wider
season withhole
thebottom than in model.
hydrological the HM30. After 6 h ( ) the two efficiencies are equal,
whileThe
lateranalyses
on the efficiency of HM 30 becomes higher than that of HM10. This highlights that, for this
aim to investigate the improvement in the reduction of water stress on traditional
RWHT,
Sahelianthe infiltration
crops that can process is more
be achieved withaffected
the use by the geometry
of RWHT compared rather
withthan by differences
traditional sowingin water
methods.
depth inside the
The analyses arehole.
focused at two scales: (1) the field scale, in which all simulation results are aggregated
over the wholetechnique,
For the PP domain, (2) thethe
difference
small scale,between
in whichthe two configurations
hydrological increases
conditions over time.
are locally Since
examined
both
whereconfigurations
crop seeds are are overfilled
actually sown.during the event, the PP20 has a higher volume of water retained,
and itFor
willtheproduce more infiltration. Thus, thewere
field scale analysis, all simulations efficiency
carriedofout
PPbased
20 is only 4% higher than PP10 at a time
on millet phenological parameters.
lag of 1 h ( ), while it reaches a difference of 28%
The presence of RWHT markedly increases the fraction of precipitation at 10 h ( ). that infiltrates and fills the
soil water storage. The best improvement is tied to the HM30 with a cumulative infiltration two times
4.3. Water Stress Assessment
greater than TM. However, the difference between the deepest and shallowest HM is lower than 10%.
Figure 7simulating
Besides shows theinfiltration
soil moisture
anddynamics
runoff forover
the the wet season.
different The aggregation
configurations, of zones
the hydrological
influenced
model by cultivation
was used to evaluateand
the not
impactproduces
of RWHT a trend that
on soil evendynamics
water if it is always below
and their the threshold,
influence on the
constant
crop permanence
conditions over theofgrowing
stress condition
season. (red zone), it is closer to the green zone when RWHT are
adopted. The improvement
The rainfall season inisthemore marked
Sahel in correspondence
is always preceded by witha the highest
long dry precipitation when no
period in which the
effect of retention
precipitations plays
occur. a crucial
Thus, role.
the initial conditions were considered strongly arid, meaning a dry surface
and subsurface with a minimum soil water content equal to the permanent wilting point [23]. With
the onset of the wet season, the soil storage recharge, uptake, and the resulting variation in soil
moisture were calculated over the entire season with the hydrological model.
The analyses aim to investigate the improvement in the reduction of water stress on traditional
Sahelian crops that can be achieved with the use of RWHT compared with traditional sowing
moisture lower than the threshold. The threshold is defined as the soil moisture at the field capacity
multiplied by the depletion factor of the crop [51]. The higher level of soil water content induced by
the RWHT indicates that there is an improvement of the hydrological efficiency of the whole system,
meaning the farm field. In terms of water stress mitigation ( ), HM configurations show an
efficiency
Water 2020, 12,comprised
2646 between 20.7% and 23% while PP lead to significantly lower values of 13 3.75%
of 23
and 2.85% (Table 6).

Figure7.
Figure 7. Precipitation
Precipitation (blue
(blue bars),
bars), infiltration
infiltration trend,
trend, and
and soil
soil moisture
moisture trend
trend(colored
(coloredlines)
lines)at
atthe
the field
field
scale over
scale over the
the wet
wet season.
season. The
The red
red area
area represents
represents the
the level
level of
of water
water content
content lower
lower than
than thethe threshold
threshold
in which the crop is water stressed. The green area highlights the range in which soil water
in which the crop is water stressed. The green area highlights the range in which soil water availability availability
is enough
is enough to to meet
meet the
thedemand
demand of ofthe
thecrop.
crop. The
The boundary
boundary between
between the
the two
two areas
areas corresponds
corresponds to to the
the
threshold of readily available water (blue dash-dotted line). The upper and lower
threshold of readily available water (blue dash-dotted line). The upper and lower limits are the soillimits are the soil
moistureat
moisture at saturation
saturation and
and permanent
permanent wilting
wilting point,
point, respectively.
respectively. TheThe vertical
vertical dashed
dashed lines
lines represent
represent
the growing
the growingperiod,
period,from
fromthe
thesowing
sowing(left)
(left)to
tothe
theharvest
harvest(right).
(right).

