1.

7 Applications 17

(A)
Electron gun Plates for (B)
horizontal
horizont
tal deflection Plates for
– vertical deflection
–

Heated filament
(source of electrons)
s)
Cathodede Anode
+
(–) (+) +
Electron
beam

Conductive coating
Fluorescent
screen

Figure 1.17
Cathode-ray tube.

Historical
Karl Ferdinand Braun and Vladimir K. Zworykin
Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850–1918), of the University of Strasbourg,
invented the Braun cathode-ray tube in 1879. This then became the ba-
sis for the picture tube used for so many years for televisions. It is still
the most economical device today, although the price of flat-screen sys-
tems is rapidly becoming competitive. Before the Braun tube could be
used in television, it took the inventiveness of Vladimir K. Zworykin
(1889–1982) to develop the iconoscope so that the modern television
would become a reality. The iconoscope developed into the orthicon and
the image orthicon, which allowed images to be captured and converted
into signals that could be sent to the television receiver. Thus, the televi-
sion camera was born.

The electron beam in a TV picture tube carries 1015 electrons per second. Example 1.8
As a design engineer, determine the voltage Vo needed to accelerate the
electron beam to achieve 4 W.

Solution:
The charge on an electron is
e = −1.6 × 10−19 C
18 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts

If the number of electrons is n, then q = ne and

i
dq dn = (−1.6 × 10 −19)(10 15) = −1.6 × 10 −4 A
i = __ = e __
q dt dt
Vo The negative sign indicates that the current flows in a direction oppo-
Figure 1.18 site  to electron flow as shown in Fig. 1.18, which is a simplified dia-
A simplified diagram of the cathode-ray gram of the CRT for the case when the vertical deflection plates carry no
tube; for Example 1.8. charge. The beam power is
p 4
p = V oi or Vo = __ = _________ = 25,000 V
i 1.6 × 10−4

Thus, the required voltage is 25 kV.

Practice Problem 1.8 If an electron beam in a TV picture tube carries 10 13 electrons/second

and is passing through plates maintained at a potential difference of
30 kV, calculate the power in the beam.

Answer: 48 mW.

1.7.2 Electricity Bills

The second application deals with ho w an electric utility compan y
charges their customers. The cost of electricity depends upon the
amount of ener gy consumed in kilo watt-hours (kWh). (Other f actors
that affect the cost include demand and po wer factors; we will ignore
these for now.) However, even if a consumer uses no energy at all, there
is a minimum service char ge the customer must pay because it costs
money to stay connected to the po wer line. As ener gy consumption
increases, the cost per kWh drops. It is interesting to note the a ver-
age monthly consumption of household appliances for a family of five,
shown in Table 1.3.

TABLE 1.3

Typical average monthly consumption of household

appliances.
Appliance kWh consumed Appliance kWh consumed
Water heater 500 Washing machine 120
Freezer 100 Stove 100
Lighting 100 Dryer 80
Dishwasher 35 Microwave oven 25
Electric iron 15 Personal computer 12
TV 10 Radio 8
Toaster 4 Clock 2
 1.8 Problem Solving 19

A homeowner consumes 700 kWh in January. Determine the electricity Example 1.9
bill for the month using the following residential rate schedule:
Base monthly charge of $12.00.
First 100 kWh per month at 16 cents/kWh.
Next 200 kWh per month at 10 cents/kWh.
Over 300 kWh per month at 6 cents/kWh.

Solution:
We calculate the electricity bill as follows.
Base monthly charge = $12.00
First 100 kWh @ $0.16/k Wh = $16.00
Next 200 kWh @ $0.10/k Wh = $20.00
Remaining 400 kWh @ $0.06/k Wh = $24.00
Total charge = $72.00
$72
Average cost = ______________ = 10.2 cents/kWh
100 + 200 + 400

Referring to the residential rate schedule in Example 1.9, calculate the Practice Problem 1.9
average cost per kWh if only 350 kWh are consumed in July when the
family is on vacation most of the time.

Answer: 14.571 cents/kWh.

