Ithmc Conference Proceedings Book v2

ITHMC
International Tourism and Hospitality Management Conference

Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
30 September - 4 October 2015
BOOK OF
PROCEEDINGS
BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS
INTERNATIONAL TOURISM AND
HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT CONFERENCE
(Sarajevo, 30th September – 4th October 2015)
INTERNATIONAL TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
CONFERENCE
PUBLISHER: FACULTY OF SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF SARAJEVO
CHAIRS OF THE CONFERENCE

Prof. Dr. Rifat Škrijelj – University of Sarajevo
Prof. Dr. A. Akın Aksu – Akdeniz University
MEMBERS OF SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Prof. Dr. Rifat Škrijelj / University of Sarajevo (Co-Chair of the conference)
Prof. Dr. A. Akın Aksu / Akdeniz University (Co-Chair of the conference)
Prof. Dr. Ana Vovk Korţe / University of Maribor / SLOVENIA
Prof. Dr. Anton Gosar / University of Primorska / SLOVENIA
Prof. Dr. Dimitrios Buhalis / Bournemouth University / UK
Prof. Dr. Doğan Gürsoy Washington State University / USA
Prof. Dr. Fevzi Okumuş / Rosen College / USA
Prof. Dr. Guy M. Robinson / University of South Australia / AUSTRALIA
Prof. Dr. İge Pırmar / Yaşar University / TURKEY
Prof. Dr. İrfan Arıkan / FH Krems University / AUSTRIA
Prof. Dr. Jasmina Osmanković / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Prof. Dr. Jean-Pierre Van Der Rest / Hotelschool The Hague / NETHERLANDS
Prof. Dr. Levent Altınay / Oxford Brookes University / UK
Prof. Dr. Lučka Lorber / University of Maribor / SLOVENIA
Prof. Dr. Luiz Moutinho / University of Glasgow / UK
Prof. Dr. Muzaffer Uysal / Virginia Polytechnic University / USA
Prof. Dr. Nevenka Čavlek / University of Zagreb / CROATIA
Prof. Dr. Rahman Nurković / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Prof. Dr. Snjeţana Musa / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Prof. Dr. Vesna Babić – Hodović / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA
Prof. Dr. Yasue Ohe / Chiba University / JAPAN
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Samir Đug / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nusret Drešković / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Vuk Tvrtko Opačić / University of Zagreb / CROATIA
Assist. Prof. Dr. Alma Pobrić / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ranko Mirić / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ševkija Okerić / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA
Assist. Prof. Dr. Senada Nezirović / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA
Assist. Prof. Dr. Yıldırım Yılmaz / Akdeniz University / TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Miha Koderman / University of Primorska / SLOVENIA
MEMBERS OF REVIEW COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Alev Dundar / Anadolu Universitesi / TURKEY
Prof. Dr. İrfan Arıkan / FH Krems University / AUSTRIA
Prof. Dr. Rahman Nurković / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Prof. Dr. Snjeţana Musa / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Prof. Dr. Vesna Babić – Hodović / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA
Prof. Dr. Zainab Bte Khalifah / Universiti Teknologi / MALAYSIA
Prof. Dr. Ţeljka Šiljković / University of Zadar / CROATIA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Almir Peštek / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Branislav Drašković / University of East Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Elisabeth Valle / Universitat de les Illes Balears / SPAIN
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Maria Tugores / Universitat de les Illes Balears / SPAIN
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nusret Drešković / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Samir Đug / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Vuk Tvrtko Opačić / University of Zagreb / CROATIA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Yildrim Yilmaz/ Akdeniz University / TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Alma Pobrić / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Assist. Prof. Dr. Miha Koderman / University of Primorska / SLOVENIA
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ranko Mirić / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Assist. Prof. Dr. Senada Nezirović / University of Sarajevo / BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA
Assist. Prof. Dr. Senem Yazici / Antalya International University / TURKEY
MEMBERS OF THE ORGANIZATION COMMITTEE

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nusret Drešković, Assist. Prof. Dr. Ranko Mirić, Senior teaching assistant
Edin Hrelja, Senior teaching assistant Haris Gekić, Teaching assistant Amra Banda,
Teaching assistant Boris Avdić, Teaching assistant Amina Sivac, Hana Šarkinović - Zenith
Group Sarajevo, Musa Köse - Zenith Group Sarajevo, Ismet Uzun - Zenith Group Sarajevo
TECHNICAL EDITORS
Senior teaching assistant Edin Hrelja, Teaching assistant Amina Sivac, Teaching assistant
Boris Avdić, Teaching assistant Amra Banda, Senior teaching assistant Haris Gekić
EDITOR IN CHIEF
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nusret Drešković
Printing: 200 copies
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CIP - Katalogizacija u publikaciji

Nacionalna i univerzitetska biblioteka
Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo
338.48(497.6)(063)(082)
INTERNATIONAL Tourism and Hospitality Management

Conference (2015 ; Sarajevo)
Book of proceedings / International Tourism
and Hospitality Management Conference,
(Sarajevo, 30th September-4th October 2015). -
Sarajevo : Faculty of Science, 2016. –
621 str. : ilustr. ; 25 cm
Bibliografija uz pojedina poglavlja i uz tekst.
ISBN 978-9958-592-75-1
COBISS.BH-ID 22897414
This publication was approved by the decision of the Dean of the Faculty of Science
University of Sarajevo, number 01 / 01-285 / 2-2016 from 03.02.2016.
This Proceedings
Partial or integralbook, or parts thereof,
reproduction of thismay not be reproduced
Proceedings book is inforbidden
any formwithout
without
the permission of the publisher.
permission of the publisher.
CONTENTS
PREFACE.............................................................................................................................1
ORGANIZING THE CONFERENCE..................................................................................3
PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT OF CONFERENCE.................................................21
PLENARY PAPERS...........................................................................................................23
SESSION: PROTECTED AREAS, TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT..........................39
SESSION: URBAN TOURISM AND CULTURAL HERITAGE................................... 91
SESSION: HOSPITALITY, TOURISM MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING...........223
SESSION: SUSTAINABLE TOURISM, TOURISM PLANNING AND REGIONAL
DEVELOPMENT..............................................................................................................443
PREFACE
International Tourism and Hospitality Management Conference (ITHMC 2015) organized

by Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Akdeniz
University and with the technical support of Zenith Group Sarajevo, was held from
September 30 to October 4, 2015 in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The Conference brought together leading academic scientists and researchers to exchange
and share their experiences and scientific research results, ideas and applications about all
the aspects of Tourism Science and Hospitality Management. Tourism science is both
fundamental and an applicative science, so representatives from the economy, hotel
industry, tourist agencies, as well as government representatives attended the
conference. ITHMC 2015 included various themes and sub-themes so it was interesting for
different attendees from various science and economy fields.
In addition to the Conference scientific sessions, Conference participants had the

opportunity to visit small part of our tourism attractions through out several field trips.
ITHMC 2015 will be the oncoming event of the successful Conference series focusing on
Tourism Science and Hospitality Management.
Organization Committee
1
2
ORGANIZING INTERNATIONAL TOURISM AND
HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT CONFERENCE
3
4
5
ADDRESS BY THE DEAN PROF. DR. RIFAT ŠKRIJELJ – UNIVERSITY OF
SARAJEVO
Dear Minister of Education and Science of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, dear
rectors, dear deans, dear participants of the conference, dear guests, ladies and gentlemen,
it is my pleasure to welcome you to the International Tourism and Hospitality Management

Conference, which is organized by the Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo and the
Faculty of Tourism of Akdeniz University from Turkey, with the organizational and
technical support of Zenith Group. Before I say more about the conference itself, I want to
greet and thank in particular the following:
• Prof. Dr. Akin Aksu, dean of the Faculty of Tourism, Akdeniz University in
Turkey,
• Mr. Ahmet Salih Cans, director of Turkish Airlines company in Bosnia and
Herzegovina,
• Prof. Dr. Redţo Čausević, President of Green Crescent Society and a professor at
the Faculty of Health Studies, University of Sarajevo,
• Prof. Dr. Dogan Gursoy, keynote speaker from Washington State University,
• Prof. Dr. Anton Gosar, keynote speaker from the Faculty of Tourism Turistica
from University of Primorska, Koper,
• Members of the Scientific and Organization Committee of the conference, led by
the Head of the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Science, University of
Sarajevo, prof. dr. Nusret Drešković and
• Zenith group for the technical support in the organization of this conference.
I also want to welcome our dear guests:
• Prof. dr. Faruk Mekić, Vice-Rector for Scientific/Artistic Research of the

University of Sarajevo
• Prof. dr. Mirsad Veladţić, Rector of the University of Bihać,
• Prof. dr. Sead Pašić, Rector of the University Dţemal Bijedić in Mostar,
• Prof. dr. Kasim Bajrović, Institute for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology at
the University of Sarajevo,
• Prof. dr. Muhamed Brka, vice-dean for international relations at the Faculty of
Agriculture and Food Sciences at the University of Sarajevo,
who took the time and supported the organization of this conference with their presence.
As one of the chairmen of this scientific conference and as the Dean of the Faculty of
Science, I want to express my great pleasure that the successful cooperation between the
Faculty of Tourism of Akdeniz University and the Faculty of Science of University of
Sarajevo has began. I hope that it will be continued through the academic exchange of
students and faculty staff of our faculties, and through the joint implementation of future
projects in tourism.
This conference is specifically important if we take into account that one of the strategic
development guidelines of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the development of tourism and the
6
tourism industry. The Faculty of Science has recognized the importance of the tourism
industry, and in accordance to that, the Department of Geography established an
orientation of Tourism and Environmental Protection in the academic year 2005/06. It has
been proved already that Bosnia and Herzegovina has a remarkable potential for tourism
development, because it has a very attractive natural and cultural resources, which are the
foundation for the intensive development of the tourism industry. However, in recent
years, it turned out that an access to an adequate evaluation of new and the re-evaluation of
existing resources is needed. Taking these trends into account, the teaching staff of the
Department of Geography is working intensively for a decade on improving existing and
developing new methodological concepts in the area of effective evaluation of tourism
resources and the related intensification of tourism development in Bosnia and
Herzegovina. In this context, this is the main goal of organization and holding of this
conference, whose results certainly contribute to the improvement of the tourism industry
in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the development of tourism science in general.
Unfortunately, time will not permit me a more detailed introduction of the conference and
the program, but I think it is sufficient to say that we will have the pleasure of attending the
presentations of more than 70 scientific papers, with the participation of more than 100
eminent scientists from a number of different countries.
I will conclude this brief speech by thanking to all of you who made an effort to be part of
this very important event for us. I'm sure that after the conference you will be enriched for
a new experiences and knowledge in the field of tourism, and that you will become
familiar with the rich natural, cultural and historical heritage of Bosnia and Herzegovina
and Sarajevo.
I wish you all a successful work and a pleasant stay in Sarajevo.

Thank you.
7
OCTOBER 1, 2015
HALL 1 HALL 2
TITLE AUTHOR(S) TITLE AUTHOR(S)
SESSION - I - MODERATORS: Tamara Ratz and Alma Pobrid SESSION - I - MODERATORS: Almir Peštek and Lejla Turulja
SID An Experience-Based Typology for Natural Martinette Kruger, SID The Strong Role of Turkish Tourism in the World and its Effect
11:20 Ibrahim Baş
60 Event Tourists Melville Saayman 221 on Health Tourism
Elricke van Loggerenberg,

SID Clustering Kruger National Park Visitors Based SID Economic Impact of Tourism Receipts , Tourism Incentives:
11:35 Melville Saayman, Neslihan Gencer
138 on Interpretation 224 Kosgeb and Eximbank Sample
Martinette Kruger
SID SID A Research upon the Sustainable Nature-Based Tourism:Case Mehmet Keskin, Orhan
11:50 Hunting Tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina Rahman Nurkovid
143 120 of Western Black Sea Region of Turkey Akova
SID Flood Management in Bosnia And SID Vernacular Regions as a Determinant for Development of Snježana Musa, Željka
8
12:05 Branislav Draškovid

376 Herzegovina: Role of Remote Sensing and GIS 140 Creative Tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina Šiljkovid, Azra Čelik
SID Hunting Tourism Development in the Tuzla SID

12:20 Senada Nezirovid Role of Tax Incentives in Tourism Economy Sultan Erge
165 Canton 225
Determining the Economic Significance of Lion

SID Jauntelle Els, Peet van der SID Tourism Police for Tourism Security in Bosnia and
12:35 Breeding in the Private Wildlife Tourism Mehmet Murat Payam
171 Merwe, Melville Saayman 52 Herzegovina
Sector
13:00 Lunch Break (Only for Blue, Green, Yellow Package Participants)
SESSION - 2 - MODERATORS: Branislav Draškovid and Haris Gekid SESSION - 2 - MODERATORS: Snježana Musa and Željka Šiljkovid
Thermal Mineral Water as a Natural Potential

SID Mevlida Operta, Amra SID The Application of GIS in Tourism Planning and Sustainable
14:30 for the Development of Spa Tourism in Bosnia Alma Pobrid, Amina Sivac
230 Banda 222 Tourism Development
and Herzegovina
Edin Hrelja, Nusret Madelien Ferreira,
SID Geoecological Evaluation of Terrain in SID A Critical Assessment of Sport Participants at Endurance Sport
14:45 Dreškovid, Ranko Mirid, Martinette Kruger,
237 National Park Una 63 Events in South Africa
Boris Avdid Melville Saayman
Above-ground biomass spatial variability

Azra Dabaravdid, Merisa
SID mapping based on forest inventory, spectral SID
15:00 Osmanovid, Galib Awareness, Interest and Demand in Niche Tourism in Hungary Tamara Ratz
257 and environmental data on forested protected 152
Mahmutovid, Sanela Mulid
landscape in the north-east Bosnia
The Potentials for Tourism Development in the Municipality

SID An Overview of the Environmental Impacts of SID Dario Šakid, Miranda
15:15 Neslihan Dal of Bugojno Based on the Hillary Du Cross Method of
267 Coastal Tourism and Sustainability 226 Čaveliš
Valorization
SID SID Sustainability Metrics: Measuring Sustainable Development Elma Šatrovid, Ensar
15:30 On Climate Change Alarmism in Tourism Amir Shani
299 150 for Tourism Šehid
Susanna Cornelia
SID Perceived Success Criteria of the FNB Wines-2- SID Efficiency Level in the Training Application of Tourism İnci Zeynep, Özonay
15:45 Pretorius, JJ Prinsloo, Erika
9
41 Whales Mountain Bike Events in South Africa 252 Education at Undergraduate Level Böcük, Mune Moğol
Fourie, Johan Kriegler
16:00 Coffee Break

SESSION - 3 - MODERATORS: Amir Shani and Amra Banda SESSION - 3 - MODERATORS: Ranko Mirid and Boris Avdid
The Comparative Dynamic Analysis of

SID SID The Significance of Urban History for Urban Tourism Research
16:20 Touristic Activities Between Turkey and the Tahsin Karabulut Funda Songur
58 212 and Practices: The Case of Bursa
Balkan States
The Analysis of Relations Between Control and

SID SID Translator’s Role and Contribution to the Cultural Heritage
16:35 Learning Behavior in Organizations Through Güzin Kiyik Kicir Pelin Sulha
251 213 Tourism
Structural Equation Modeling
Determining Management Qualifications of

SID Mune Moğol, İnci Zeynep, SID Urban Tourism and Cultural Tourism in the Context of Belief İbrahim Hakkı Kaynak,
16:50 Tourism Graduate Student for Managerial
293 Özonay Böcük 61 Tourism: Konya Sample Tahsin Karabulut
Positions: Anadolu University Tourism Faculty
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SID Financial Problems of Small and Medium-Sized Onder Met, Ismail Mert, SID Contributions of Countryside Restaurants to Rural Tourism: A Özcan Zorlu, Ali Avan,
17:05
67 Lodging Enterprises: A Research in Marmaris Ozdemir 77 Managerial Perspective Seyhmus Demircan
Do Memorial Sites from the Second World War Possess

SID SID Snježana Musa, Jasenka
17:20 How Competitive are South African Prices? E. Du Plessis, M. Saayman Potential for Tourism Development - Examples from Croatia
72 134 Kranjčevid, Dario Šakid
and Bosnia and Herzegovina
SID Competition Strategy at SMEs: A Model SID Conversion of Former Industrial Ports into Tourist Attractions.
17:35 Ahmet Diken Daniel Barrera-Fernandez
158 Suggestion for Tourism Enterprises 86 Has Integration Been Achieved?
The Evaluation of Urban Aesthetics Tülay Polat Üzümcü, Ersin

SID SID An Investigate in Turkish Hotel Enterprises Regarding Raif Parlakkaya, Halil
17:50 Perspective of Tourism : A Case Study of Uğurkan, Ömür Alyakut,
272 131 Awareness of Revenue Management and ItsApplications Akmeşe, Ersin Arıkan
Bosnia and Herzegovina Aysun Çelik, Emrah Özkul
SID Evaluation of the Cultural Heritage Source in the Destination Bilge Doganli, Ismail Mert
18:05
177 Branding, the Case of Karacasu District Ozdemir, Esra Aksoy
18:00 Poster Presentations

19:00 Dinner (Only for Blue and Green Package Participants) Meeting in the Hotel Lobby
10
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OCTOBER 2, 2015
HALL 1 HALL 2
TITLE AUTHOR(S) TITLE AUTHOR(S)

SESSION - IV - MODERATORS: Branislav Draškovid and Amina Sivac SESSION - IV - MODERATORS: Ismir Bradid and Amra Banda
Inclusion of Local Foods at Menus of Hotels