Table 6.
Focusing on the growing period ofWater stress mitigation
the analyzed crop, theefficiency.
water stress is stated by a level of soil
moisture lower than the threshold. The threshold is defined as the soil moisture at the field capacity
RWHT (%)
multiplied by the depletion factor of the
HMcrop
30
[51]. The higher
23.02 level of soil water content induced by
the RWHT indicates that there is an improvement
HM20 of the hydrological
22.92 efficiency of the whole system,
meaning the farm field. In terms of water
HM10stress mitigation (φ S ), HM configurations show an efficiency
20.72
comprised between 20.7% and 23% while PP20 PP lead to significantly
3.75 lower values of 3.75% and 2.85%
(Table 6). PP 10 2.85

The presence of zones characterized by stress

Table 6. Water different soil physical
mitigation characteristics indicates a slightly
efficiency.
large spatial variability of hydrological conditions. Downscaling the observation from the field scale
RWHT φS (%)
to the single row/pond it is possible to deeply investigate the impact of farming practices on soil
moisture dynamics. HM30 23.02
HM20 22.92
HM10 20.72
PP20 3.75
PP10 2.85

The presence of zones characterized by different soil physical characteristics indicates a slightly
large spatial variability of hydrological conditions. Downscaling the observation from the field scale
to the single row/pond it is possible to deeply investigate the impact of farming practices on soil
moisture dynamics.
For HM, the soil moisture inside of the pond is higher than the threshold most of the time, avoiding
that the crop sowed inside of the pond is affected by water shortage (Figure 8). Comparing the three
HM configurations it can be noticed that soil moisture in HM30 is close to the saturation most of the
time and never reaches the threshold. Conversely, shallower HM overcome the threshold leading to 2
and 7 days of plant water stress for HM20 and HM10 , respectively. In those days, the limitation in soil
water availability induces a condition of stress to the crop which limits its evapotranspiration, implying
a Ks lower than 1. The number of stressed days rises to 60 days in case of traditional sowing method.
evapotranspiration, implying a lower than 1. The number of stressed days rises to 60 days in case
of traditional sowing method. Hence, considering a growing season of 105 days for a millet crop, the
crop will suffer water stress more than half the time whether cultivated with the traditional method.
The percentage considerably decreases to 0%, 2%, and 7% if half-moons are adopted. Instead, both
PP configurations
Water 2020, 12, 2646 show a soil water content higher than the threshold over the entire growing season.
14 of 23
What also stands out in Figure 8 is that the soil water content rapidly decreases with the end of
the wet season and the increase of the temperature (see Figure 2). This is due to the high intensity of
Hence,
outcomingconsidering
fluxes anda growing season
absence of of 105
inflows. days
In TM for a millet the
configuration, crop, the
soil crop will
moisture sufferthe
reaches water stress
threshold
more than half the time whether cultivated with the traditional method. The percentage considerably
on 8th of October, just 2 days after the last simulated rainfall, and then starts to decrease from the
decreases
onset of the to 0%,
dry 2%, and 7%
season. Theifhigher
half-moons areinduced
storage adopted. byInstead,
the RWHTbothallows
PP configurations
extending theshow a soil
growing
water content higher than the threshold over the entire growing season.
season up to 20 days, avoiding the stress condition almost until the end of the month.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Soil
Soil moisture
moisturetrendtrendatatthe
thesmall
smallscale
scaleover
overthe
thewet
wet season.