1.8 Problem Solving

Although the problems to be solved during one’s career will vary in com-
plexity and magnitude, the basic principles to be follo wed remain the
same. The process outlined here is the one developed by the authors over
many years of problem solving with students, for the solution of engi -
neering problems in industry, and for problem solving in research.
We will list the steps simply and then elaborate on them.
1. Carefully define the problem.
2. Present everything you know about the problem.
3. Establish a set of alternative solutions and determine the one that
promises the greatest likelihood of success.
4. Attempt a problem solution.
5. Evaluate the solution and check for accuracy.
6. Has the problem been solved satisfactorily? If so, present the solu-
tion; if not, then return to step 3 and continue through the process
again.
1. Carefully define the problem . This may be the most important
part of the process, because it becomes the foundation for all the rest
of the steps. In general, the presentation of engineering problems is
20 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts

somewhat  incomplete. You must do all you can to make sure you
understand the problem as thoroughly as the presenter of the problem
understands it. Time spent at this point clearly identifying the problem
will save you considerable time and frustration later. As a student, you
can clarify a problem statement in a textbook by asking your professor.
A problem presented to you in industry may require that you consult
several individuals. At this step, it is important to develop questions that
need to be addressed before continuing the solution process. If you have
such questions, you need to consult with the appropriate individuals or
resources to obtain the answers to those questions. With those answers,
you can now refine the problem, and use that refinement as the problem
statement for the rest of the solution process.
2. Present everything you know about the problem. You are now ready
to write down everything you know about the problem and its possible
solutions. This important step will save you time and frustration later.
3. Establish a set of alternative solutions and determine the one that
promises the greatest likelihood of success . Almost every problem
will have a number of possible paths that can lead to a solution. It is
highly desirable to identify as many of those paths as possible. At this
point, you also need to determine what tools are available to you, such
as PSpice and MATLAB and other software packages that can greatly
reduce effort and increase accuracy. Again, we want to stress that time
spent carefully defining the problem and investigating alternative ap-
proaches to its solution will pay big dividends later. Evaluating the al -
ternatives and determining which promises the greatest likelihood of
success may be difficult but will be well worth the effort. Document this
process well since you will want to come back to it if the first approach
does not work.
4. Attempt a problem solution. Now is the time to actually begin solv-
ing the problem. The process you follow must be well documented in
order to present a detailed solution if successful, and to evaluate the
process if you are not successful. This detailed evaluation may lead to
corrections that can then lead to a successful solution. It can also lead to
new alternatives to try. Many times, it is wise to fully set up a solution
before putting numbers into equations. This will help in checking your
results.
5. Evaluate the solution and check for accuracy. You now thoroughly
evaluate what you have accomplished. Decide if you have an acceptable
solution, one that you want to present to your team, boss, or professor.
6. Has the problem been solved satisfactorily? If so, present the solu-
tion; if not, then return to step 3 and continue through the process again.
Now you need to present your solution or try another alternative. At this
point, presenting your solution may bring closure to the process. Often,
however, presentation of a solution leads to further refinement of the
problem definition, and the process continues. Following this process
will eventually lead to a satisfactory conclusion.
Now let us look at this process for a student taking an electrical and
computer engineering foundations course. (The basic process also ap -
plies to almost e very engineering course.) K eep in mind that although
the steps have been simplified to apply to academic types of problems,
the process as stated always needs to be followed. We consider a simple
example.
 1.8 Problem Solving 21

Solve for the current flowing through the 8-Ω resistor in Fig. 1.19. Example 1.10
Solution:
1. Carefully define the problem. This is only a simple example, but we 2Ω 4Ω
can already see that we do not know the polarity on the 3-V source. We
have the following options. We can ask the professor what the polarity
5V +
– 8Ω 3V
should be. If we cannot ask, then we need to make a decision on what
to do next. If we have time to work the problem both ways, we can
solve for the current when the 3-V source is plus on top and then plus Figure 1.19
on the bottom. If we do not have the time to work it both ways, assume Illustrative example.
a polarity and then carefully document your decision. Let us assume
that the professor tells us that the source is plus on the bottom as shown
2Ω 4Ω
in Fig. 1.20.
2. Present everything you know about the problem. Presenting all that i8 Ω
we know about the problem involves labeling the circuit clearly so that 5V + –
– 8Ω + 3V
we define what we seek.
Given the circuit shown in Fig. 1.20, solve for i8Ω.
We now check with the professor , if reasonable, to see if the prob - Figure 1.20
lem is properly defined. Problem definition.
3. Establish a set of alternative solutions and determine the one that
promises the greatest likelihood of success . There are essentially three
techniques that can be used to solve this problem. Later in the text you
will see that you can use circuit analysis (using Kirchhoff’s laws and
Ohm’s law), nodal analysis, and mesh analysis.
To solve for i8Ω using circuit analysis will eventually lead to a solu-
tion, but it will likely take more work than either nodal or mesh analysis.
To solve for i8Ω using mesh analysis will require writing two simultane-
ous equations to find the two loop currents indicated in Fig. 1.21. Using
nodal analysis requires solving for only one unknown. This is the easiest
approach.

2Ω i1 i3 4Ω
v1
+v – + v4Ω –
2Ω
i2
5V + + –
– Loop 1 v8Ω Loop 2 + 3V
8Ω
–

Figure 1.21
Using nodal analysis.