SID Oya Yildirim, Oya Berkay SID Can Community-Based Rural Tourism Survive in Super-Ageing
9:00 and Restaurants Operating in Adana and Yasuo Ohe
291 Karaca, A. Celil Çakici 197 Society? Evidence from Japan
Mersin
SID Changing Tourism Marketing Strategy of SID South-Eastern Europe's Tourism In Time And Space
9:15 Nurdan Tümbek Tekeoglu Anton Gosar
102 Turkey for the Last 10 Years 361 Retrospective
9:30 Changes in Pattern of Second Home Development in

SID Evaluation Factor of Hospitality in a Sarajevo SID Vuk Tvrtko Opačid, Miha
11
Lejla Žunid Countries Arising From Socialist Federal Republic of

153 Tourism Destination 111 Koderman
Yugoslavia
Securing Hotel Guests’ Satisfaction: The Bahattin Ozdemir, Ayla

SID Kivanc Inelmen, Burcin SID The Impact of Chefs’ National Cuisine Perceptions on Their
9:45 Impacts of Employees’ Trust, Satisfaction and Aydin, Osman Caliskan
62 Hatipoglu 216 Intention to Purchase Local Food
Participation Gokhan Yilmaz
The Mediation Role of Employee

SID SID Environmental and Non-Environmental Innovations, Hotel Elisabeth Valle, María
10:00 Empowerment Practices in the Effect of Stress Yasar Sari, Ali Dogantekin
64 84 Occupancy and Regional Growth Tugores
to Intention to Leave in Hospitality Business
Ranko Mirid, Nusret

SID The Impact of Typical Recovery Practice Used Vedat İyitoğlu, G. Nilüfer SID Regional and Local Hazards in Tourism - Case Study of
10:15 Dreškovid, Edin Hrelja,
74 in Oversold Room on Turkish Guests. Tetik 236 Minefields in Protected Areas of Canton of Sarajevo
Boris Avdid
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Is Employer Branding a Challenge for High-
SID Marlena A. Bednarska, SID Gender Effect in Human Resources Policies: A Descriptive
10:30 Contact Service Industries? Insights from the Ebru Tarcan İçigen
75 Marcin Olszewski 218 Study in Hospitality Industry
Hospitality Sector in Poland
11:00 Coffee Break
SESSION - V - MODERATORS: Alma Pobrid and Miha Koderman SESSION - V - Vesna Babid-Hodovid and Martinette Kruger
İrfan Özcan, Emine Determination of Tourism Activities of the World’s Best M. Oğuzhan İlban,
SID SID
11:20 The Evaluation of Medical Tourism Services Erdurü, Metin Ateş, Tourism Destinations With Multi-Criteria Decision Making Mehmet Kaşli, Hasan
90 254
Ertuğrul Tarcan Method Hüseyin Yildirim
The Effects of Team – and Customer-Member

SID SID Proposals for Development of Sustainable Rural Tourism in
11:35 Exchange on Employee Servcice Performance Mahn Hee Yoon Yusuf Gurcinar
175 350 Villages of Bolkar Mountain, Example of Madenköy
in Korean Hotel Restaurants
Ali Avan, Murat Toker, Investigating the Impact of the Age, Gender, Years Learning Zahra Naimie,
SID Management of On-Line Sales Channels at SID
11:50 Özcan Zorlu, Ahmet English and Parents’ Educational Background on Learning Norasmatul Akma, Rana
210 Hotels: Channel Manager Syste 247
Baytok Styles Preferences Abuzaid
Planned Development of Tourism in Tuzla Are University Employees Ready to be an “Intrapreneur”? A

12
12:05 SID SID

Canton as a Factor of Regional Development Senada Nezirovid New Perspective of Strategic Human Resources for Senem Yazici
166 294
in Northeast Bosnia Universities
SID Health Tourism in Turkey: A Study on Paper SID Definition, Types, Sustainabilty and Relation of Tourism With
12:20 Emel Istar Emine Patan, Işık Sezen
194 News 250 Environment, Landscape Planning And Recreation
Destination Management Companies (DMC) The Development of Sports, Recreation and Adventure
SID SID
12:35 in Croatia and Their Impact on the Reduction Maja Donadid Tourism in Tourist-Geographical Regions of Bosnia and Aida Bidžan, Haris Gekid
235 119
of Seasonality Herzegovina
13:00 Lunch Break (Only for Blue, Green, Yellow Package Participants)
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SESSION - VI - MODERATORS: Zainab Khalifah and Amina Sivac SESSION - VI - MODERATORS: Funda Songur and Vuk Tvrtko Opačid
The Effects of E-Commerce Application on Cihan Seçilmiş, Burhan SID Cultural Heritage of the Una National Park, Unseparable Part Ševkija Okerid, Aida
14:30 SID 55
Travel Agencies and Employee Performance Sevim, Barış Yilmaz 92 from the Tourism Development Korjenid
Armand Viljoen, Melville

SID City Break Tourism – Case Study of Sarajevo Alma Pobrid, Amra Banda, SID Mild or Mature? A Motivation-Based Typology of Culinary
14:45 Saayman, Martinette
195 and Mostar Amina Sivac 68 Tourists
Kruger
SID Hard Model of HRM in Organizations: A Beyhan Aksoy, Medine SID War locations and war museums as tourist scenes in Bosnia
15:00 Ismir Bradid
258 Research in Five Star Hotels in Antalya Ateş 419 and Herzegovina - the example of Sarajevo
SID An Approach to Culinary Tourism SID Is Conservation of Cultural Properties a Tool of Tourism
15:15 Alev Dündar N. Gul Asatekin
266 Development in Turkey 214 Hospitality?
15:30
Comparison of Leadership Styles at Domestic
SID Mustafa Kurt, Elif Tuba SID A Research About Revenue Management Awareness And Raif Parlakkaya , Halil
and Foreign Hotels a Study About Hotel
13
270 Beydilli, Özcan Zorlu 424 Applications In Turkish Hotel Industry Akmeşe , Ersin Arıkan
Chains Operating in Turkey
Evaluation of Urban Aesthetics From the Tülay Polat Üzümcü, Aysun Sustainable development and greening the economy in
SID SID
15:45 Aspect of Tourism: The Bosnia-Herzegovina Çelik, Emrah Özkul, Ersin transition countries in SE Europe: Case Study of Bosnia and Melika Arifhodzic
436 73
Example Uğurkan Herzegovina
16:00 Coffee Break

SESSION - VII - Maja Donadid and Nusret Dreškovid SESSION - VII - MODERATORS: Ranko Mirid and Boris Avdid
Climate Impact on Origin and Tourism Valorisation of

SID Revitalising Community-Based Tourism - Nor Haniza Mohamad, SID
16:20 Traditional Urban Architecture in Bosnia&Herzegovina and Belmar Begid
279 Critical Success Factors Zainab Khalifah 223
Croatia
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SID Evaluation of Tourism Potential in Dogankent SID Aspects Influencing the Cognitive, Affective and Conative Elmarie Slabbert, Svenya
16:35 Işık Sezen, Emine Patan
246 District in Giresun 248 Images of an Arts Festival Martin
SID Absence of Rate Parity and its Consequences SID Development of specific forms of tourism in Mostar, West
16:50 Naci Polat Aida Bidžan, Haris Gekid
316 in Hotel Industry 387 Herzegovina and Travnik tourist-geographic regions
Bianca Manners,
SID The Treatment is Within the Disease: Tourism SID Creating a Memorable Live Music Performance Experience
17:05 Irfan Arikan Martinette Kruger,
337 Paradox, Tourism Equinox and Tourism Detox 187 at Different Venues in South Africa
Melville Saayman
SID Impact of online travel agencies on hotel Almir Peštek, Lejla Ahmid, SID The Effect of Hotels' Training on Overnights, Regional Maria Tugores, Elisabeth
17:20
369 business in Bosnia and Herzegovina Lejla Turulja 71 Employment and Growth Valle
Investigation of Altruistic Value Perception of

SID Öznur Bozkurt, Murat
17:35 Tourists That Impact on the Environment-
368 Göral, Funda Kul
Friendly Behavior
18:00 Poster Presentations

14
19:00 GALA Dinner (Only for Blue, Green, Yellow Package Participants) Meeting in the Hotel Lobby
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document or 6 the summary
CONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS
Name and Surname Institution Country
1. Rifat Škrijelj University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
2. A. Akın Aksu Akdeniz University Turkey
3. Ana Vovk Korţe University of Maribor Slovenia
4. Anton Gosar University of Primorska Slovenia
5. Dimitrios Buhalis Bournemouth University United Kingdom
6. Doğan Gürsoy Washington State University United States of America
7. Fevzi Okumuş Rosen College United States of America
8. Guy M. Robinson University of South Australia Australia
9. İge Pırmar Yaşar University Turkey
10. İrfan Arıkan FH Krems University Austria
11. Jasmina Osmanković University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
12. Jean-Pierre Van Der Rest Hotelschool The Hague Netherlands
13. Levent Altınay Oxford Brookes University United Kingdom
14. Lučka Lorber University of Maribor Slovenia
15. Luiz Moutinho University of Glasgow United Kingdom
16. Muzaffer Uysal Virginia Polytechnic University United States of America
17. Nevenka Čavlek University of Zagreb Croatia
18. Rahman Nurković University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
19. Snjeţana Musa University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina
20. Vesna Babić – Hodović University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
21. Yasue Ohe Chiba University Japan
22. Samir Đug University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
23. Nusret Drešković University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
24. Vuk Tvrtko Opačić University of Zagreb Croatia
25. Alma Pobrić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
26. Ranko Mirić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
27. Ševkija Okerić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
28. Senada Nezirović University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
29. Yıldırım Yılmaz Akdeniz University Turkey
30. Miha Koderman University of Primorska Slovenia
31. Amra Banda University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
32. Amina Sivac University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
33. Edin Hrelja University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
34. Haris Gekić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
35. Boris Avdić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
36. Mevlida Operta University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
37. Aida Korjenić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
38. Lejla Ţunić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
39. Aida Bidţan University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
40. Azra Čelik University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
41. Belmar Begić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
15
42. Ismir Bradić IBTN GmbH Germany
43. Amela Gurda University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
44. Gorana Matuh University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
45. Arijana Ibrović University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
46. Samra Softić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
47. Elvedina Kadrić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
48. Senka Barudanović University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
49. Ermin Mašić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
50. Elma Satrović University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
51. Ensar Šehić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
52. Almir Peštek University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
53. Lejla Turulja University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
54. Lejla Ahmić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
55. Azra Čabaravdić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
56. Merisa Osmanović University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
57. Galib Mahmutović University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
58. Sanela Mulić University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
59. Dario Šakić University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina
60. Miranda Čaveliš University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina
61. Martinette Kruger North West University South Africa
62. Melville Saayman North West University South Africa
Elricke van
63. North West University South Africa
Loggerenberg
64. Branislav Drašković University of East Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
65. Jauntelle Els North West University South Africa
66. Peet van der Merwe North West University South Africa
67. Neslihan Dal Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Turkey
68. Amir Shani Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Israel
Susanna Cornelius
69. North West University South Africa
Pretorius
70. JJ Prinsloo Zayteho Trading (Pty) South Africa
71. Erika Fourie - South Africa
72. Johan Kriegler - South Africa
73. Funda Songur Uludağ University Turkey
74. Pelin Sulha Dokuz Eylul University Turkey
75. İbrahim Hakkı Kaynak Necmettin Erbakan University Turkey
76. Tahsin Karabulut Necmettin Erbakan University Turkey
77. Özcan Zorlu Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Turkey
78. Ali Avan Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Turkey
79. Seyhmus Demircan Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Turkey
80. Jasenka Kranjčević Institute for Tourism Croatia
Daniel Barrera- University of Guanajuato
81. Mexico
Fernandez
82. Raif Parlakkaya Necmettin Erbakan University Turkey
16
83. Halil Akmeşe Selcuk University Turkey
84. Ersin Arıkan - Turkey
85. Bilge Doganli Adnan Menderes University Turkey
86. Ismail Mert Ozdemir Adnan Menderes University Turkey
87. Esra Aksoy Adnan Menderes University Turkey
88. Armand Viljoen North West University South Africa
89. N. Gül Asatekin Kemerburgaz University Turkey
90 Elmarie Slabbert North West University South Africa
91. Svenya Martin North West University South Africa
92. Bianca Manners North West University South Africa
93. Maria Tugores University of the Balearic Islands Spain
94. Elisabeth Valle University of the Balearic Islands Spain
95. Güzin Kiyik Kicir Anadolu University Turkey
96. Mune Moğol Anadolu University Turkey
97. İnci Zeynep Anadolu University Turkey
98. Özonay Böcük Anadolu University Turkey
99. Onder Met Adnan Menderes University Turkey
100. Ahmet Diken Necmettin Erbakan University Turkey
101. Tülay Polat Üzümcü Koceali University Turkey
102. Ersin Uğurkan Koceali University Turkey
103. Ömür Alyakut Koceali University Turkey
104. Aysun Çelik Koceali University Turkey
105. Emrah Özkul Koceali University Turkey
106. Oya Yildirim Çukurova University Turkey
107. Oya Berkay Karaca - Turkey
108. A. Celil Çakici - Turkey
Nurdan Tümbek
109. Beykent Üniversitesi Turkey
Tekeoglu
110. Kivanc Inelmen Bogazici University Turkey
111. Burcin Hatipoglu Bogazici University Turkey
112. Yasar Sari Eskisehir Osmangazi University Turkey
113. Ali Dogantekin Eskisehir Osmangazi University Turkey
114. Vedat İyitoğlu Mersin University Turkey
115. G. Nilüfer Tetik Mersin University Turkey
116. Marlena A. Bednarska Poznan University of Economics Poland
117. Marcin Olszewski Poznan University of Economics Poland
118. Irfan Özcan Akedniz University Turkey
119. Emine Erdurü Akedniz University Turkey
120. Metin Ateş Akedniz University Turkey
121. Ertuğrul Tarcan Akedniz University Turkey
122. Mahn Hee Yoon Daeugu University Republic of Korea
123. Murat Toker Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey
124. Ahmet Baytok Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey
125. Emel Istar Düzce Üniversity Turkey
17
126. Maja Donadić Petros d.o.o. Croatia
127. Cihan Seçilmiş Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Turkey
128. Burhan Sevim Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Turkey
129. Barış Yilmaz Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Turkey
130. Beyhan Aksoy Akdeniz University Turkey
131. Medine Ateş Akdeniz University Turkey
132. Alev Dündar Anadolu University Turkey
133. Mustafa Kurt Dumlupınar University Turkey
134. Elif Tuba Beydili Dumlupınar University Turkey
135. Özcan Zorlu Dumlupınar University Turkey
136. Nor Haniza Mohamad Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
137. Zainab Khalifah Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
138. Işık Sezen Atatürk University Turkey
139. Naci Polat Pamukkale University Turkey
FH KREMS, University of Applied
140. Ilker Ünsever Austria
Sciences
141. Öznur Bozkurt Düzce University Turkey
142. Murat Göral Düzce University Turkey
143. Ibrahim Baş Selcuk University Turkey
144. Neslihan Gencer Selcuk University Turkey
145. Mehmet Keskin Sinop Universitesi Turkey
146. Orhan Akova Sinop Universitesi Turkey
147. Ţeljka Šiljković University of Zadar Croatia
148. Sultan Erge Selcuk University Turkey
149. Mehmet Murat Payam Adıyaman University Turkey
150. Madelien Ferreira North West University South Africa
Kodolanyi Janos University of Applied
151. Tamara Ratz Hungary
Sciences
152. Bahattin Ozdemir Akdeniz University Turkey
153. Ayla Aydin Akdeniz University Turkey
154. Osman Caliskan Akdeniz University Turkey
155. Gokhan Yilmaz Akdeniz University Turkey
156. Ebru Tarcan İçigen Akdeniz University Turkey
157. M. Oğuzhan İlban Balikesir University Turkey
158. Mehmet Kaşli Balikesir University Turkey
159. Hasan Hüseyin Yildirim Balikesir University Turkey
160. Yusuf Gurcinar Işık University Turkey
161. Zahra Naimie University of Malaya Malaysia
162. Norasmatul Akma University of Malaya Malaysia
163. Rana Abuzaid University of Malaya Malaysia
164. Senem Yazıcı International Antalya University Turkey
165. Emine Patan İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Turkey
166. Melika Arifhodţić Tourism Board of FBiH Bosnia and Herzegovina
167. Zuhdija Dizdarević University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
18
168 Kadir Öztaş Selçuk Üniversitesi Akşehir Turkey
169. Gülçin Çelik Atatürk University Turkey
170. Emir Canatan Atatürk University Turkey
171. Gül Şimşek Atatürk University Turkey
172. Başak Aytatlı Atatürk University Turkey
173. Stevo Pašalić University of East Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
174. Darko Pašalić University of East Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
19
20
PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL
TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
CONFERENCE
21
22
PLENARY PAPER
SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE'S TOURISM IN TIME AND SPACE RETROSPECTIVE - AN INSIDER'S