season. The
The red
red area
area represents
represents thethe level
level of
water content
of water lower
content than than
lower the threshold in which
the threshold in the
whichcropthe
is water
crop stressed.
is water The greenThe
stressed. areagreen
highlights
area
the range inthe
highlights which
rangesoilin water
which availability is enough to
soil water availability is meet
enough thetodemand
meet theofdemand
the crop.ofThe
theboundary
crop. The
between the two areas corresponds to the threshold of readily available water (blue
boundary between the two areas corresponds to the threshold of readily available water (blue dash- dash-dotted line).
The upper
dotted andThe
line). lower
upperlimits
andarelower
the soil moisture
limits at saturation
are the and at
soil moisture permanent
saturationwilting point, respectively.
and permanent wilting
The vertical
point, dashed The
respectively. linesvertical
represent the growing
dashed period, from
lines represent the sowing
the growing (left)from
period, to the
theharvest
sowing(right).
(left) to
the harvest (right).
What also stands out in Figure 8 is that the soil water content rapidly decreases with the end of
the wet
To season
observeand
thethe increaseofofRWHT
influence the temperature (seegrowing
on crops, the Figure 2). This isofdue
seasons to the
millet, high intensity
sesame, and sweetof
outcoming fluxes and absence of inflows. In TM configuration, the soil moisture
potato with the conventional sowing method was compared against HM10 practice. The different reaches the threshold
on 8th of October,
phenological just 2 days
parameters of after
thesethecrops
last simulated rainfall, and
lead to different then starts to decrease
evapotranspiration from
trends. The thebenefit
onset
of the dry season. The higher storage induced by the RWHT allows extending the
induced by the presence of RWHT was measured as the reduction of cumulative plant water deficit growing season up
to 20 days,
(PWD), seeavoiding
Figure 9.the stresswas
PWD condition almost
calculated untildifference
as the the end ofbetween
the month.the crop evapotranspiration
To observe the influence
(evapotranspiration of RWHT
under unstressed on crops,see
condition, theEquation
growing(6))seasons of actual
and the millet,evapotranspiration.
sesame, and sweet
potato with the conventional sowing method was compared against HM10 practice. The different
phenological parameters of these crops lead to different evapotranspiration trends. The benefit
induced by the presence of RWHT was measured as the reduction of cumulative plant water deficit
(PWD), see Figure 9. PWD was calculated as the difference between the crop evapotranspiration
(evapotranspiration under unstressed condition, see Equation (6)) and the actual evapotranspiration.
The maximum reduction is obtained for the sesame since no deficit is produced when using HM10 .
This occurs since the sesame harvesting takes place around mid-September, hence before the end of
rainfalls and increase of temperature. Instead, the longer growing season of sweet potato undermines
the traditional system leading to a higher PWD. On the contrary, HM10 highlights a great efficiency
producing a deficit even lower than for the millet.
Water 2020, 12, 2646 15 of 23
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Cumulative
Cumulative plant
plant water
water deficit
deficit induced
induced by
by the
the use
use of
of the
the traditional
traditional sowing
sowing method
method (blue
(blue
bars) or
bars) or adopting
adopting half-moons
half-moons with
with aa pond
pond depth
depth of
of 10
10 cm
cm (cyan
(cyan bars)
bars) for
for three
three traditional
traditional Sahelian
Sahelian
crops. R values indicate the deficit reduction when HM 10 are
crops. R values indicate the deficit reduction when HM10 are used. used.