Therefore, we will solve for i8Ω using nodal analysis.

4. Attempt a problem solution. We first write down all of the equations
we will need in order to find i8Ω.

v v
i8Ω = i2, i2 = __1 , i8Ω = __1
8 8

v1 − 5 ____
____ v − 0 ____
v +3
+ 1 + 1 =0
2 8 4
22 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts

Now we can solve for v1.

[
v1 − 5 ______
8 ______
2
v − 0 ______
+ 1
8
v +3
+ 1
4
=0 ]
leads to (4v1 − 20) + (v1) + (2v1 + 6) = 0
v 2 = 0.25 A
7v1 = +14, v1 = +2 V, i8Ω = __1 = __
8 8
5. Evaluate the solution and check for accuracy . We can now use
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) to check the results.
v 1 − 5 2___
i 1 = ____ = − 5 = −__ 3 = −1.5 A
2 2 2
i2 = i8Ω = 0.25 A
v1 + 3 ___
i3 = ____ = 2 + 3 = __
5 = 1.25 A
4 4 4

i1 + i2 + i3 = −1.5 + 0.25 + 1.25 = 0 (Checks.)

Applying KVL to loop 1,
−5 + v2Ω + v8Ω = −5 + (−i1 × 2) + (i2 × 8)
= −5 + [−(−1.5)2] + (0.25 × 8)
= −5 + 3 + 2 = 0 (Checks.)

Applying KVL to loop 2,

−v8Ω + v4Ω − 3 = −(i2 × 8) + (i3 × 4) − 3
= −(0.25 × 8) + (1.25 × 4) − 3
= −2 + 5 − 3 = 0 (Checks.)

So we no w have a v ery high de gree of confidence in the accuracy

of our answer.
6. Has the problem been solved satisfactorily? If so, present the solu-
tion; if not, then return to step 3 and continue through the process again.
This problem has been solved satisfactorily.

The current through the 8-Ω resistor is 0.25 A flowing down through the
8-Ω resistor.

Practice Problem 1.10 Try applying this process to some of the more difficult problems at the
end of the chapter.

1.9 Summary
1. An electric circuit consists of electrical elements connectedogether.
t
2. The International System of Units (SI) is the international mea -
surement language, which enables engineers to communicate their
results. From the se ven principal units, the units of other ph ysical
quantities can be derived.
 Review Questions 23

3. Current is the rate of char ge flow past a gi ven point in a gi ven

direction.
dq
i = ___
dt
4. Voltage is the ener gy required to mo ve 1 C of char ge from a refer -
ence point (−) to another point (+).
dw
vab = ___
dq
5. Power is the energy supplied or absorbed per unit time. It is also the
product of voltage and current.
dw = vi
p = ___
dt
6. According to the passi ve sign con vention, power assumes a posi -
tive sign when the current enters the positive polarity of the voltage
across an element.
7. An ideal v oltage source produces a specific potential difference
across its terminals re gardless of what is connected to it. An ideal
current source produces a specific current through its terminals
regardless of what is connected to it.
8. Voltage and current sources can be dependent or independent. A
dependent source is one whose value depends on some other circuit
variable.
9. Two areas of application of the concepts covered in this chapter are
the TV picture tube and electricity billing procedure.

Review Questions
1.1 One millivolt is one millionth of a volt. 1.8 The voltage across a 1.1-kW toaster that produces a
current of 10 A is:
(a) True (b) False
(a) 11 kV (b) 1100 V (c) 110 V (d) 11 V
1.2 The prefix micro stands for:
1.9 Which of these is not an electrical quantity?
(a) 106 (b) 103 (c) 10−3 (d) 10−6
(a) charge (b) time (c) voltage
1.3 The voltage 2,000,000 V can be expressed in powers
(d) current (e) power
of 10 as:
1.10 The dependent source in Fig. 1.22 is:
(a) 2 mV (b) 2 kV (c) 2 MV (d) 2 GV
(a) voltage-controlled current source
1.4 A charge of 2 C flowing past a given point each
(b) voltage-controlled voltage source
second is a current of 2 A.
(c) current-controlled voltage source
(a) True (b) False (d) current-controlled current source
1.5 The unit of current is:
io
(a) coulomb (b) ampere
(c) volt (d) joule vs + 6io
–
1.6 Voltage is measured in:
(a) watts (b) amperes
(c) volts (d) joules per second Figure 1.22
For Review Question 1.10.
1.7 A 4-A current charging a dielectric material will
accumulate a charge of 24 C after 6 s. Answers: 1.1b, 1.2d, 1.3c, 1.4a, 1.5b, 1.6c, 1.7a, 1.8c,
(a) True (b) False 1.9b, 1.10d.