VIEW .................................................................................................................................... 25
23
24
SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE'S TOURISM IN TIME AND SPACE
RETROSPECTIVE - AN INSIDER'S VIEW
Anton Gosar1
Abstract: South-Eastern Europe was, at the beginning of the modern-day tourism, in the 1960’s, a
well-defined area of states. With the exception of Greece, all had communistic governments.
Yugoslavia decided to open borders, invite tourists and enrich their hard currency income.
According to UNWTO Yugoslavia was in 1980’s listed among the 10 most visited countries of the
world. Through the eyes and experiences of a tour operator and academician, the paper will
elaborate on tourism characteristics in three time-frames: 1.) in the historically unified space; 2.) in
the contemporary fragmented space and 3.) in the post-industrial globalized space. Personal
impressions will be enriched with results of own research and from young scientists’ mentorship.
The Fall of the Iron Curtain, the strive for national/ethnic sovereignty, the inclusion of most of the
East-European periphery into the EU, the uprising of the middle class in some Euro-Asian and Latin
American countries, the change of the air travel mode, the growing cruising industry, the experience
thirsty and adrenalin searching population and the health- and environment conscious social groups
have again made the tourist destination South-Eastern Europe a territory worth to discover. The
fragmented space of the former Yugoslavia is divided into 7 nation-states, crisscrossed by
approximately 6326 km of semi-open, often not defined borders where on approximately 252 border
crossings tourist must identify himself and declare custom goods. Despite it, will most countries in
2015 of the region report best economic results of the tourism industry ever.
In addition to the pull-effect for the Europeans – namely the warm waters of the Mediterranean -
sightseeing tourism of Asians is enriching outstanding features of cultures and nature. Historical
capitols and towns, countries’ outstanding natural specifics, and dominant cultural sites register
Asian visitors near the top of the foreign nation’s tourist list. The future of the region for the tourism
industry lies in the promotion of cross-border development and in the increase of the awareness of
sustainable development of tourism industries’ complexity. Tourism development can only be
tolerated to an extent where it would not kill the inviting nature, the authentic culture and itself.
Regulating millions of visitors in protected sites of nature and UNESCO heritage places is the task
for tourism developers of the future.
Key words: former Yugoslavia, tourism geography, timeframes, cross-border- / sustainable

development.
Tourists move because they find the world within their reach irresistibly attractive.
(Bauman, 2000)
INTRODUCTION
Time and space are, along with wealth, main generators of tourism flows. Tourists’
motives are beneficial to a tourist destination only if visitors find the space attractive, have
an abundance of time and a surplus of finances for leisure activities. But, in this equation
one must not disregard the living standard, demography, culture and geopolitics on both
ends of touristic industries’ activities - in the outgoing and incoming space. If conditions
1
Full Professor, University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies TURISTICA, Portoroţ,
Slovenia.
25
regarding space, time and wealth contents change, this might affect the tourism economy
overall.
South-Eastern Europe was, at the beginning of the modern-day tourism in the 1960’s, a
well-defined area of nation-states. With the exception of Greece, all had communistic
governments. All of them, with the exception of the named and Yugoslavia, were in the
beginning reluctant to support the development of international tourism and tourism in
general, which they considered a bourgeois heritage. According to the UNWTO, in the
1980’s, Yugoslavia was among the 10 most visited countries of the world (Gosar, 1989).
In this paper, we will give attention predominantly to the space of the former Yugoslavia,
author’s own studies and experience as well as research made predominantly by Slovenian
scientists. Maps and other visual material will be presented predominantly in the
conference’s power point presentation.
Yugoslavia’s disintegration (1991 - 2008) has through several (geo)political, cultural and
wealth issues impacted the space where tourism was to a reasonable extend blooming. It
took some of the seven new political entities almost two decades to level out numbers
regarding tourists’ visits, lengths of stay and incomes; some still struggle. In this paper we
will not discuss changes in politics and economy (from communism to democracy; from
the central planning economy to market economy) but will elaborate (just) on selected
tourism industry’s characteristics linked to the time-frame and related space.
Tab. 1. International visitors and international stays on territory of former Yugoslavia (in
1000)*
1984 1994 2004 2014
Bosnia and Visitors 153 526
394 99
Herzegovina Stays 392 1.109
Visitors 2.659 7.912 10.955
Croatia 5.621
Stays 14.013 42.516 59.688
Visitors 41 62
Kosovo - -
Stays 63 112
Visitors 165 425
Macedonia 584 185
Stays 361 922
Visitors 1.324
Montenegro - - -
Stays 8.414
Visitors 301+ 481++ 922
Serbia 1.272+
Stays 1.264+ 1.650++ 1.988
Visitors 832 1.484 2.259
Slovenia 1.137
Stays 3.103 3.833 5.962
Ex –
Visitors 9.008 4.066 10.236 16.473
Yugoslavia
Stays 48.815 78.195
Territory
*subject to available source (various sources - not cited)
+incl. Montenegro and Kosovo; ++ incl. Montenegro
26
THE PAST IN THE UNIFIED SPACE
The term Tourismology as name for a discipline, which studies tourism in its complexity -
including space, time, economy and other relevant factors - was born in South-Eastern
Europe. The contemporary term in use is Tourism Sciences. In 1961 Ţivadin Jovičić called
upon an integrated theory of tourism research – naming it Turizmologija (Ritchie et al,
2008). In the same summer, I stood in a double lane, with an Ethiopian flag in hand, to
great Emperor Haile Selassie visiting the Cave of Postojna, where I was employed as
guide. Just months later, the country we lived in opened its borders. Soon my parents
seasonally devoted our house to people on the move, and on week-ends the main road
through my home-town hardly could be crossed due to the many Volkswagens and
increasingly Fiats – the popular Fičo – heading to or from the coast. The Simplon-Orient
Express (Istanbul/Athens – Paris/London) took me and family to the Atlantic port of Le
Havre and subsequently to America.
Modern-day tourism, which started in the 2nd half of the past century, took Yugoslavia by
surprise. The sudden freedom to move across borders inspired its own citizens to intensive
cross-border shopping trips and subsequently visits to gateway amenities along western
borders. In cities and along the coast, domestic tourism started to level out with the
incoming foreign. International tourism impacted the western portion of the country at
large, whereas inland just urban centers and localities along major trans-continental
highways gained transit guests’ attention. Sun, Sea and Sand dominated foreign visitors’
motives; just a minority decided to enrich their knowledge on cultural diversity of the
multi-ethnic state and the many faces of the Balkan natural diversity (Planina at al., 1981;
).
I switched from cave to Adriatic seaport guiding. Every second week, Austria Travel
London occupied a railway carriage with tourists interested in Adriatic Mediterranean
towns. I met them at the border station (Jesenice), talked to them on train, took them to the
port (Rijeka) and embarked them on a Jadrolinija ship bound for Zadar, Split and
Dubrovnik – showing theme cultural sites there. The second season at Kompas
Yugoslavia, I received obligations related to the Blue Cars London program exploring
several South-East European nation-states by bus. In the 1960’s, this was still considered a
highly adventurous trip: long check-ups at border posts, local guiding on the nation-state’s
territory, constant switch of currency, buses and hotels with no air-conditioning, hygiene at
a minimum. In my final six years of tour guiding, which lasted way into the 1970’s, I
become an expert on the Classical Tour of Yugoslavia.
The Kompas Yugoslavia’s own tour program, being offered on the western market, joined
British and American, sometimes even French and German visitors on the same bus. A tri-
lingual tour manager was the norm. The expectations of tour participants tended more
towards gaining multi-cultural expertise on religion and ethnicity and, in particular,
“experiencing adventure” (in a communistic nation-state). I remember all, but the first trip
left deepest impressions. As more or less a newcomer to the business, I was responsible for
the second bus, loaded with American tourists. Western impressions were left in Ljubljana
and Zagreb. Banja Luka’s parking in the middle of the central avenue was unusual, the
Pliva waterfalls and the traditional grain mills were impressive; the legend of the birth of
the communistic state in Jajce in 1943 and “pleskavica on lepinja”, on the main square of
Andrić’s Travnik, were the highlights of the third day. On the next day a retired professor,
27
the local guide, delivered hundreds of impressive stories of co-habitation of people and
religions in Sarajevo. And, as travels continued, along the Jablanica Lake and Neretva
River Yul Brynner’s movie “The Battle on Neretva” was re-lived. Mostar’s young guys
jumping into the cold waters of the named river and Ţilavka made the afternoon and
evening brighter. As on gravel roads the travels continued, “stečki” and the narrow-gauge
railroad towards Dubrovnik asked for many photo-stops. The next week’s return trip
followed the partly finished “Jadranska magistrala” where Greek, Roman, Turkish,
Venetian and Slavonic history was re-lived (Gosar, 1989).
Tab. 2. Length of borders between nation-states on the territory of former Yugoslavia,

2015 (in km)
BIH CRO KOS MKD MNE SRB SLO All
Bosnia and
X 956 - - 225 345 - 1.526
Herzegovina
Croatia 956 X - - 14 252 670 1.892
Kosovo - - X 170 79 380 - 629
Macedonia - - 170 X - 62 - 232
Montenegro 225 14 79 - X 45 - 363
Serbia 345 252 380 62 45 X - 1.084
Slovenia - 670 - - - - X 670
Ex –
1.08
Yugoslavian 1.526 1.892 629 232 363 - 6.326
4
Territory
Later I switched to a desk job accommodating rare Czechoslovak youth guests (CSKM).
As a tour guide, I occasionally joined them on a two day bus excursion to Venice. Their
group had to have individual visas, a trustworthy tour manager, and enough hard currency.
On two occasions, several young couples disappeared from the hotel and never returned to
the group. In the late 1970’s, I was invited to Munich, to join a German research team
studying the phenomenon of Yugoslavian tourism. Therewith I ended my career as tourism
industry’s practitioner and continued to work in academic circles.
Open borders were still in focus of domestic travel then. Shopping in Trieste, Gorizia and
Tarvisio as well as in Klagenfurt, Radkersburg and Graz kept these cities in the capitalistic
West alive and well. Some of them are almost ghost towns today. No preventive measures
implemented by the government could stop the import (and smuggling) of Levi’s jeans,
Minas coffee, margarine, toilet paper, detergents, etc. (Jeršič, 1970) Arrangements such as
a personal bank deposit of 500 Dinars (equivalent to $ 50.-) to cross the border, or the
cyclic travel permission for cars with odd and even numbers on the roads could not stop
Yugoslav nationals from crossing the border (Mikačič, 1989). About one million
Yugoslavs found permanent jobs in the West. Twice as many visited border towns on
28
shopping sprees each month. Within the federation’s territory, another million citizens
enjoyed their leisurely time in second homes and apartments they built or purchased in the
mountains and along the Adriatic Sea (Jeršič, 1989; Salmič & Koderman, 2013;
Koderman, 2014; Cigale, 2015).
THE CONTEMPORARY FRAGMENTED SPACE
The Balkan wars of the 1990’s reduced international visits, hindered tourism growth and
resulted into the nation-states of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia,
Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. The fragment space asked for re-structuring of the
tourism industry in many ways (Mihalič, 1999; Gosar, 2005);
In 2015, the fragmented space on the territory of the former Yugoslavia is crisscrossed by
approximately 6326 km of semi-open borders. The border delimitation between states,
with the exemption of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, is not entirely set; in
particular maritime and water-based border delimitation causes concern (Gosar, 2012a).
On every border-crossing, every single tourist has to present his or her personal document;
on most (except Slovenia-Croatia, both EU members), customs control posts are added.
Law regulations and currencies are different in all but three; Slovenia, Montenegro and
Kosovo have Euros.
Branding of the new entities was/is a difficult process. Branding of a country as a tourist
destination is an image process that a nation/place reflects to the world. On the global and
European scales, the new countries are known for their rainbow of natural wonders and
cultural heritage, but - most of them – also as countries being recently ravaged by war. The
new image to be mediated to the world must therefore be rooted in the nation’s (new)
natural or cultural authenticity and in its people. International visitors are now invited to
the part of the space they knew before as – Yugoslavia. To be successful (= profit) it is
important to focus within nation-states on a single area or product of the country in
attempting to become worldwide (= Europe-wide) the best (Bruketa, 2013). This could
annoy tourism providers of the nation which are not put in front of the campaign.
Croatia and Slovenia were among the first to be aware of the importance of branding of
their new states. But, according to surveys and tourism industry experts, both are still
poorly recognizable in the global context. Both countries have switched in years of
sovereignty from one to another slogan - starting with “On the Sunny Side of the Alps”
(Slovenia, 1991) and “Mediterranean as it once was” (Croatia, 1999). Finally, they’ve
switched from advertising their own dominant geography, towards literate acrobatics and
invigorating promises – “I Feel SLOVEnia” (2010) and “Croatia – Full of Life” (2015). On
markets of the Far East, their advertisement becomes unified. The territory of both
countries is advertised unison with “Experience Croatia, Feel Slovenia”. Other national
tourist advertisement campaigns of the region, including BiH (“The Heart-Shaped Land”),
follow the trend.
In some of new sovereign nation-states the change on the geopolitical territorial level
resulted into the initiation of tourism development strategies. Some countries’ governments
were reluctant to midterm strategy planning, as they saw this trend as being a heritage of
the communistic past (Five Year Development Plans), they’ve believed that the market
itself will regulate tourism trends. The Republic of Slovenia introduced its first tourism
development strategy in 1993. According to authors, within the following five “subjects of
29
tourism” tourism products of Slovenia should be developed: a.) the Coast and the Karst; b.)
the Mountains and Lakes; c.) the Health Resorts; d.) the Rural Countryside and e.) the
Historic Towns. (Sirše et al.,1993; Sirše & Mihalič, 1999). Geographic features behind the
above literary named “subjects of tourism” could easily be identified.
But, recent discussions have pointed out that the basic geographic regions of Slovenia can
intermingle easily with each other and could therewith produce new “subjects of tourism”
and new tourism products. According to authors, the “Slovenian attraction”, namely of the
space between the Alps, the Mediterranean and Pannonia and, in the cultural sense,
“between Venice and Vienna”, should be promoted/offered to different markets with
certain distinction. Tourism products, based on experience environmental consciousness,
have since become the lead element in tourism promotion and creation of touristic regions.
Geography has been regarded only as a general frame to be considered and, on a small-
scale, in a specific socially/historically bound spatial context. Authors of the new tourism
strategy in progress are deliberating on three issues: A.) the overall national importance of
a tourism product (incorporating Slovenia as a whole), B.) the nature of tourism products
linked to specific natural and cultural sites, and on C.) tourism products applied to certain
micro- or mezzo-localities and conditions – like a.) gastronomy and enology, b.) physical
activity and related adventure(s), c.) urban culture, d.) eco-experiences: e.) health
improvement and wellness enjoyment, f.) meetings and events, g) gaming and gambling,
and h.) youth tourism (Cigale 2012; Gosar, 2012b).
The major uplifting of the reduced number of international visitors began in most of the
above named countries about 15 years ago; the uncertain (geo)political and economic
situation still hinders tourism development in some. I am sure that the conference will in
several presentations enlighten the process. I have since mentored two dozens of MSc and
a dozen PhD dissertations dealing with the impact of political uncertainty related to
tourism. In all, along with immediate financial losses, the short and mid-term impact was
proven (Mihalič, 1999). But, on the long run, if the situation stabilizes, tourists not only
return but even increase their visits (Gosar, 2012c). Often, even above the trend of the
general growth of the tourist industry of the world! What struck me most in the process of
analyzing the uplifting of tourism is that visitors from neighboring (new) countries have -
after the conflict! - become the most loyal customers of the (new) tourist industry
developing in the (new) nation-states. For example: Slovenes (just 2 Million inhabitants)
are constantly among the three nationals leading in tourist visits to Croatia (Kerma &
Koderman & Salmič, 2009). In 2014 they were second considering visits. First were still
Germans (81 Mill inhabitants), Slovenes are followed by Italians (61 Mill. inhabitants) and
Austrians (9 Mill. inhabitants). But, Slovenes are also among the leading visitors of Bosnia
and Herzegovina – along with citizens of Croatia and Serbia (Koderman & Kerma, 2009)
The sun, sea and sand tourism (SSS) motive is now on the territory of SE Europe enriched
by VFR tourism (visiting friends and relatives), roots tourism, memory and spiritual
tourism, nautical tourism (incl. cruising), adventure and adrenalin tourism, gambling and
gaming, as well as enological and gastronomical enjoyment (Koderman, 2015; Cigale
2006, Balaţič 2014, Koderman & Kerma, 2010).
What was until recently missing regarding previous origin of tourists were visits from
geographically peripheral western and northern countries of Europe. The area has now
become a playground of the residents of Central Europe (Gosar, 2012c). This trend
switches slowly to the structure of nationals in the 1980’s as increasingly Israeli, Russians
30
and Asian tourists are enriching the tourist scene. Japanese, Koreans, Chinese and Indian
tourists visit in an extremely short travel time-span natural and cultural wonders of the
region.
Tab. 3. International visitors and international stays vs. residential population on territory
of former Yugoslavia (in 1000)*
Population 1984 1994 2004 2014
2014
Bosnia and 3.810 Visitors 0.10 0.03 0.04 0.13
Herzegovina Stays 0.10 0.29
Croatia 4.250 Visitors 1.32 0.69 1.86 2.58
Stays 10.00 14.04
Kosovo 1.764 Visitors - - 0.02 0.03
Stays 0.04 0.06
Macedonia 2.038 Visitors 0.29 0.09 0.08 0.21
Stays 0.53 0.16 0.18 0.45
Montenegro 621 Visitors - - - 2.13
Stays 13.55
Serbia 7.164 Visitors 0.18+ 0.04+ 0.07++ 0.13
Stays 0.23++ 0.28
Slovenia 2.062 Visitors 0.55 0.40 0.72 1.09
Stays 1.86 2.89
Ex – 21.709 Visitors 0.41 0.19 0.47 0.76
Yugoslavia Stays 2.25 3.63
Territory
*subject to available source (not cited)
+incl. Montenegro and Kosovo; ++ incl. Montenegro
THE GLOBALIZED SPACE OF THE POSTMODERN SOCIETY
Mature tourism tends to risk stagnation if innovation is not going to be added to the
general pull effects (climate, culture, etc.) to the existing products of the region (Sedmak &
Mihalič, 2008). According to UNWTO statistics the top 5 countries leading in the 1950’s
in international tourist arrivals (USA, Canada, Italy, France, Switzerland) accounted for
71% of the global demand, 60 years later the top 5 group accounted only for 31% of the
billion international tourists traveling. Regarding international visits, Yugoslavia was in
the 1970’s ranked among the second group (first 10) and in the 1980’s among the 15 most
visited countries of the world. Those 15 countries have in the 1970’s accounted for 75% of
all international travels and in 1990 for 66%.
The travel and tourism competitiveness index 2015 - TTCI of the World Economic Forum
proves that quality and diversity of touristic products increasingly override inexpensive
products on the market. Considering just Europe, Spain, France and Germany are leading -
despite the fact that they are highly developed countries with high costs in global terms.
The combination of business environment, infrastructure, governance and innovation make
that possible. The TTCI 2015 ranking of the Mediterranean countries on the world scale
31
shows that Croatia is 33th, Slovenia 39th Montenegro 67th, Bosnia and Herzegovina is not
mentioned among 141 countries being ranked. Among countries of SE Europe Serbia is
ranked 95th (value 3.34), Macedonia and Kosovo are not included in the ranking.
Tab. 4. The globalization of supply and demand in the tourism industry