5. Discussion
The maximum reduction is obtained for the sesame since no deficit is produced when using
HM10The. This occurs since
principal aim oftheusing
sesameRWHTharvesting takes place
is to intercept thearound
rainfallmid-September, henceinbefore
and surface runoff orderthe
to
end of rainfalls and increase of temperature. Instead, the longer growing season of sweet
maximize the availability of water for crop and to minimize the water deficit during the entire growing potato
undermines
season [22]. the traditionalwhere
In drylands, systemfood
leading to a higher
security is the PWD. On the contrary,
first challenge, HMwater
reducing 10 highlights a great
stress means
efficiency producing a deficit even lower than for the millet.
decreasing the probability of crop failure [65]. The results presented here using numerical modeling
and Monte Carlo simulations provide a deep analysis on the functioning of indigenous RWHT under
5. Discussion
a wide range of possible scenarios that might be faced in Sahelian rural areas.
The
In theprincipal aim of using
case of choosing RWHT
PP, the wide is to intercept
range the rainfall
of variation and surface
of the numerical runoff
results in orderthe
highlights to
maximize the
importance availability
of field surveysof andwater for crop
sampling and to the
to evaluate minimize
correct the waterparameters
physical deficit during the entire
characterizing
growing
the site. On season [22]. In drylands,
the contrary, for HM, the where
smallfood security
sensitivity ofismodel
the first
output challenge, reducing
to the soil watermeans
parameters stress
means
that the decreasing
hydrological the probability
efficiency of crop
is mostly failure [65].
controlled by theThe results Thus,
geometry. presented
during heretheusing numerical
planning phase,
modeling
the designand Monte
is more Carlo simulations
important provide a deepofanalysis
than the characterization the site.onInthe from φI results,
functioning
fact, of indigenous
we can
RWHTthat
assert under a wide
(under therange
same of possible scenarios
hydrological conditions thatasmight be faced inones)
the simulated Sahelian
it is rural areas.to shape
preferable
RWHT In with
the case of choosing
shallower PP, the
and wider wideinstead
holes range of deeper
variation andof smaller
the numerical
holes. results
Duringhighlights
the planning the
importance of field surveys and sampling to evaluate the correct physical
phase, once the project rain has been detected, the critical volume that avoids the overfilling of RWHT parameters characterizing
the site.be
should On the contrary,
calculated for HM,
and used the small
to define sensitivity
the shape of theofoptimal
model output to thepractice.
agricultural soil parameters means
that Since
the hydrological
Sahelian countriesefficiencyareisamong
mostly thecontrolled
poorest inbythe the geometry.
world, farmers Thus,
haveduring the to
no access planning
tillage
phase, theand
machines design is more of
all phases important than theare
the cultivation characterization
handmade. Thus, of thethe site. In fact,
entity from
of the manual results,
laborwe is
can assertcorrelated
strongly that (under to the
thesame
RWHT hydrological
design. The conditions as the simulated
results showed in the previousones) itsection
is preferable to shape
show that it is
RWHTexcavating
worth with shallowerdeeperand RWHT wider
onlyholes instead
if there of deeper
is a relevant and smaller
efficiency holes. During
improvement. the planning
Especially for HM,
phase,
it would once
be the project rain
preferable has been
to choose HMdetected,
10 instead the
ofcritical
deepervolume
ponds,that savingavoids the overfilling
in that way manyof RWHT
hours of
should be
manual calculated
labor, since the and used to
volume to define the shape
dig is almost of the of
one-third optimal
HM30 .agricultural
On the contrary,practice.
making the effort
Since Sahelian
of digging countries
deeper planting areleads
pits among the poorestimprovements,
to consistent in the world, farmers harvestinghavemoreno access
waterto tillage
into the
machines
farming andand
field all promoting
phases of the soil cultivation
water storage arerecharge.
handmade. Thus, the entity of the manual labor is
strongly correlated
Comparing thetocommon
the RWHT design.
results The results
obtained in thisshowed
study within the theprevious
ones of section show work
the previous that itof is
worth excavating
Tamagnone deeper
et al. [32], it isRWHT
possible only if there is athe
to appreciate relevant
benefitsefficiency
induced improvement.
by a hydrological Especially
modeling for
HM, it would
instead of purebehydraulic
preferablemodeling.
to choose Considering
HM10 insteadthe of deeper ponds,
evaluation saving
of the in that
outlet way many
discharge hours
reduction,
of manual labor,
accounting for thesince the volume
infiltration leads to an digincrease
is almost of one-third
17% and 27% of HM . On
for30the HM theandcontrary, making the
PP configurations,
effort of digging
respectively. This deeper
means planting
that evenpits though
leads to the consistent
main roleimprovements,
is played by harvesting more water
the geometrical into
features
thethe
of farming
RWHT, field and promoting
neglecting soil water storage
the hydrological componentsrecharge.
of the water balance leads to a consistent
Comparing the common results obtained in this study with the ones of the previous work of
Tamagnone et al. [32], it is possible to appreciate the benefits induced by a hydrological modeling
instead of pure hydraulic modeling. Considering the evaluation of the outlet discharge reduction,
Water 2020, 12, 2646 16 of 23