Rank / Year 1950 1970 1990 2010
1. USA Italy France France
2. Canada Canada USA USA
3. Italy France Spain China
4. France Spain Italy Spain
5. Switzerland USA Austria Italy
Group Share 71% 43% 39% 31%
6. Ireland Austria Mexico United
Kingdom
7. Austria Germany Germany Turkey
8. Spain Switzerland United Germany
Kingdom
9. Germany Yugoslavia Canada Malaysia
10. United United China Mexico
Kingdom Kingdom
Group Share 17% 22% 18% 14%
11. Norway Hungary Greece Austria
12. Argentina Czechoslovakia Portugal Ukraine
13. Mexico Belgium Switzerland Hong Kong
14. Netherlands Bulgaria Yugoslavia Russian Fed.
15. Denmark Romania Malaysia Canada
Group Share 9% 10% 9% 11%
Other Share 3% 25% 34% 44%

TOTAL 25 Million 166 Million 436 Million 940 Million
Source: Payeras, 2015
The example of Bovec shows us how important it is to think out of the box and become
innovative. At the dawn of the 21st century, after the unsuccessful bid for the Winter
Olympics 2006 (popular: “Senza Confini” = without borders) the three participating
countries – Austria, Italy, Slovenia, decided to continue co-operation and work towards a
unique, single tourist destination. The alpine resorts such as Kranjska Gora, Bovec,
Tarvisio, Faak am See decided to co-operate in promotion and in services. Disregarding
their locality of tourist’s stay! Cross-border co-operation is also in progress in Istria, the
Adriatic peninsula, located in Italy, Slovenia and Croatia. The recent examples include
wellness programs and routes devoted to enological tourism (Vodeb, 2010; Vodeb, 2012;
Kerma, 2014; Jurinčič, 2014).
32
Tab. 5. Travel and tourism world competitiveness 2015 (ranking of selected European and
Mediterranean countries).
World Europe World Mediterranean Area
Rank Rank
Country Value Country Value
1. Spain 5.31 1 Spain 5.31
2. France 5.24 2 France 5.24
3. Germany 5.22 8 Italy 4.98
4. /United States/ 5.12 15 (Portugal) 4.64
5. United Kingdom 5.12 31 Greece 4.36
6. Switzerland 4.99 33 Croatia 4.30
7. /Australia/ 4.98 36 Cyprus 4.25
8. Italy 4.98 39 Slovenia 4.17
9. /Japan/ 4.94 40 Malta 4.16
10. /Canada/ 4.92 44 Turkey 4.08
11. /Singapore/ 4.86 49 (Bulgaria) 4.05
12. Austria 4.82 62 Morocco 3.81
13. /Hong Kong/ 4.68 66 (Romania) 3.78
14. Netherlands 4.67 67 Montenegro 3.75
15. Portugal 4.64 72 Israel 3.66
Source: World Economic Forum, 2015
The case of the Cave of Postojna (and Lake Bled) in Slovenia shows us another regional
trend. Despite of its 50 years of the modern day tourism tradition, South-Eastern Europe
was until recently not discovered “on large” by Asian and even American overseas
visitors. Europe worth visiting for them was Rome, Paris, London, …Hungary, Romania,
Bulgaria and Yugoslavia, as a conglomerate of cultures and natural landscapes, was for
decades an exotic periphery of communism and predominantly a summer holiday warm
seas/lakes destination enjoyed by West-Europeans. In addition to the pull-effect for the
Europeans and the region – namely the warm waters of the Mediterranean, the Alps and
mountains of the Balkan Peninsula, and the karstic natural heritage – the sightseeing keen
Asians are now enriching outstanding features of both, culture and nature. Historical
capitols and towns (like Belgrade, Zagreb, Sarajevo and Dubrovnik), countries’
outstanding natural resources (like the authentic karst) and dominant cultural sites register
Asian visitors near the top of the foreign nation’s tourist list.
150000
Italy
100000
Germany
50000
0 U.K.
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
France
Fig. 1. The Postojna cave: International visitors, 2007 to 2012

Source: Postojnska jama, d.d., Postojna 2013.
33
The year 2015 promises to become a peak year of international visits in most of the
countries of the region. What can we expect from future trends in tourism for the region?
In addition to traditional tourism – the renewed sightseeing and sea/mountain holiday-
making (described above) - we can expect the following incoming tourism trends to come
to the foreground of visits:
1. Roots tourism or Tourism of the Diaspora (within the VFR segment of tourism) is
likely to become an increasingly growing international travel mode to the territory
and the individual nation-states of former Yugoslavia;
2. Dark Tourism or Tourism of Grief, combined with Tourism of Imagination and
with Spiritual Tourism, is likely to increase;
3. The sightseeing “Rainbow of Cultures Tourism” (RCT tourism), incorporating
cultural landscapes and well-preserved natural resources of the region is, again,
going to become attractive to predominantly Asian and other overseas visitors
traveling by land, sea/river or just crisscrossing the region, having other major
European points of interests in mind as well.
4. The EEE tourism (Ecological, Ethnological and on Experience based tourism), the
AAA tourism (Adventure, Action and Adrenalin rich tourism), and the ISI tourism
(Involvement, Heritage and Imaginary tourism) types will increasingly be added to
the SSS motives of travels to the most parts of the region.
Tab. 5. International tourist arrivals in selected countries of SE Europe by regions of

origin (2013).
International Austria Croatia Hungary Slovenia
arrivals Number Share Number Share Number Share Number Share
in 2013
Europe 21,776,236 87.8 9,965,000 91.0 9,420,000 88.7 1,969,837 87.2
Asia 1,593,422 6.4 452,000 4.1 487,000 4.6 167,889 7.4
Africa 60,827 0.2 20,000 0.2 27,000 0.3 5,682 0.3
Americas 860,311 3.5 382,000 3.5 614,000 5.8 88,344 3.9
Australia 157,318 0.6 129,000 1.2 76,000 0.7 26,818 1.2
and Oceania
Not 365,014 1.5 / / / / / /
specified
Total 24,813,128 100.0 10,948,000 100.0 10,624,000 100.0 2,258,570 100.0
Source: Statistik Austria 2014, Croatian bureau of statistics 2014, Hungarian Central
Statistical Office 2015; Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia 2015a.
In some countries of the region tourism contributes already to more than 10% of the
national GDP (Croatia - 22%, Montenegro – 19%, Slovenia 13%). Bosnia and
Herzegovina reported 12.9% growth of tourist arrivals (2012 – 2014) and claims that
Sarajevo is on the 43rd place of the world’s best city ranking (Lonely Planet), ahead of all
other capitols of SE Europe, except Athens. To increase the number of international
tourists is – sadly – the characteristic of strategic plans of most of region’s tourism
developers. But, be aware that mass tourism could hinder normal business – like in
Dubrovnik, where cruise ship visitors literally occupy the town for several hours - and
could become a threat to natural heritage – like at the Plitvice Lakes National Park, where
ten thousand (predominantly Asian) daily visitors are a burden to the existing park
34
infrastructure and are enforcing pressure on the natural karstic phenomenon! Regulating
millions of “human intruders” (as tourist) at protected sites of nature (Plitvice Lakes, the
Cave of Postojna, Lake Bled, etc.) and in UNESCO heritage places (Dubrovnik, Split,
Mostar, Višegrad, etc.) and pilgrimage destinations (MeĎugorje) is a major task for tourism
developers and planners of the future. Tourism development can only be tolerated to such
an extent where it would not kill the inviting nature, the authentic culture and itself.
Indiscriminated use of resources of any kind can kill destinations. To reach the balance and
interdependence between economy, environment, corporations and residents should
become the major goal for tourism developers in the region.
In the digital age, customers take advantage of mobility and of access to information as
never before. They make their own decision after searching, sharing, reading or comparing
different options. As a result of it, they are able to create individual products on which they
want, as participants, be at least to a minimum in command. They do not want to be one
more in the crowd. Contemporary tourists are open to (any) new challenges – as they are
driven by the innovative society. They us visual and audio app’s - instead of guidebooks,
and GSM cartography - instead of classic maps. Low cost airlines enable them to visits far-
away places, with a rucksack, just for a day or two (with no burden for their budget). The
modern tourist does not simply follow the footprints of others ahead; they are making their
own footprints and new paths to be discovered and used by the tourism industry of the
region of SE Europe as well!
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37
38
SESSION: PROTECTED AREAS, TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT
HUNTING TOURISM IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ............................................ 41

FLOOD MANAGEMENT IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: ROLE OF REMOTE
SENSING AND GIS ........................................................................................................... 49
HUNTING TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN THE TUZLA CANTON ............................ 58
THERMAL MINERAL WATER AS A NATURAL POTENTIAL FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF SPA TOURISM IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA .................. 67
GEOECOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF TERRAIN IN NATIONAL PARK UNA ........ 75
ON CLIMATE CHANGE ALARMISM IN TOURISM .................................................... 84
39
40
HUNTING TOURISM IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Rahman Nurković1
Abstract: The paper analyzes the hunting tourism as a factor of economic development in Bosnia
and Herzegovina. This paper analyzes the main resources for development of hunting tourism in
Bosnia and Herzegovina, it examines the basic characteristics, points to the problem of its
development, examines the trends of hunting tourism and makes recommendations with a view to
the future development of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There was used a theoretical
approach based on local and foreign literature, it analyzes strategic documents, examines the
empirical material, analyzes the existing data on income, and it carries out the primary research
through personal interviews with relevant people. This paper reports the research pointing to the
existing potentials for development of hunting tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina where they are
not sufficiently exploited. Hunting tourism is an additional income for the local population as well
as for the local communities as a whole. Hunting tourism is also a major source of income of
hunting societies and organizations that deal with it in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Key words: hunting tourism, wildlife, economic development, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
INTRODUCTION
Hunting tourism, as a specific selective form of tourism on the one hand, and a segment of
hunting economy, on the other hand, is an activity that takes place primarily in the natural
environment, and is based on the use of one of the most important natural resources, ie.
wild game in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This main resource of hunting and hunting tourism
is, above all, the object of killing, and rarely observing or recording (photo-hunting or
photo safari), and, as such, is subject to loss, but, at the same time, also potentially
renewable. In addition to the main motivation segment of hunting tourism, there are also
other natural resources, above all, space outside urban areas with different biocenosis such
as forests, meadows, wetlands and swamp, farmland and karst fields in Bosnia and
Herzegovina. (Ćurić et al 1974)
Hunters are as hikers, tourists motivated by primordial human need to collect food and fur,
win trophies, but also to escape from stressful and exhausting city life and enjoy the leisure
and natural environment. It is a hunting tourism which is one of the most important forms
of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina. As a rule, it is of an elite character because of the
price of arrangements and costs of hunting. The hunter who goes hunting outside the
grounds of its home hunting organization is a tourist. (Novaković, 1996). The interest of
Bosnia and Herzegovina for the development of hunting tourism is resulting from its
economic importance. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rich flora and fauna, which is the
basis for development of hunting tourism in mountains, forests, and in lowland, and karst
areas. Besides, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a long tradition of hunting, it has potential
capacities, and professional hunter enthusiasts and mostly professional people with
adequate qualifications. Therefore, there is an interest of foreign hunters for hunting
destinations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The present problems of hunting and hunting
1
Full Professor, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Science, Department of Geography, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, e-mail: rahmannurkovic@hotmail.com
41
tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina relate to the inadequate accommodation offer, frequent
incompetence of employees in the field of hunting tourism, unregulated statistics, the lack
of promotion and other important problems that need to be resolved. (Nurković, 2006)
Hunting areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina have very strong competitors. The sources of
income in hunting tourism come from several significant factors. Most income comes from
the lease of hunting grounds, then the fee for entering the hunting resort by hunters and
their dogs, as well as the fees for killing, wounding and missing. Special profit comes from
the purchase of game meat, service of hunters, use of hunting dogs, use of vehicles,
services of guides and interpreters, insurance and accommodation and food for hunters.
The more and more present issue is the sustainable rural development of hunting tourism
in Bosnia and Herzegovina which includes hunting animals in a way that their existence is
not questioned, and not to disturb the natural diversity to the area as well as animal species.
(Novaković et al 2011) Thanks to this type of hunting, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the
whole activity becomes faster and more easily accepted in society, and creates economic,
social and cultural benefits and it can also contribute significantly to the preservation of
many animal species. The aim of this paper is to make a modest attempt to perceive the
essential characteristics of the hunting grounds in Bosnia and Herzegovina as a specific
tourist destination and to identify possible models of its valuation, as there have not been
created a valid methodology for the evaluation of tourism potential of hunting areas and
their relevant resources.
METHODS AND DATA SOURCES
The methodological approach is imperatively suited to the purpose of work, ie. the modern
development of hunting tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The study of hunting tourism
coveres the local and regional areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In assessing the economic
development of new and old hunting grounds, there are almost exclusively used
quantitative methods ranging from stochastic to deterministic. Data for writing of this
paper have been obtained by the secondary publication research on this subject and
previous studies of authors of hunting tourism and hunting areas, the statistical
documentation of the State Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Studies of
this paper include theoretical approach based on domestic and foreign literature. The aim
of this paper is to analyze the situation in the hunting tourism of Bosnia and Herzegovina
and to propose measures to improve its function. Rating of the direct contribution of
hunting tourism on the local and regional economic development in Bosnia and
Herzegovina is a good basis for the definition and application of models that allow
considering the overall development of the hunting grounds. However, the article of
hunting tourism is devoted to a very challenging field of human activity, which has not
been explored so far in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
DEVELOPMENT OF HUNTING TOURISM
Hunting is in Bosnia and Herzegovina until the end of the nineteenth century was
completely free. With the arrival of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, hunting was declared of national significance. However, the general
disarmament of people, which was conducted for political reasons, led to an increase in the
number of harmful wildlife and decline in the number of useful wildlife. Between the two
wars, noble wild game have been much destroyed by irrational hunting. The last war has
42
caused even greater suffering of useful game, especially in the area of Bosnia and
Herzegovina in the reserve hunting grounds, where, besides that, all hunting lodges and
huts were burnt and other hunting technical facilities were destroyed. In order to increase
the number of useful game, from 1945 to 1950, there was banned hunting for doe deer,
chamois, buck deer and pheasants. On the other hand, it was begun with intense extinction
of wolves, for the past seven years there were killed about 5,000 of them. Game was
proclaimed a national property, and the right to hunt was regulated by local community.
(Laska, 1905) Government and hunting organizations have made a lot on the creation of
the necessary conditions for proper breeding of wild game. Hunting grounds are divided on
the state hunting grounds and the hunting grounds that belong to hunting organizations.
The state hunting grounds cover about 10% of hunting grounds and are used primarily as
wildlife reserves, then for the exercise of hunting and hunting tourism development. Their
hunting technical facilities are usually renewed so that they could serve to increase
international hunting tourism. Hunting tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina until 1990 was
successfully presented through various forms of tourist activities, especially highlighted
and presented through hunting tourism programs and activities. Large areas covered by
forests, and abundant, diverse flora that is suitable for wildlife are the key factors that
allow survival and development of the wild game in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
HUNTING GROUNDS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Favorite hunting grounds, which were gladly visited by foreign tourists, lovers of hunting,
before the war are mountains around Bugojno, and the hunting grounds around Jajce,
Kladanj, Mrkonjić Grad, Šipovo, Glamoĉ and others. We have to also add other features
that are provided for tourists who visit Bosnia and Herzegovina for hunting. It's about
getting to know remote mountain villages, and socializing with the population whom
hunting and production of healthy food are traditional way of life. In order for hunting to
have all the necessary tourist references, it should meet the basic criteria set before a
tourist destination in general, which is, by definition, "more or less rounded geographical
entity that has attractive, communicative and receptive factors, natural, social,
anthropogenic, cultural and historical, traffic factors and requirements for accommodation,
food, rest, recreation and entertainment of tourists.― (Sušnik, 1972)
The attractiveness of the natural and social benefits of Bosnia and Herzegovina within the
destination that significantly affect the particular choice of destinations (natural, built,
cultural and social attractiveness). The conditions for stays and services, necessary
facilities for accommodation and food, as well as all the other benefits that enable tourists
to stay in the destination (local transport, sports activities, trade). Accessibility of the area,
which includes the traveling distance in relation to the source markets, and which is
expressed by expenditures, speed and comfort of arrival to the destination (infrastructure,
equipment, operational factors and state regulation in the field of transport, border
crossing, customs control). The above mentioned segments of tourist destinations in
Bosnia and Herzegovina are at the same time the basic elements of each specifically
integrated tourism and hunting tourism product. This requires their basic elaboration when
it comes to the specifics of some hunting areas as a tourist destination in Bosnia and
Herzegovina. (Rapajić, 1996)
43
Zelengora, a mountain in the area of Foĉa and Kalinovik, with a hunting area of 54,000
ha. Main wild game: chamois, doe deer, grouse and bear. The hunting lodge on Dobre
Vode. Access to the hunting lodge with 12 kilometers of road Kalinovik Foĉa. The hunting
ground has 7 more hunting lodges.
Treskavica, a mountain in the area of Sarajevo and Kalinovik, with a hunting area of
14,835 hectares. Main wild game: chamois, doe deer, grouse, bear and wild boar. The
hunting lodge in Rajski Dol. Access to the hunting lodge from Trnovo - 4 km in the
direction of Šuštavac. The hunting ground has 4 more hunting lodges.
Kruščica, a mountain in the area of Travnik, with a hunting area of 16,550 hectares. Main
wild game: doe deer, wild boar, capercaillie and bear. The hunting lodge in Krušĉica.
Access to the hunting lodge by the road Vitez 4 km. The hunting ground has 3 more
hunting lodges.
Koprivnica, a mountain in the area of Bugojno, with an hunting area of 15,900 ha. Main
wild game are doe deer, wild boar, capercaillie and bear. The hunting lodge in Koprivnica.
Access to the house via Bugojno-Kupres raod, 17 km from Bugojno. The hunting ground
has 4 more hunting lodges.
Gostović, on Kamenica mountain in the area of Zavidovići, with a hunting area of 16,300
hectares. Main wild game: doe deer, wild boar, capercaillie and bear. There is no hunting
lodge. Access to the hunting grounds by railway Zavidovići- Han Pijesak, 18 kilometers
from Zavidovići.
Sušica, a mountain in the Srebrenica area, with a hunting area of 18,300 hectares. Main
wild game: chamois, doe deer and bear. There are no hunting lodges or hunting huts.
Access to the hunting area from Srebrenica on foot or horse for 4 hours.
Motajica, a mountain in the area of Derventa, with a hunting area of 12,000 hectares.
Main wild game: doe deer. There is one hunting lodge. Access to the hunting area is 7 km
from the road Derventa- Bosanski Kobaš.
Vrbanja, in the area of Kotor Varoš, with a hunting area of 15,000 hectares. Main wild
game: doe deer, capercaillie, bear and wild boar. There are no hunting lodges or hunting
huts. Access to the hunting area by road from Skender Vakuf.
Kozara- Prosara, mountains in Bosanska Dubica and Bosanska Gradiška, with a hunting
area of 22,000 hectares. Main wild game: doe deer and buck deer. There are no hunting
lodges or hunting huts. Access to the hunting grounds on Kozara from Prijedor over
Mrakovica, and to the hunting grounds on Prosara from Bosanska Dubica.
Čvrsnica, a mountain in the area of Konjic, with a hunting area of 32 ha. The hunting
lodge is located near the station of Jablanica. The hunting ground has 2 more hunting
lodges and 5 shelters.
44
Prenj, a mountain in Konjic, with a hunting area of 24.1 hectares. Main wild game:
chamois and doe deer. The hunting lodge on Borci. Access to the hunting lodge by road 19
km from Konjic to Boraĉko lake. The hunting ground has 7 hunting lodges.
Velež, a mountain in the area of Nevesinje, with a hunting area of 11,934 hectares. Main
wild game: chamois, doe deer, wild boar and bear. There is a hunting lodge located 20 km
from Nevesinje. The hunting ground has 1 more hunting lodge.
Jahorina, a mountain in the area of Sarajevo and Rogatica, with a hunting ground of
15.300 ha. Main wild game: doe deer, wild boar, capercaillie and bear. There is no hunting
lodge, but hunters can stay at mountain hotels on Jahorina. Access to the hunting narea
from Sarajevo b road 37 km orfrom Pale by road 16 km.
Plješevica, a mountain in the area of Bihać, with a hunting area of 6,475 hectares. Main
wild game: capercaillie, doe deer and wild boar. The hunting ground has one hunting
lodge. Access to the hunting area from Bihać by road 4 km to Zavalje.
Brestovsko, in the area of Kiseljak, with a hunting area of 8,800 hectares. Main wild
game: rabbit and fox. The hunting ground has 1 hunting lodge on Gromiljak, the
crossroads Travnik-Fojnica. (Tab. 1 and Fig 1)
Tab. 1. The hunting grounds of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2014.

Hunting ground Area hectares Main animal
Zelengora 54.000 Roebuck
Treskavica 14.835 Chamois
Krušĉica 16.550 Bear
Koprivnica 15.900 Rabbit
Gostović 16.300 Pheasant
Sušica 18.300 Partridge
Motajica 12.000 Wolf
Vrbanja 15.000 Waterfowl
Kozara- Prosara 22.000 -
Hrbljine 18.000 -
Ĉvrsnica 24,100 -
Prenj 24.000 -
Veleţ 11.934 -
Jahorina 15.300 -
Plješevica 6.475 -
Klekovaĉa 8.668 -
Brestovsko 8.800 -
Source: Data of the national account for 2011 of the Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and
Herzegovina
45
Fig. 1. The hunting grounds of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2014.
Author: Nurković R.
In all large game hunting grounds as well as in some small game hunting grounds, there
are still wolves and many other furry and feathered game. In the hunting grounds, there are
hunting associations with all of the above types of game and many others. In the hunting
grounds of Bosnia and Herzegovina, around 50,000 rabbits, 6,000 foxes, 1,000 wolves and
several thousand of other fur-bearing animals are caught annually. Hunting in Bosnia and
Herzegovina is a traditional sport. There are around 10,000 organized hunters affiliated to
77 hunting associations which are gathered in the Union of hunting societies of Bosnia and
Herzegovina based in Sarajevo. Large game hunting in the state hunting grounds is
approved by Forestry Administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and low game hunting
by forest management. For each caught game in the state hunting ground, a hunting fee is
paid according to the price list, for small game hunting per piece, and for captured bear,
chamois, doe deer and wild boar per quality of trophies.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF HUNTING GROUNDS AND HUNTING TOURISM
Like only a few other countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in a relatively small area, has
favorable environmental conditions for the survival and breeding of different species of
wildlife. Given its natural conditions and gained positive experience from the previous
period in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the use and promotion of the game as one of the special
forest products should be a constant source of income. Hunting tourism as a specific type
of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina provides more efficient use of hunting grounds and
wildlife due to the high taxes and the fact that hunters-guests are mainly foreign nationals.
Profits achieved this way are invested in improving the situation in the hunting areas
46
(improvement of conditions of wildlife populations, improvement of infrastructure, and
therefore offers). (Subašić, 2009)
Bosnia and Herzegovina exported large quantities of wild fur and still exportes abroad.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry of Bosnia and Herzegovina has prepared
the price list for game killing that is binding for all users of the hunting grounds. (Urošević
et al 2011) "The lowest price for bears is 1,200 KM, and the highest up to 30,000 KM. The
hunting of chamois costs from 660 KM to 8,000 KM, wolves 2,000 KM, rabbit 120 KM,
pheasant 20 KM, grey partridge 40 KM, quail 6 KM, wild ducks 16 KM and rock
partridges 60 KM. (www.neum.ba) Besides, hunting and hunting tourism have an impact
on employment where hunting is in connection with considerably more employed people
than shown by official statistics.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has received a credit from the International Development Agency
(IDA) to finance a development project and conservation of forests - Additional Financing
and intends to apply a part of the loan funds for contract for consultant services for the
Study "Development of hunting." Bosnia and Herzegovina has received a credit from the
International Development Agency for the development project and forest conservation.
Hunting has its own legislation and frameworks. Hunting Act 2004 introduced dominal
system in hunting management with two regulated types of hunting grounds i.e. private
hunting grounds and common hunting grounds. Private hunting grounds have three forms
of business, such as concessions, rental and entrusting the hunting rights in the state
hunting grounds to a legal entity or physical person. (Nurković, 2013)
Accordingly, private hunting grounds ceded on the land owned by the state through public
bidding may be given in concession or lease. Duration of the concession of state hunting
grounds is about 30 years and management programs planned massive resources for the
improvement of hunting management. Common hunting grounds are given to be managed
by the most favorable bidder in public auction. Most of the lessee are hunting clubs that are
organized under the Law on associations they do not have freedom to engage in activity for
profit (Mustapić et al, 2004). The Law on Tourism accurately defines the way in which
tourism activity can be performed by hunting associations and owners of hunting grounds.
However, this law lacks The rules on hunting tourism.
CONCLUSION
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rich flora and fauna, which is the basis for development of
hunting tourism in its continental territory. Variety and attractiveness of the hunting offer
is linked to the existing natural resources and therefore is interesting for domestic, and
especially for foreign tourist hunters. On the hunting grounds of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
it is possible to hunt big game: deer of all species, doe deer, bear, mouflon, wild boar,
chamois; small furry game: fox, martens, hare, jackal, wild cat; and small feathered game:
wild duck, dove, snipe and quail.
Hunting, as a specific branch of tourism, is significant because it requires wild game as an
object of hunting to create motives for this type of tourism. Wild game is a natural resource
and a social good that is renewable but not inexhaustible in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Tourism is definitely the most sensitive sectors of the economy in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and hunting tourism, which entails the movement of armed people in an area
as well as taking out the catch (trophies, whole specimens, meat or game products), as the
two necessary conditions for the implementation of this specific branch of tourism is even
more than that.
47
REFERENCES
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2. Ćurić R., Mićić B., Timarac Z. (1974). Mogućnost povećanja kapaciteta srnećih
lovišta brdsko‐planinskog dijela Bosne i Hercegovine kroz poboljšanje ishrambene
baze. Simpozijum o lovstvu. Beograd. Zbornik radova, p. 47‐66
3. Erlagić S.(2006) „Mogućnosti uzgoja jelena lopatara (Dama Dama L.) na podruĉju
kantona Sarajevo― - Šumarski fakultet Sarajevo 2006.
4. Laska F. (1905) Weidwerk in Bosnien und der Hercegovina. Klagenfurt
5. Novaković V. (1996) Optimalne mogućnosti razvoja lovstva u uslovima
intenzivno razvijenog šumarstva u brdsko – planinskim krajevima. Savetovanje
„Savremeni aspekti gajenja, zaštite i korišćenja divljaĉi u funkciji razvoja brdsko –
planinskog podruĉja Jugoslavije―. Poţega. Zbornik radova, pp. 57‐64
6. Novaković B., Matarugić D., Ilić V., Urošević M., Drobnjak D. (2011)
Iskorišćenost kapaciteta i odnos pojedinih kategorija srneće divljaĉi u lovištima
Republike Srpske. Savetovanje agronoma Republike Srpske. Trebinje
7. Nurković, R. (2006): Ekonomska geografija svijeta, Univerzitet u Tuzli, Prirodno-
matematiĉki fakultet, Tuzla. pp. 168-237.
8. Nurković, R. (2013): Ruralna geografija svijeta, Univerzitetski udţbenik,
Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Prirodno-matematiĉki fakultet u Sarajevu, Sarajevo, pp.
247-258.
9. Rapajić Ţ. (1996) Divokoze na novim i obnovljenim staništima u Bosni i
Hercegovini. Savetovanje „Savremeni aspekti gajenja, zaštite i korišćenja divljaĉi
u funkciji razvoja brdsko – planinskog podruĉja Jugoslavije―. Poţega. Zbornik
radova, pp. 72‐77
10. Studija za odrţivo gazdovanje sa divljaĉi u posebnim lovištima u Bosni i
Hercegovini (2007), Sarajevo, p 25.
11. Subašić V.(2009) „Mogućnost revitalizacije fazanerije „Mera― Odţak―, Šumarski
fakultet Sarajevo 2009. pp 33.
12. Sušnik F.(1972) Ekološki uslovi jarebice kamenjarke (Alectoris graeca graeca L.)
u Bosni i Hercegovini. Simpozijum o lovstvu. Beograd. Zbornik radova, pp.94‐99
13. Umićević B., Ćeranić A. (1996) Modelno lovište za poluintenzivno gajenje divlje
svinje (Sus scrofa L.) u brdsko – planinskom staništu. Savetovanje „Savremeni
aspekti gajenja, zaštite i korišćenja divljaĉi u funkciji razvoja brdsko – planinskog
podruĉja Jugoslavije. Poţega. Zbornik radova, pp.139‐145
14. Urošević M., Drobnjak D., Matarugić D., Novaković B., Ilić V. (2011) Populacija
medveda u nekim lovištima Republike Srpske. 6. MeĊunarodni simpozijum o
lovstvu i odrţivom korišćenju biodiverziteta. Ţagubica. Zbornik radova,
pp.124‐128
15. www.neum.ba
48
FLOOD MANAGEMENT IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: ROLE OF
REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
Branislav Drašković1
Abstract: The worst flooding that ever hit Bosnia was in May 2014. The official estimates indicate
that over 1.5 million people were affected in Bosnia and Serbia after a week of flooding. The
assessments of the damage in Bosnia go up to €2billion of euro. The loss in floods is estimated 5 to
10% of GDP (as per WorldBank estimate). The effective floodplain management is a combination
of the corrective and preventative measures for reducing flood damage. These measures require
integrating data from a variety of sources, including zoning, subdivision, or building requirements,
and the special-purpose floodplain ordinances.There are varieties of tools to generate a flood
forecasting model to identify the potentially affected zones, so as to prioritize for remediation or the
damage assessment. Furthermore, it is possible to analyze the time-related data and to explore
trends and phenomena, to conduct the historical analysis and ―what–if‖ scenarios, and to track and
monitor events such as excessive rainfall, track water levels, etc. Bosnia is just starting to develop
these tools and methods and this could be the way to improve capability to tackle such natural
disasters. This paper describes some applications of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical
Information Systems (GIS) in identifying flood hazard zones and flood shelters and are therefore
important tools for planners and decision makers. The purpose is to describe a simple and efficient
methodology to accurately delineate flood inundated areas, flood-hazard areas, and suitable areas
for flood shelter to minimize flood impacts.
Key words: Floods, Management, Bosnia, Remote Sensing, GIS.
INTRODUCTION
When an event such as an flood strikes a community triggering the destruction or damage
of infrastructure, it is manifesting the fact that such infrastructure is vulnerable, i.e. prone
to be damaged or destroyed when such an event manifests itself.
In the context of disaster-risk reduction, the disaster makes the following facts evident:
The geographical area where the community is settled is exposed to such a hazard;
infrastructure, assets and other processes and services which experienced damage or
destruction are vulnerable.
Typically, floods can be represented through maps. Using remote sensing and GIS tools we
can identify and delineate the area that can be exposed to floods. Such hazard area demarks
the geographic extent of floods which can have a period of return of 100 or more
years. Any infrastructure located inside this area is exposed to floods. Experts from the
social and economic sciences can then assess the degree of vulnerability of the
infrastructure located inside this area and can then assess the risk combining this
information related to the flood hazard, the exposed elements and their degree of
vulnerability.
The starting point for reducing flood risk and for promoting a culture of
disaster resilience lies in the knowledge of the hazard and the physical, social, economic
and environmental vulnerabilities to floods. Information on hazards is generated using
catalogues of historic events and scientific models that describe the spatial and temporal
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, University of East Sarajevo, Vuka Karadţića 30,
Lukavica 71126, Bosnia and Herzegovina
49
dynamics of such hazards. Furthermore, information on places that may congregate vast
amounts of people, including vulnerable groups, is used to improve early warning
evacuation procedures and to establish evacuation routes in case of events that can trigger
disasters.
Flood hazard maps are elaborated combining specific parameters. They are generated in
coarse resolution when used at the national level and at a high resolution when used in
urban areas. In many developed countries, flood hazard maps represent areas which could
be flooded once every 50 or 100 years. In other cases where the historic catalogue is not
complete or is not yet elaborated, flood hazard maps usually depict the areas which could
be exposed to floods but without referencing to a period of return.
Information on vulnerability is more difficult to compile given its social and economic
nature. In some cases detailed assessments of vulnerability are conducted using specific
surveys at the level of individual houses or communities. Such approaches provide more
precise information on the different dimensions or components of vulnerability and are
better tailored to capture information on the vulnerability of various sectors of
development. In other cases, proxies are used to estimate the vulnerability of communities
using demographic data and other data derived from national censuses, as well as
economic data such as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). However, such estimates may
only capture a fraction of the vulnerability.
A risk map is produced combining the information on hazard and vulnerability. Once the
map is elaborated, it will be easy to detect which vulnerable elements or assets are exposed
to hazards. In addition, it can be used to identify the types of measures that need to be
implemented to minimize the risks and to improve disaster preparedness efforts.
FLOODS: THE ROLE OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
Generally, there are several uses of remote sensing observations for flood monitoring:rain
rate and accumulated rain amount, snow melt rate, soil condition: soil moisture,
temperature, land cover, reservoir/river level, storm water drainage system (urban floods),
terrain.If floods can not be forecasted, they may be detected in near-real time. Recent
availability of daily satellite observations can provide the mean to do so.
The use of sensors in the visible or infrared portion of the spectrum is limited due to cloud
cover. The microwave portion of the spectrum is not restricted by cloud cover. Early work
on active and passive microwave sensors for flood monitoring could not rely on satellites
with daily revisit times. Since 1997 a set of new generation microwave instruments has
been launched with improved performance and daily revisit capability. One of these, the
Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer - Earth Observing System (AMSR-E)
instrument on board of the NASA EOS Aqua satellite (launched in 2002), also has an
extremely efficient data distribution mechanism making the data available for public
download only hours after their acquisition (De Groeve at all, 2007).
There are three primary uses of remote sensing observations for flood monitoring:
1) To infer flooding conditions by using satellite-derived precipitation;
2) To derive streamflow and runoff to monitor flooding conditions by using rainfall and
surface weather data in a hydrology model;
3) To detect flood water on previously dry land surface by using satellite-derived land-
cover observations.
To better understand and predict floods there are hydrological models based on how much
rainfall occurs and where the water will likely go once it hits the ground. They use several
50
satellite precipitation datasets within these models to provide near real-time estimates of
when and where areas may flood. While the majority of flood models currently focus on
local or regional scales — taking into account one drainage basin or watershed — some
recent research has shifted to estimating areas of potential flooding on a global scale. There
are many examples on various scales which integrate Remote Sensing and GIS in flood
alert system. The International Flood Network (IFNet) converts precipitation data
from TRMM/GPM1into rainfall maps as part of their Global Flood Alert System (GFAS)2.
IFNet determines flood risk based on a minimum precipitation threshold and in the future
will alert communities of potential flooding in their region. There are useful information
for flood forecasting and warning, such as global, regional rainfall maps, text data, and
provides heavy rain information by precipitation probability estimates.
Near Real-Time (NRT) Global Flood Mapping provided by National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA)produces global daily surface and flood water products at
approximately 250-m resolution, in 10x10 degree tiles.
The Global Flood Detection System monitors floods worldwide using near-real time
satellite data. Surface water extent is observed using passive microwave remote sensing
(AMSR-E and TRMM sensors). When surface water increases significantly (anomalies
with probability of less than 99.5%), the system flags it as a flood. Time series are
calculated in more than 10000 monitoring areas, along with small scale flood maps and
animations.The Extreme Rainfall Detection System (ERDS), developed and implemented
by ITHACA3, is a service for the monitoring and forecasting of exceptional rainfall events,
with a nearly global geographic coverage.
Relevance of remote sensing in emergency mapping is also evident from existence of the
International Working Group on Satellite-based Emergency Mapping (IWG-SEM).
According to Boccardo and Gulio Tonolo (2012), deferent types of sensors, platforms and
techniques can be considered in the framework of emergency mapping. Modern agile
satellites can be triggered in a very short time allowing, in best case scenarios, to have
images covering the areas of interest a few hours after request. As far as the sensor type is
concerned, radar SAR data are generally exploited when persistency of cloud cover make
optical data unusable. Optical sensors are preferred choice to carry out damage assessment
at a very high level of detail or when multispectral information is required, and are
obviously the only choice when a visual interpretation approach has to be adopted for the
post-event analysis. Concerning the spatial resolution, both optical and radar sensors can
nowadays acquire very high resolution (VHR) imagery (with a ground sample distance up
1
The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), a joint mission of NASA and the Japan
Aerospace Exploration Agency, was launched in 1997 to study rainfall for weather and climate
research. The Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission is an international network of
satellites that provide the next-generation global observations of rain and snow. Building upon the
success of the TRMM, the GPM concept centers on the deployment of a ―Core‖ satellite carrying an
advanced radar / radiometer system to measure precipitation from space and serve as a reference
standard to unify precipitation measurements from a constellation of research and operational
satellites.
2
GFAS is promoted both by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport of Japan
(MLIT)and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), under which Infrastructure Development
Institute(IDI) – Japanhas developed this Internet-based information system.
3
ITHACA -Information Technology for Humanitarian Assistance, Cooperation and Action. The
non-profit association, based in Torino, Italy, is a center of applied research devoted to support
humanitarian activities in response to natural disasters by means of remote sensing techniques.
51
to 0.5 m for optical sensors). As far as the temporal resolution is concerned, availability of
constellation and increasing number of earth observation satellites, drastically increase the
satellite revisiting time, allowing to monitor fast dynamic phenomena (e.g. floods). Main
interest of users are identification of flood affected areas. It is therefore necessary to
identify the standing water on post event images and compare them to the water already
present before the flood event.
The most adopted satellite sensors for flood-related analyses are radar SAR sensors, which
offer following advantages:
SAR amplitude images enable easily identification of still water bodies in open areas, by
means of semi-automated data processing;
The all-weather capability of the radar technology allows imagery to be acquired during
night time or presence of cloud coverage (typical weather conditions during floods).
If flood impact has to be delineated in urban areas, or detailed damage assessment is
required, a deferent approach based on visual interpretation of VHR optical data is
generally adopted.
In recent years, national emergency operations centres (EOC) have began
using geographic information systems as tools to generate maps and web-based mapping
services such as Google Earth to visualize additional geospatial data.
THE EUROPEAN FLOOD AWARENESS SYSTEM (EFAS)
Floods are the most prevalent natural hazard in Europe. During the period 1950-2005, 240
flood occurred in Europe, 47 of those were major, i.e., the number of registered casualties
is greater than 70 and/or the direct damage is larger than 0.005% of the EU GDP in the
year of the disaster (Barredo, 2007).
The European Flood Awareness System (EFAS) is the first operational European system
monitoring and forecasting floods across Europe. It provides probabilistic, flood early
warning information up to 10 days in advance to its partners: the National Hydrological
Services and the European Response and Coordination Centre (ERCC). The aim of EFAS
is to gain time for preparedness measures before major flood events strike particularly for
trans-national river basins both in the member states as well as on European level. This is
achieved by providing complementary, added value information to the National
hydrological services and by keeping the European Response and Coordination Centre
informed about ongoing floods and about the possibility of upcoming floods across
Europe. EFAS is running fully operational since October 2012.EFAS uses multiple
weather forecasts and Ensemble Prediction Systems (EPS) as input. Its forecasts are based
on two deterministic, medium-range forecasts from the European Centre for Medium-
Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and the German Weather Service (DWD), (and thus
different models) and on two sets of EPS: One from ECMWF which covers the medium-
range up to 15 days globally (with a spatial resolution of ~30 km and 51 members, and one
from the Consortium for Small-scale Modeling (COSMO), a limited area model EPS
covering most of Europe with a shorter range up to 5 days (with a spatial resolution of 7
km and 16 members). The reason for using the shorter term EPS is to enhance the spread
of EPS within the first few days and to have a finer grid information in particular for
mountainous areas. This allows to better identify the location of the floods within the river
basin. In a case study it has been demonstrated that using the eight global medium-range
EPS available worldwide can provide a higher reliability for the results, but is
computationally intensive.
52
The hydrological model used for EFAS is LISFLOOD. The model is a hybrid between a
conceptual and a physical rainfall-runoff model combined with a routing module in the
river channel. LISFLOOD has been specifically designed for large river catchments. A
particular feature of LISFLOOD is its strong use of advanced Geographical Information
System (GIS), in particular as a dynamic modelling framework.
EFAS is providing information to the national hydrological services only when there is a
danger that critical flood levels might be exceeded. Ministry of Foreign Trade and
Economic Relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina has started initiative of access to EFAS
during 2015.
Bosnia and Herzegovina case: floods in May 2014
Three months‘ worth of rain fell in only three days; it is the heaviest rainfall in BiH since
records began in 1894. An estimated 1.5 million people in 60 municipalities in BiH are
affected (39% of the population). The most affected are Bosanski Šamac, Odţak, Orašje,
Doboj, Bijeljina, Brĉko, Maglaj. More than 2,500 households in the Federation of BiH and
approximately 8,200 in Republic of Srpska were without electricity.A total of 24 people
had been killed, of whom 7 were from the Federation of BiH and 17 were from the
Republic Srpska. 2,610 landslides have been reported as of 22 May (UNCT BiH
22/05/2014). Landslides and debris remain a danger in BiH, in areas worst-affected by the
floods. Landslides have moved mines and warning signs to unknown locations. Nobody
had been killed or injured, but several incidents have occurred, including a mine exploding
in Brĉko district in the north of BiH.
According to Report of Commission formed by city of Bijeljina, total damage only in that
city is over €62 million, but some estimates goes to over €200 million. Over 60% of
damage was citizen‘s property, 38% was property of companies, and about 2% of damage
is on infrastructure.
Fig. 1. Southeast Europe floods in May 2014, the most affected zones.
Relief efforts are being hampered by the infrastructure destroyed, broken