underestimation. Therefore, future studies cannot disregard the use of a hydrological model for the
study of all processes involved in the runoff formation and propagation.
Observing the relation between parameters and the runoff coefficient, the strong correlation
between the runoff coefficient and ks,sur f ace means that is also important to treat the surface between
ponds in order to reduce the overland flow and to keep the water inside the farm field. As reported in
previous works [23,66], the improvement of soil moisture is a phenomenon spatially limited under
the pond, since the lateral transport is negligible. For this reason, the soil between the ponds is much
drier than below them. Hence, combining RWHT with other surface treatments, such as soil scarifying,
will improve the hydrological efficiency of the whole system. It will also help the recovery of grass
between the basins, for the sustenance of cattle, or the implementation of intercropping. A recent study
showed how the application of intercropping strategies lead to a greater yield as compared with the
monoculture [67].
The great usefulness of RWHT can be observed at the beginning of the rainfall season. With the
first rainfall, there is a fast increase in soil moisture making the soil more suitable to accommodate
new seeds. The higher level of soil moisture enhances the biological activity which contributes to
improving the soil structure avoiding the reduction of hydraulic conductivity [68]. The water balance
also confirms that with the use of RWHT it is not possible to extend the growing season much after
the end of the rains since the high magnitude of outflowing fluxes rapidly empty the soil water
storage. Commonly the rainy season ends at the beginning of October, however, the use of HM or
PP may guarantee a sufficient availability of water up to the end of the month. Furthermore, in such
hydrometeorological conditions, it is preferable to cultivate from the beginning of June to the mid of
September and harvest no later than the end of September.
The analysis at the two spatial scales allowed to appreciate the real effectiveness of RWHT for
agricultural purposes. For PP, the observation at the field scale produced a scarce attenuation of the
soil water stress. On the contrary, at the small scale, the results revealed that both PP configurations
lead to a soil moisture trend even higher than HM.
RWHT have their limitations in the fight against food insecurity. Their advantages mainly concern
the increase in available water for crop and overland flow management. However, they are not able
to improve the nutrient in soils that are naturally poor in organic matter. Thus, in order to increase
the crop yield, the realization of RWHT should be always followed by the addition of manure or
fertilizer [4,17]. However, altering the surface roughness and slowing overland fluxes (runoff and
wind), RWHT help to capture organic debris which provides nutrients for the natural regeneration of
shrubs and agropastoral bush-woodland [24].

6. Conclusions
Water and food scarcity are among the main problems that condition the livelihood of Sahelian
inhabitants. To cope with these threats, a growing number of farmers living in sub-Saharan drylands are
already taking advantages from the use of improved water and soil management practices. This study
exploits advanced numerical models to investigate the hydrological functioning of those RWHT locally
used in the Sahel, solving some limitations recognized in previous investigations [32]. The benefits
induced by the adoption of RWHT, such as the increment of infiltration and the reduction of crop water
stress along the growing season, were analyzed.
Our findings suggest that RWHT always enhance the hydrological efficiency of agricultural fields,
but the level of efficiency is strongly related to their design. Thus, once the location is identified,
the best design should be evaluated based on the meteorological features of that area. Furthermore,
considering the ongoing climate trend, the intensification of rainstorm should be evaluated in the
planning phase. In terms of water stress mitigation, the right design can bring the soil water deficit to
zero, maximizing the crop yield and avoiding the necessity of supplementary irrigation.
The methodology presented here could be very useful to scrupulously plan the irrigation to avoid
crop water stress, in areas where water scarcity makes the value of water even higher. The irrigation
Water 2020, 12, 2646 17 of 23