telecommunications, blackouts. The problem of shifting minefields may also hamper the
provision of aid and relief and debris clearance, with the governments warning
international rescue teams not to use alternative roads without prior consultation with the
Mine Action Centre and Civilian Protection Service (Bosnia and Herzegovina – UNDP
53
Flood Disaster Situation Report 20/05/2014). According to World Resources Institute and
Water Risk Atlas, the most exposed to floods is northern part of Bosnia and Herzegovina
with high flood occurrence recorded from 1985-2011 The number of floods recorded in
that period is within 10-27.
Fig. 2. Flood occurrence in Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1985-2011
Southern part of the country belongs to medium to high flood occurrence within 4-9 floods
in given period. Small part in the coastal area has low to medium risk score. According to
Aqueduct Global Flood Analyzer1, floods are categorized by how likely they are in a given
time period, i.e. their probability. For example, 1:25 means yearly probability of a flood is
4%. This means that on average this flood will occur once in 25 years. Statistically,
however, it is possible to have the associated level of flooding more than once in that time
period. The highest probability for floods occurrence are situated in major river valleys in
Bosnia: Sava, Vrbas, Bosna and Drina. Probability of inland floods varies among 0 and
more the 20 %.
1
The Aqueduct Global Flood Analyzer is a web-based interactive platform which measures river
flood impacts by urban damage, affected GDP, and affected population at the country, state, and
river basin scale across the globe. It aims to raise the awareness about flood risks and climate
change impacts by providing open access to global flood risk data free of charge. Analyzer
identifies the future change in flood risk driven specifically by climate change and socio-economic
development.
54
Fig. 3. Bosnia and Herzegovina probability of flooding
Source: http://floods.wri.org/#/country/29/Bosnia%20and%20Herzegovina
A 10-year flood has 10% probability of occurring in a given year (2010), and could cause
roughly $ 1.1 billion urban damage in Bosnia and Herzegovina, if there is no flood
protection. Annual expected urban damage is $152.2 million according to Scenario A1, and
$193.3 million in 2030. Urban damage estimates the annualized direct damage to assets
due to inland flooding in urban areas. Affected Gross Domestic Product (GDP) estimates
the annualized GDP by inland flooding in given area. Annual expected affected GDP for
2010 is $ 453.7 million and $ 899.4 million for 2030. A 10% probability of floods
occurring in 10 years period could cause roughly 471.0 thousand affected population in
Bosnia. Period extended on 100 years period could cause about 556 thousand affected
population.
United Nations in Bosnia and Herzegovina implements two floods recovery programmes:
EU Floods Recovery Programme implemented by the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the United
Nations Children‘s Fund (UNICEF). The Programme aims to rehabilitate 4,000 dwellings
for approximately 14,000 people, 100 local roads and bridges, 90 educational institutions
(including pre-school facilities), 10 water and sanitation facilities, three municipality
buildings, four Centres for social welfare, and four healthcare facilities and sustain and
help create some 2,500 income opportunities for vulnerable and excluded groups, affected
farmers, agricultural households and those employed by affected SMEs. Programme value
is EUR 43.5 million. Also, there is UN Floods Recovery Programme "Today, for us",
worth USD 22.6 million.
1
Scenario A is future scenario taking into account both climate change and socio-economic
change.Difference between scenarios is in moderate (A) and severe (B) climate changes and severe
climate changes and uncontrolled population growth and fragmented economy (C).
55
CONCLUSIONS
Conventionally, flood mapping is done by overlaying a pre-flood image and a peak

floodimage to delineate the inundated area. Maps are the best way to display the
geographical extent of such events and to overlay relevant information including the
location of affected communities, road infrastructure and other areas.The use of satellite
imagery and geographic information systems allows to become aware of relevant fact, such
as the number of hectares affected by floods, households, or the number of kilometres of
roads which have been affected or destroyed. Space-based information also allow to take
note of roads which could be used as emergency evacuation routes or as roads to deliver
humanitarian assistance to those who require it in remote areas.Bosnia and Herzegovina is
a developing country which develop their capacities step by step. One of the most
important initiatives is to join the European and worldwide network of early flood
warning, considering the massive floods which hit the country in the past, especially
during 2014. In particular, it is very important to build own capacities in order to minimize
next flood damages.Joining to European Flood Awareness System (EFAS) is the first step
in order to access the EFAS Information System (EFAS-IS), which provide services via
web portal with a protected password. Services and information should be transmitted to
the Emergency Operations Centres (EOCs) operated at the municipal, provincial or
national levels depending on the extent of the flood.
REFERENCES
1. ACAPS Briefing Note (2014),Floods in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and

Croatia
http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/briefing_note_floods_in_serb
ia_bosnia_and_herzegovina_and_croatia_may_2014_update.pdf
2. Barredo, J.I. (2007) Major Flood Disasters in Europe: 1950-2005. Natural Hazards,
42, 125-148.
3. Boccardo P, Gulio Tonolo F, (2012) Remote-sensing techniques for natural
disaster impact assessment, Advances in Mapping from Remote Sensor Imagery.
In: Yang X, Li J (eds), CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 388-410
4. Brakenridge G. R, Anderson E, Nghiemb S. V, Caquard S, Shabaneh T. B, (2003)
Flood Warnings, Flood Disaster Assessments, and Flood Hazard Reduction: The
Roles of Orbital Remote Sensing, Proceedings of the 30th International
Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Information for Risk
Management and Sustainable Development, Honolulu, Hawai'i, pp 1-6
5. De Groeve T, Kugler Z, Brakenridge R, (2007) Near Real Time Flood Alerting for
the Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System, ISCRAM2007 Conference, B.
Van de Walle, P. Burghardt and C. Nieuwenhuis (eds) VUBPRESS Brussels
University Press, pp 33-39
6. De Groeve T, Riva P, (2009) Early flood detection and mapping for humanitarian
response, Proceedings of the 6th International ISCRAM Conference – Gothenburg,
Sweden, J. Landgren, U. Nulden and B. Van de Walle, eds.
7. DFO, 2009. Dartmouth Flood Observatory Global Active Archive of Large Flood
Events, http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods (last accessed 25 August 2015).
56
8. Gassert, F., M. Landis, M. Luck, P. Reig, and T. Shiao,(2014) ―Aqueduct Global
Maps 2.1: Constructing Decision-Relevant Global Water Risk Indicators,‖
Working Paper, World Resources Institute: Washington, DC
9. Liu Y.B, De Smedt F, Hoffmann L. and Pfister L. (2004) Assessing land use
impacts on flood processes in complex terrainby using GIS and modeling
approach, Environmental Modeling and Assessment9: pp227–235.
10. Nigro J, Slayback D, Policelli F, Brakenridge R, (2014) NASA/ DFO MODIS
Near Real-Time (NRT) Global Flood Mapping Product Evaluation of Flood and
Permanent Water Detection, http://oas.gsfc.nasa.gov/floodmap/documents/, pp 1-
27
11. Van Der Knijff J. M.; Younis J.; De Roo A. P. J. (2008) LISFLOOD: a GIS-based
distributed model for river basin scale water balance and flood simulation,
International Journal of Geographical Information Science, DOI:
10.1080/13658810802549154
12. http://arset.gsfc.nasa.gov/disasters/webinars/nasa-remote-sensing-observations-
flood-management
13. http://ba.one.un.org/content/unct/bosnia_and_herzegovina/en/home/floods-
recovery/
14. http://www.wri.org/publication/constructing-decision-relevant-global-water-
riskindicators.
15. http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Situation%20Report%2020M
ay2014.pdf
57
HUNTING TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN THE TUZLA CANTON
Senada Nezirović1
Abstract: The research of the development of hunting tourism in the Tuzla Canton is basically
reduced to the need of establishing effective coordination of tourism development at the cantonal
level as well as the region of north-eastern Bosnia, connecting tourist destinations on a number of
common development issues, and achieving higher levels of overall economic development. The
Tuzla Canton has the natural resources that can be used throughout the year. The area is
characterized by a pleasant climate and excellent biogeographic characteristics. The mountains have
preserved flora and fauna. In the forests of Ozren, Trebavac, Majevica, Konjuh, Javornik and along
rivers' valleys, there are wild game, which is an important resource and a base for hunting tourism.
The hunting grounds in the Tuzla Canton are divided into social and state hunting grounds. The aim
of this paper is to show the possibilities for the development of hunting tourism as a factor of
economic development of the Tuzla Canton and surroundings. Methodology of the research
demanded field and cabinet work. Besides the literature, for the development of this paper, there
were used planning documents, maps, field drawings, and statistical indicators that were processed
by modern geographic methods including also GIS technology. By identifying the entire area, rich
hunting grounds in the area of the Tuzla Canton were introduced, whereat the guidelines were given
in the further development of hunting tourism and the creation of the position of the Tuzla Canton
as a significant tourist destination.
Key words: hunting, development, the Tuzla Canton
INTRODUCTION
The Tuzla Canton is located in the northeastern part of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is
located within the geographical coordinates 44°10' and 44°55' north latitude and 18°8' and
19°3' eastern longitude. It covers an area of 2.652 km², where estimated 499.099
inhabitants live. There are 13 municipalities within the Tuzla Canton. It has a favorable
geographical position, its openness to the Pannonian Plain and transport links with the
Adriatic coast are a very important element for use of the resources of the area. The
territory of the Tuzla Canton is rich with a variety of plant and animal species. On the
slopes of Majevica, its habitat has a bear, wolf, doe deer, buck deer, wild boar, fox and
hare. In the mountain forests of Ozren, Trebavac and Javornik, there are wildlife: wolf, doe
deer, wild boar, fox, hare and badger. The thick set of deciduous and coniferous forests,
numerous glades, meadows and pastures of Konjuh provide the survival of animals and a
rich fauna.2 They are inhabited by bears, doe deer, buck deer, chamois, grouse, wild cat,
and since recently mouflon game. Pheasants, partridges, quails, hares, foxes and deer have
their habitat on flat terrain along the rivers Spreĉa, Tinja and Brka.3 In the protected area
of the old riverbed of the Spreĉa, its habitat has a beaver. Wading birds as well as those
birds which settle or nest by water can be found along all streams. Alongside of Modrac
1
PhD Senada Nezirović, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science,
University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, e-mail: senadanezirovic@yahoo.com
2
Act to designate part of Konjuh mountain as a protected landscape "Konjuh" (2009): The
Government of the Tuzla Canton, Tuzla
3
Public company "Forests of the Tuzla Canton" joint stock company (2015) . Annual plan for the
management of special hunting ground "Konjuh" for the hunting season 2015/2016, Kladanj
58
lake are settled: red heron, coot, cormorant, grebe, great reed warbler, whiskered tern, wild
duck.1 (Fig. 1.)
Considered as a complementary tourist value, the fauna enables development of hunting
and enriches the tourist offer in protected areas. Seen from the tourist and geographical
point of view, tourism potentials in the Tuzla Canton are part of the entire geographic area
and represent a comparative advantage in its economic development, provide a good basis
for a more dynamic development of hunting tourism as a factor of overall economic
development.
Fig. 1. The fauna in the area of the Tuzla Canton

(the map done by the author)
1
Ćatović, A. (2010).Turizam in the economic structure of north-eastern Bosnia, Scientific journal
Tourism 14th edition, volume 1, Novi Sad.
59
THE HUNTING GROUNDS IN THE TUZLA CANTON
A part of natural and anthropogenic whole where ecological conditions allow production,
breeding, rearing, protection, use of one or more types of game and its parts is called
hunting.1 Hunting represents trapping, culling, use and collection of wildlife parts
(discarded antlers, feathers, eggs). Individual hunting of big furry or feathered game and
group hunting of wild boars, wolves, foxes and jackals are organized in the hunting
ground. Hunting basis provide measures for management of the hunting area for at least
ten hunting years.
Annual plan of management of the hunting area is determined on the basis of the structure
and number of populations of wild game in the hunting area and is adopted for one hunting
year. Hunting year lasts from April of the current year to the first of March of the
following calendar year.2 The hunting grounds are represented by hunting production and
hunting technical facilities. On the basis of habitat conditions and purpose, hunting
grounds in the Tuzla Canton vary according to elevation (lowland, mountainous and high-
mountainous), type of game (big, small, feathered), type (mountainous and plain, hilly and
mountainous with large or small game), habitat (forest, field and meadow). According to
the management, hunting grounds in the area of the Tuzla Canton are divided on both
social and protected (state). Social hunting grounds are managed by hunting associations
whose aim is development and improvement of hunting and taking joint actions in the
management of hunting grounds in the territory of the Canton.3 In the area of the Canton
operates Hunting Association which gathers 14 hunting societies, one of which is from the
area of Brĉko District. The Alliance has more than five thousand members which makes it
the biggest alliance in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. (Tab. 1).
Konjuh mountain is characterized with more mountain peaks over 1000 m of altitude, it
has significant natural and anthropogenic values. The tourism potential of Konjuh
mountain are high mountain hunting grounds.
1
Newsletter of the Union of hunting organizations BiH (1997), Hunting Gazette No. 4, Sarajevo.
2
Big illustrated encyclopedia of hunting, 1992: Volume II Construction Book, Belgrade
3
Catalogue of Alliance of hunting societies Tuzla Canton, 2014, Tuzla
60
Tab. 1. Social hunting grounds in the area of the Tuzla Canton
Municipality/ Number of Area ha
the name of members type / altitude m Types of game
Hunting society
Banovići/ 180 17300 basic: black bear, wild boar, deer,
Zelemboj hilly and mountainous 269-1125 grouse accompanying: marten, fox,
wild cat, wolf, hare, wild duck
Šibošnica-Ĉelić/ 515 22 226 deer, hare, pheasant and wild boar
Vjetrenik hilly and mountainous 138–771
Doboj Istok/ 120 2644 deer, hare, pheasant
―Fazanka― plain up to 280
Gradaĉac/ 410 17430 basic: deer, hare, pheasant
Jelen plain and hilly 129-600 accompanying: quail
Kalesija/ 550 19200 basic: pheasant, hare, fox, marten,

Spreĉa hilly and mountainous 220-915 wild cat, accompanying: wolf
Kladanj/ 320 18 103 basic: black bear, capercaillie, doe

Sokolina hilly and mountainous 400-1323 deer, chamois, squirrel, hawk, owl,
raven, hare and pheasant.
Lukavac/ 550 33 500 basic: hare, pheasant and doe deer,

Svatovac plain and hilly 175-884 wild boar
accompanying: wild duck, woodcock,
partridge
Sapna/ 230 14000 basic: bear, buck deer, wild boar,

Mustafa Ĉeketalo hilly and mountainous 147-916 pheasant, hare, fox, cat, marten,
badger and a small number of
pheasant
Srebrenik 500 19200 basic: deer, wild boar, pheasant, hare,
Majevica hilly and mountainous 220-915 fox, marten.
Teoĉak/ 114 2900 basic: deer, hare, wild boar,

―K.Hajro― plain and hilly 250-675 accompanying : fox, cat, marten,
badger, bear, pheasant.
Tuzla/ 600 27152 deer, hare, pheasant, marten, fox,
Tuzla hilly and mountainous 231-843 woodcock, wild duck and wild boar
Ţivinice/ 420 25.747 basic: wild boar, hare, pheasant,

Toplice: plain and hilly 190-300 grouse, hazel grouse, grey partridge,
two hunting parts: hilly and mountainous 200-1200 wild duck, accompanying: fox, wild
Spreĉa and Dubrava cat, white breasted marten and pine
marten, wild cat, wolf, weasel,
badger, crow, magpie, hawk, common
snipe and woodcock, quail and
common wood pigeon
Gornji Rahić(15km) 248 22 000 basic: pheasant, quail, partridge, hare,
Brĉko/ plain 169-260 deer, wild boar, accompanying: fox,
Fazani 1946 marten, and badger, wild duck,
woodcock, common wood pigeon,
Eurasian collareddove
Source: table done by the author based on data from the Catalogue of Alliance of hunting societies
Tuzla Canton
The high mountain hunting ground Sokolina
The high mountain hunting ground Sokolina spreads across the slopes of mountains
Konjuh and Javor. The user of the hunting ground is the Association of citizens Hunting
society "Sokolina". It is of an open type and it borders with the Special hunting ground
61
Konjuh. In the hunting ground Sokolina, the protected game species are: brown bear,
capercaillie grouse, doe deer, chamois, squirrel, hawk, owl, raven, hare and pheasant.
Bears are protected by a closed season. Estimated hunting productive area for bear is
12.377 hectares, the capacity is 14 individuals. Deer inhabit the whole area of the hunting
ground, it belong to the second bonitet (quality), hunting ground capacity for deer is 40
indivduals per 1.000 hectares. Chamois settle 531 ha of hunting productive area of the
second quality, the capacity for this type of game is 37 individuals, they inhabit southern
parts of the hunting grounds.
In the hunting ground, there are hunting breeding facilities: feeding facilities 114, salt licks
for chamois 36, watering places 31, salt licks for deer game 12, hunting and technical
facilities: hunting lodges and huts 10, bunkers, shooting stads and watch towers 5, high
shooting stads of closed type 13, high shooting stads of open type 15, hunting trails 33.1
(Tab. 2).
Tab. 2. Hunting society Sokolina, hunting breeding and technical facilities

local area
Kladanj Starič Tuholj Brateljevići Stupari Tarevo Total
Hunting and breeding facilities
Type of building 10 5 3 4 4 7 33
Feeding facilities 24 19 17 16 19 19 114
Salt licks for 6 6 6 6 6 6 36
chamois
Watering places 7 5 5 5 4 5 31
Salt licks for deer - 12 - - - - 12
game
Hunting and technical facilities
Hunting lodges 4 2 1 1 1 1 10
and huts
Shooting stads - 1 1 2 - 1 5
and watch towers
High shooting 4 2 2 2 2 1 13
stads of closed
type
High shooting 4 2 3 2 2 2 15
stads of open type
Hunting trails 7 5 5 5 6 5 33
Source: Hunting society ―Sokolina― 2007, Hunting economic basis 2007-2016, Kladanj
The special hunting ground Konjuh
The special hunting ground Konjuh is located in the central part of the massif of Konjuh
mountain which belongs to the central Dinaric mountain system. Spatially, it is located in
the northern part of the municipality of Kladanj (7.240 ha), the western part of the
municipality Olovo (821 ha), the southwestern part of the municipality Banovići (2.617
ha), the south-eastern part of the municipality of Ţivinice (2.647 ha) within the parts of the
forest-economic areas "Konjuh", ''Spreĉko '' and "Olovska". Altitude of the hunting ground
ranges from 300 to 1328 meters.2 It borders with the followong hunting grounds:
"Sokolina―, ―Toplica―, ―Zelemboj" and "Tetrijeb". Area of the hunting ground is 13.325
1
Hunting society ―Sokolina― 2007: Hunting economic basis 2007-2016, Kladanj
2
62
ha, which is characterized by two hunting parts: Drinjaĉa (6.202 ha) and Oskova (6.450
ha).1 Hunting grounds are characterized by steep slopes, sharp ridges, narrow valleys and
mountain peaks over 1000 m, in which there are numerous springs and river basins of the
Oskova, Litva, Gostilja and Drinjaĉa. The area of the hunting ground is covered with
mixed forests, intersected by meadows and pastures, which represents favorable conditions
for the reproduction of wild animals.
The hunting area is inhabited with protected, accompanying and unprotected species of
wildlife. Protected breeding species of wildlife are: the brown bear, deer, wild boar and
grouse. The brown bear is a rare species of wildlife, it inhabits the entire area of the
hunting ground, especially the central parts. According to the hunting records, there are 6
individuals inhabiting the hunting ground. Doe deer inhabit almost the entire area of the
hunting ground, the capacity of individuals is 116. Wild boars inhabit the entire area of the
hunting ground, there are 78 individuals. Grouses inhabit the southwestern parts of the
hunting ground, the capacity is 26 individuals.2
The accompanying game species are: hare, hazel grouse, wild pigeon, Eurasian
collareddove, hawk and squirrel. The unprotected species are: wild boar, wild cat, badger,
skunk, pine marten, white breasted marten, wolf, feathered game, crow, magpie and jay. In
the hunting ground, there are hunting breeding facilities: solid food feeding stations 17,
feeding stations for bears and wild boars 5, salt licks 98, water stations 22, mad baths 66;
hunting and technical facilities: hunting lodges 2, hunting huts 2, high shooting stad of
closed type 5, high shooting stad of open type 5, bunker, shooting stad and watch tower 5,
eaves 7, food warehouse 2. (Tab. 3)
Tab. 3. The special hunting ground Konjuh,hunting breeding and technical facilities
2015/2016
Hunting and technical facilities Hunting breeding facilities total
Hunting lodges 2 Solid food feeding stations 17
Hunting huts 2 Feeding stations for bears and wild boars 5
High shooting stad of closed type 5 Licks 98
Bunker, shooting stad and watch tower 5 Water stations 22
High shooting stad of open type 5 Mad baths 66
Hunting trails 70
Eaves 7
Food warehouse 2
Source: Public company "Forests of the Tuzla Canton" joint stock company (2015). Annual plan for
the management of special hunting ground "Konjuh" for the hunting season 2015/2016, Kladanj
Based on this review, it can be estimated that in the special hunting ground "Konjuh" there
are enough hunting facilities which should be regularly maintained within the planned
period and with the obligation of recovery of destroyed hunting lodges. There is a hunting
lodge with 20 beds at the hunting ground to accommodate guests in the Zlaća as well as a
large number of accommodation facilities at the Zlaća hotel, which offers the possibility of
accepting visitors and hunt enthusiasts.
1
2
63
THE POSSIBILITY OF DEVELOPMENT OF HUNTING TOURISM IN THE
TUZLA CANTON
Hunting tourism can be defined as a form of provision of services to people because of

wild game culling or wildlife observation and photography with a certain fee. Besides,
hunting is an important form of sports and recreational activities of hunters, and is useful
for the development of the noble game species. Hunting grounds of the Tuzla Canton have
favorable climate, vast areas of forest and mountain meadows, which provides conditions
for development of hunting and recreational tourism. This is especially true of the hunting
ground of Konjuh mountain.
In the hunting ground Sokolina, there is planned breeding and sanitary culling for breeding
species of wild animals, and after reaching full capacity, culling can take place as specified
by annual plan for the period 2014-2016.1 (Tab. 4.) Signaling signs, road signs, movement
prohibition signs, signs for location of hunting facilities and signs with basic details of the
hunting ground are missing in the hunting ground.The construction and expansion of
hunting facilities has been planned that will enable the development of a number of
specimens of deer, wild boar, brown bear and grouse.
Tab. 4. Dynamics of game culling in the hunting ground Sokolina for the period 2014-
2016.
Annual Doe deer Chamois Wild boar Bear Grouse Hare
/game mature young total mature young total Mature young total mature young total
culling
2014 36 14 50 2 1 3 17 35 52 3 - 3 6 136
2015 36 14 50 3 1 4 17 35 52 3 - 3 6 136
2016 36 14 50 3 1 4 17 35 52 3 - 3 6 136
Source: Hunting society ―Sokolina― 2007, Hunting economic basis 2007-2016, Kladanj
The protected hunting ground Konjuh, besides gun hunting, offers the possibility of
observing, recording and photographing of wildlife, which is becoming increasingly
popular motive for the population to go from urban areas to nature in order to experience
hunting. The nutrition and health control of the wildlife in winter is done in the hunting
ground according to the development plan. Use of the game is done through the game
culling according to the hunting calendar. The main purpose of the Special hunting ground
is growing, protection and use of productive populations of wildlife, considering the
special conditions of the habitat of rare, very rare and valuable species of wildlife, a certain
degree of intensity of hunting management and maintenance of the tolerable damage from
wild animals in forest and agricultural areas, and that with the economic function also have
the function of protecting and preserving biological and ecological balance of natural
habitats of wildlife, and maintaining biological balance and diversity of the gene pool of
autochthonous species. The following table shows the capacity of the hunting ground.
(Tab. 5.)
1
Hunting society ―Sokolina― 2007: Hunting economic basis 2007-2016, Kladanj
64
Tab. 5. The capacity of the Konjuh hunting ground for the hunting season 2015/16.
Type of game hunting productive area /ha Capacity Spring condition
Doe deer 11.500 400 106
Bear 12.000 12 8
Capercaillie 3000 40 26
Wild boar 12000 112 69
Source: Public company "Forests of the Tuzla Canton" joint stock company (2015).Annual plan for
the management of special hunting ground "Konjuh" for the hunting season 2015/2016, Kladanj
The special hunting ground Konjuh owns also accommodation facilities, weapons for rent,
terrain vehicles, optical devices and cameras. Maintenance, administration and good
organization in the rich hunting grounds, allows the use of resources for the purpose of
recreation. The fauna in the protected area of Konjuh helps enriching the tourist offer.
Special attention to the hunting grounds attract rare species of wildlife: chamois, fallow
deer, mouflon, grouse.1
Plain-marsh hunting grounds at small and feathered game in the valley of the Spreĉa also
have the possibilities for development of hunting tourism. The hunting societies Svatovac
and Toplice exit to Modrac lake by a larger part of their territory.2 The hunting society
Fazani 1946 stretches along the border of territory of the Tuzla Canton, 15km from the
town of Brĉko. It is one of the major hunting grounds with a long tradition, it was active
under the name of "Fazan" Brĉko. The development program has the aim of organizing
hunting for foreign hunters for quail, pike, common wood pigeon and wild duck. It has six
hunting lodges, two hunting huts, a big shooting stad for hunting and wildlife observation,
and two eaves.
CONCLUSION
In the hunting and economic grounds in the area of the Tuzla Canton, economically
valuable game preserves can be grown and sustainably used. The hunting grounds should
take greater activity in the organization, sustainable management and protection of
autochthonous species of wild animals: bears, chamois, grouse, hazel grouse, quail, grey
partridge as well as the introduction of new game.
In reforestation, there should make a selection of plants that bear fruit or seeds that wild
game like to eat, such as oak, wild cherry, pear, apple and sweet chestnut (Castanea
sativa). By the act of protection of the precious species of wildlife, action should be taken
on the restoration of hunting areas regarding breeding and development of hunting
grounds, and the increase of repopulating the wildlife in their indigenous habitats. To
increase foreign tourist traffic in the hunting areas, one should build facilities for
accommodation, rest, refreshment and food supply for the nature and hunting lovers, and
enrich offer of culinary specialties specially adapted to the ethnic characteristics of this
region, such as dishes under the bell and plum brandy. The only way for the Tuzla Canton
to increase the influx of visitors and achieve economic benefits is to improve the existing
and build new modern accommodation capacities.
1
2
Official Gazette TK 9/06 (2008): Spatial plan for Tuzla Canton (2005-2015), Tuzla
65
REFERENCES
1. Act to designate part of Konjuh mountain as a protected landscape "Konjuh"