can be quantified in terms of the amount of water needed to meet the crop demand and scheduled,
introducing the right amount of water when soil water content goes below the threshold. Indeed,
maximizing the water use efficiency and avoiding the crop water stress, the crop yield increases,
approaching the food security in the Sahel. Likewise, the approach used for the evaluation of Sahelian
agricultural practices may be applied to other agricultural studies elsewhere in the world. The high
costs of in-situ studies and the increasing availability of data makes the use of numerical modeling an
effective choice that can be easily replicated for different sites.
To deeply analyze the crop life cycle, the simple formulation chosen to evaluate the potential
evapotranspiration could represent a weakness point since it does not take into account all physical and
physiological factors governing the evapotranspiration process. Notwithstanding these limitations,
it addresses a preliminary ETP calculation coping with the scarcity of data that often characterize
developing countries. Further implementations could involve more complex formulations including
more parameters such as solar radiation, humidity, and wind speed (e.g., the FAO-56 Penman–Monteith
or the Hargreaves–Samani equation).
The present study makes a step forward in the comprehensive investigation of RWHT in the
numerical modeling framework. The methodology proposed would enlarge the field of application of
hydraulic and hydrological models to ecological/agronomic context. Agro-hydrological physically
based models could be effective tools to investigate impacts of climate on the crop life cycle, its health,
and yield, without neglecting the hydrodynamics that controls the transformation from rainfall
to runoff.
In the Sahel, despite the considerable effort in embracing improved land and water management
practices, the adoption of these strategies remains too limited to lead a considerable change in Africa’s
food and environmental security. Thus, this research should encourage to scale up these practices to
make widespread the fight against food/water scarcity and environmental degradation. The present
study demonstrates that, in these contexts, it is not necessary to resort to “high-tech” solutions and
unaffordable strategies to deal with such problems. National policies should invest in the education of
farmers so that they can gain awareness of the benefits derived from appropriate practices.

Author Contributions: P.T.: methodology, analyses, elaboration of data, and writing—original draft; E.C., L.C.
and M.R.: methodology, supervision, validation, writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Water 2020, 12, 2646 18 of 23

Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23

Appendix A
Appendix A

Figure A1.
Figure A1. Geometrical
Geometrical characteristics
characteristicsofofthe
thespatial
spatialdomains
domainsused
usedforfor simulations.
simulations. AllAll measures
measures areare
in
in meters. All plots present a constant slope of 1% towards downstream. Coloring:
meters. All plots present a constant slope of 1% towards downstream. Coloring: red represents red represents the
treated surfaces
treated surfaces(tilled
(tilledareas),
areas), green
green displays
displays ridges
ridges (realized
(realized fromfrom the excavated
the excavated terrain),
terrain), yellow yellow
shows
shows
the the untreated
untreated surfacessurfaces
(crusted(crusted
areas). areas).
Water 2020, 12, 2646 19 of 23

Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23

Figure A2. Hydrographs and infiltration trends computed for the Monte Carlo simulations in the PL
Figure A2. Hydrographs and infiltration trends computed for the Monte Carlo simulations in the PL
(row a), HM30 (row b), HM20 (row c), HM10 (row d), PP20 (row e), and PP10 (row f) configurations. Red
(row a), HM30 (row b), HM20 (row c), HM10 (row d), PP20 (row e), and PP10 (row f) configurations.
solid lines are the mean discharge and mean infiltration, respectively. Red dashed lines represent the
Red solid lines are the mean discharge and mean infiltration, respectively. Red dashed lines represent
first and third quartile of the distribution. Light gray solid lines are the outcomes of each simulation.
the first and third quartile of the distribution. Light gray solid lines are the outcomes of each simulation.
Water 2020, 12, 2646 20 of 23

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