(2009): The Government of the Tuzla Canton, Tuzla
2. Public company "Forests of the Tuzla Canton" joint stock company (2015) .
Annual plan for the management of special hunting ground "Konjuh" for the
hunting season 2015/2016, Kladanj
3. Ćatović, A. (2010). Tourism in the economic structure of north-eastern Bosnia,
Scientific journal Tourism 14th edition, volume 1,NoviSad
4. Big illustrated encyclopedia of hunting, Volume II (1992). ConstructionBook,
Belgrade
5. Catalogue of Alliance of hunting societies Tuzla Canton (2014), Tuzla
6. Public company "Forests of the Tuzla Canton" joint stock company (2015) .
Annual plan for the management of special hunting ground "Konjuh" for the
hunting season 2015/2016, Kladanj
7. Hunting basis of hunting societies of the Tuzla Canton
8. Official Gazette TK 9/06 (2008): Spatial plan for Tuzla Canton (2005-2015), Tuzla
9. Newsletter of the Union of hunting organizations Bosnia and Herzegovina (1997).
Hunting Gazette No. 4, Sarajevo
66
THERMAL MINERAL WATER AS A NATURAL POTENTIAL FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF SPA TOURISM IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Mevlida Operta1
Amra Banda2
Abstract: Bosnia and Herzegovina is rich in natural resources, among which the most important are
mineral, thermal and thermo-mineral waters. Heterogeneous and complex geological tectonics of
Bosnia and Herzegovina conditioned emergence of the large number of mineral, thermal, thermo-
mineral water springs that have a significant role in health care, spa and recreational tourism.
Initiators of spa tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina are spas. Healing power of thermal mineral
springs has been recognized since the time of Greeks and Romans. After World War II visiting spas
was more frequent, but in the period from 1948. to 1960., spas were treated as medical facilities. In
the early 70's, visiting spas was treated as a component of tourism, therefore hotels, restaurants and
new rehabilitation centers were built. Modern life has influenced the transformation of the classic
spa tourism which is increasingly getting the characteristics of wellness tourism. This paper presents
some thermal mineral water in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which are valorized in spas, and registered
as medical institutions. Besides them, there are numerous cases of these types of groundwater in our
country whose value is still not recognized. Paper also describes problems of spa tourism offer, as
well as possible ways of Bosnia and Herzegovina spa destinations improvment.
Key words: Bosnia and Herzegovina, mineral, thermal, thermal-mineral waters, spas, spa tourism.
INTRODUCTION
In the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina there are 163 deposition of mineral, thermal
and thermo-mineral waters. Most common are reservoirs of mineral waters (101), followed
by deposition of thermal water (39) and at least represented are thermal mineral
depositions (23). According to the level of research thermal mineral water with
temperature of less than 40°C are better explored. Although in Bosnia and Herzegovina in
the last 50 years intensified research of numerous deposits of thermal and mineral waters
were taken, level of research is not satisfactory.
This paper aims to define the main characteristics of the spa tourism in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, which is traditionally an important part of the national tourism market, due to
the important resources discovered and valued since antique time and developed to the
dimensions of a tourism industry during history, which tries to adapt to new market
realities.
On the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina usage of thermal springs for the purpose of
therapeutic activities dates back to the Greeks and Romans. It is known that the Romans
used thermal springs of almost all today known spas.
Roman coins which were given for health were excavated in Banja Vrućica near Teslić.
Thermal mineral water Guber is also known since the ancient Romans period who called it
springs Domavija, and the whole area Argentaria. Proof of this is the inscription on the
ruins of the spa from the Roman period.
1
Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo,
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
2
Teaching Assistant, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo,
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First traces of the usage of thermal water Ilidţa near Sarajevo, dates back to the Roman
period who built first spa in Ilidţa, as evidenced by the Roman excavations. The biggest
development Ilidţa experienced in the Austro-Hungarian period. From 1878. to 1895. new
accommodation facilities were built. Ilidza had several objects: Stara banja (Old Spa),
Nova banja (New Spa), Mala banja (Little Spa) and Blatna banja (Mud Spa). Stara banja
had a room for relaxation, two large new pools, Mala banja had cabins for handicapped
person and there was also a clinic, balneological infirmary with the application of physical,
hydro, electric therapy, sauna and etc. First data about the thermal mineral water in Ilidza
gave Mojsisovics, Bittner and Tietze in 1880., and Ludwig did the first chemical analysis
of the thermal mineral water Ilidza in 1886. and second in 1894. Ilidza municipality is
named after the Turkish word "iladţ" which means medicine, or what gives man life.
Roman legionaries healed their wounds in the waters of Fojnica, so the Austro-Hungarian
officers and officials treated rheumatism in Fojnica spa. In 1948. they build a hotel, which
gradually became a modern institution named "Reumal" for rehabilitation, recreation and
relaxation. First analysis of the thermal water in Fojnica was done by E. Ludwig in 1888.
so the folk tradition about the healing characteristics of the water got scientific
confirmation.
First written documents about the healing characteristics of water in Kiseljak originate
from ancient times the 14th century.
In the period from 1948. to 1960., after World War II, visiting spas in Bosnia and
Herzegovina became popular so the spas were treated as a medical facilites. In the early
70's visiting spas was treated as a tourism component and accordingly to this fact hotels,
restaurants and new rehabilitation centers were built. Spa tourism tradition in Bosnia and
Herzegovina as well as in the world expands as new facilities in the spa resorts such as
massage centers, fitness, physiotherapy and others are introduced. This paper also
underlines the meaning of spa tourism, as a continuous multiphase paradigm, influenced
by modern patterns of tourism consume and analyses tourist offer in the most important
spa and healing centers in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
STAKEHOLDERS OF BALNEOLOGICAL TOURISM IN BOSNIA AND

HERZEGOVINA
Modern spa industry is mainly based on the use of natural resources ie thermal mineral
waters and healthy climate combined with medical care and therapeutic activities.
Existence of spa resorts is ―in part related to the availability of suitable natural resources
including mineral springs or attractive amenity landscapes or climate‖ (Hudson, 2003).
The main function of spa tourism resorts is to provide health care service by using natural
factors for medical cure in specialized structures and a pleasant environment. (Erdeli et al,
2011) Stakeholders of balneological tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina are spa-centers. In
Bosnia and Herzegovina there is a larger number of balneological centers, with different
level of tourist affirmation, registered as health institutions. In this paper some of them are
presented.
Spa Terme Ilidţa near Sarajevo is located at the foothill of Igman mountain, near the
spring of the river Bosnia. Thermal water of Ilidţa by water temperature belongs to
hyperthermal waters and to the hydro-sulphate-calcium-sodium type. Terme Ilidţa stopped
working in 1992., and after the reconstruction of the hotel more sophisticated and better
equipped resort revived in 2004. This resort has 400 beds, conference halls, restaurant and
a cocktail bar. Spa has modern equipment and medical staff for: hydrotherapy, two
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therapeutic-recreational pools, physical therapy (electrotherapy, ultrasound therapy,
thermotherapy, magnetic therapy, kinetictherapy etc.) and wellness program (solarium,
fitness room, two indoor swimming pools and a Turkish bath ). According to previous
research thermal mineral water of spa Ilidţa, can be used to treat patients with rheumatic
diseases, joint and bones diseases, chronic inflammation of the lining, catarrh, disease of
the nervous system, damage of the blood circulation, as well as gynecological diseases,
endocrine disorders and some skin diseases. Inhalation is used in chronic inflammation of
the respiratory tract. Terme Ildiţa offers its visitors tour of the city with a professional
guide, a trip to the spring of river Bosna, folklor evenings with national specialties, as well
as skiing, hiking, walking tours and other recreational activities.
Banja (Spa) Vrućica is located 3 kilometers from Teslić. Due to a water temperature of
37.5°C this water is classified as a homeothermal water, ie chloride- hydrocarbonate-
chloride-calcium-sodium type. (Tab. 1.) Water of Banja Vrućica is used for the following
treatment: myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, hypertension, rheumatic diseases,
diseases of the pancreas and liver, bronchitis and others. Spa in its complex has 4 hotels
and about 900 beds and provides prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of patients. Banja
Vrućica organizes congresses, conferences, seminars, business and other meetings,
recreational activities in the bowling alley, at the sports terrains and fitness center.
Wellness program has several swimming pools and several saunas.
Banja (Spa) Aquaterm is located in the town Olovo. In the Krivaja river valley is registered
about 10 thermal springs (Terma, Solun, Oĉevija, Orlja etc.) with similar physico-chemical
and genetic characteristics. Thermal waters Olova and Orlje are used in recreational and
medicinal purposes. Thermal waters of Solun has not yet been valorized in tourism, and
there are no accommodation capacities nearby. Water temperature in the health-
rehabilitation center Aquaterm Olovo is 34.5°C, and by the chemical characteristics is
classified as hydrocarbon-calcium-magnesium water type. (Tab. 1.) Center of
balneological tourism in municipality Olovo is a health and rehabilitation center
"Aquaterm" which provides medical and rehabilitation services. Center has 160 beds in
double and triple rooms. Facility has a TV lounge, billiards salon, game room (chess,
dominoes, etc.), table tennis etc. Program of spa treatment includes: hydrotherapy (baths,
underwater massage, pool), thermotherapy (paraffin, cold compresses) and electrotherapy.
In spa and recreational area of the hotel are located baths with thermal water as well as
massage areas. Thermal water in Olovo treats: rheumatism, arthritis, spondylosis, central
nervous system diseases, infertility, psoriasis and others.
69
Tab. 1. Temperature and hydrochemical type of some mineral and thermal mineral water
in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Locality Water temp. (°C) Water type

Ilidţa-Sarajevo 57 Hydrocarbonate-sulphate-calcium-sodium
Dvorovi-Bijeljina 56 Chloride-hydrocarbonate-sodium
Slatina-Banjaluka 40,7 Sulphate-hydrocarbonate-calcium-magnesium
Banja Vrućica-Teslić 37,5 The hydro-chloride-calcium-sodium
Graĉanica 37 Hydrocarbonate-sulphate-sodium-calcium
Gata-Bihać 36 Sulphate-chloride-calcium-sodium
Olovo 34,5 Hydrocarbonate-calcium-magnesium
Višegrad 34,2 Hydrocarbonate-calcium-sodium
Gornji Šeher-Banjaluka 34 Hydrocarbonate-sulphate-calcium-magnesium
Laktaši 30 Hydrocarbonate-calcium-magnesium
Kulaši-Prnjavor 30 Hydrocarbonate-chloride-sodium-calcium
Tomina Ilidţa-Sanski Most 29 The hydro-chloride
Fojnica 28,9 Hydrocarbonate-calcium-magnesium
Ilidţa-Gradaĉac 28,3 Hydrocarbonate-sulphate-sodium-magnesium
Slana banja –Tuzla 27 Chloride-sodium
Mljeĉanica-Kozarska Dubica 14 Hydrocarbonate-sulphate-calcium-sodium
Crni Guber – Srebrenica 12,4 Iron-arsenic
Kiseljak-Kiseljak 12,2 Hydrocarbonate-sulphate-calcium-sodium
Source: Josipović, (1971), own tabular presentation
Banja (Spa) Reumal near Fojnica, is located 50 km from Sarajevo. Thermal water of
Fojnica is classified as hydrocarbonate-calcium-magnesium type, and by temperature
characteristics it belongs to hypothermal water. This is nitrogen and radon water, which
contains traces of some elements (lithium, strontium, rubidium, etc.) that have medical
effect. Reumal has center for physical therapy as well as newest equipment for physical
medicine and rehabilitation in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and beyond. Today,
Fojnica with its enviable accommodation and decades-long tradition has a leading position
in the field of spa tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Reumal for its visitors organizes
various events: theater performances, book presentations, visits to museums etc. This
center is also a co-organizer of various sport events and excursions to natural, cultural and
historical sights of Fojnica.
Banja (Spa) Ilidţa in Gradaĉac is located in the Northern Bosnia about 1.5 km from
Gradaĉac. Thermal water in the spa is classified as hydro-sulphate-sodium-magnesium and
is slightly radioactive. The water temperature is 28.3°C. Center for physical medicine,
rehabilitation and spa treatment "Ilidţa" in Gradaĉac was built in 1980. and it has 150 beds
in double, triple rooms and apartments. Congress tourism can also be developed, because
this facility has a conference hall with 470 seats. Water of Ilidţa Gradaĉac successfully
treats rheumatic diseases, neurological diseases, injuries, diabetes, and gynecological
diseases.
70
Banja (Spa) Guber is located in the area of Northern Bosnia, about 2.5 km from
Srebrenica. All 5 sources of mineral water in the area of Srebrenica (Veliki Guber, Mali
Guber, Crvena Rijeka etc.). spring from igneous rocks. Bottling of Guber water started in
1889.. Water of Crni Guber contains an essential component of bivalent Fe and rare
elements: copper, cobalt, nickel and manganese, as well as many others that together create
this healing combination. Water temperature is 12.4 °C. In the area of Spa Guber there are
also several mineral springs. Water of Crni Guber is successfully used to treat: anemia, ,
chronic skin diseases, rheumatism and for weight problems.
Banja (Spa) Dvorovi is located in the area of Northern Bosnia, northeast of city Bijeljina.
Based on the data obtained by deep drilling, tested interval from which thermal mineral
water of Spa Dvorovi springs are made of sand and clay marl and sandstone to a depth of
about 1176 m.( Đurić, Radovanović, 2012).
Thermal water of Spa Dvorovi by water temperature belongs to hyper thermal waters and
by its composition to the chloride-hydrocarbonate-sodium type (Table 1). This spa offers
all kinds of massages, inhalation, acupuncture and successfully treats the following
diseases: chronic rheumatic diseases, mild forms of diabetes, chronic gastritis, limb
injuries.
PROBLEMS OF HEALTH-REHABILITATION CENTERS
In Bosnia and Herzegovina the term spa is still tied for the treatment of patients. Tourist
visit to spas for rest and entertainment is not present in Bosnia and Herzegovina as it is in
the world. As a result, visitors are mainly elderly people. Key issues that are present in
some health-rehabilitation centers have limited capacity or lack of accommodations, as
well as the need for their expansion.
Banja (Spa) Terme in Graĉanica does not have its own accommodation facilities so the
visitors stay in hotels in the city and its surroundings. Same situation is in the Banja (Spa)
Tomina Ilidţa for which is planned to become a health - recreation center Sanska Ilidţa,
with supporting facilities. Salt Spa (Slana banja) in Tuzla is currently not in use because
new Hotel Bristol within which is planned shopping center and offices, clinics with a
wellness center, saltwater pool and an Olympic swimming pool is built. For the purposes
of Banja (Spa) Guber in 1967. hotel Domavija was built and motel on the Guber spring
was refurbished. Spa center for physical medicine, rehabilitation and spa treatment
Argentaria was built in 1982. Currently these facilities are not in use because most of the
infrastructure was destroyed in the war 1992. – 1995.
Motel Vrelo disposed with 20 beds and a restaurant, and hotel Domavija with 113
accommodation facilities and 244 beds, but they are both not in use since 1992.
Banja (Spa) Aquaterm in Olovo did business until 1991. within the Sarajevo Brewery.
Since 2001., it is registered as a public health institution. Rooms were renovated and
accommodation capacities were expanded and additional medical personnel hired. Still, it
is necessary to renovate facilities for medical treatment and to build another indoor and
large outdoor swimming pool.
71
WAYS OF IMPROVING TOURIST OFFER OF REHABILITATION CENTERS
Key issue for some spa centers is the lack of additional tourist offer. Tourist offer of spa
could be improved and enriched with new contents. For example, Banja (Spa) Ilidţa
Gradaĉac can offer day trips to cultural and historical sights such as the Castle of the
Husein captain Gradašĉević from the 18th century, Husejnija mosque that was built in
1826 and the Clock Tower from 1824, and events such as the Plum Fair.
Banja Vrućica can combine its tourist offer with other attractive tourist attractions in
Teslić, such as winter-sports center Hajduĉke vode on the mountain Borja, tours to Liplje
monastery from the 13th century, visits to Rastuške caves, Teslic city tours etc..
In addition to the spa rehabilitation, Višegrad spa as organizer can offer visitors additional
attraction as for example walking the slopes of Tara, Drina River cruise, ride on the
restored railroad Mokra Gora-Visegrad, visit to ethno village Mećavnik and visits to
religious, artistic and historical treasure of this region.
Slana Banja (Salt Spa) in Tuzla for their visitors can arrange excursions to natural, cultural
and historical sights. Area of Tuzla Municipality provides an opportunity for excursion
trips. A significant part of the tourist offer is resort Ilinĉica, Pannonian lakes and salt
exploitation wells.
As for the offer of "Aquaterm" in the future, it should be pointed out that the key problem
is the lack of additional offers and content. This deficiency can be eliminated if the offer of
health and rehabilitation center would combined with visits to nearby places (Zeleni vir,
Solun, Kamenica, Bjeliš Bijambare etc.) or with the organization of cultural events.
Area of the Olovo Municipality is rich with surface waters. Rivers Bioštica, Stupĉanica
and Krivaja are suitable for excursions, and provide an opportunity for organizing rafting
tours. Several sites of cultural and historical monuments are located in Olovo Municipality
Visit to monuments such as stećci (medieval tombstones) can be complementary activity to
basic offer of health and rehabilitation center Aquaterm.
Banja Reumal for its visitors organizes various events: theater performances, book
presentations, lectures, visits to museums etc. This center is also a co-organizer of various
sport events and day excursions to natural, cultural and historical sights of Fojnica. Reumal
can organize visits to the Franciscan monastery in Fojnica and excursions to Prokoško lake
which is located on the mountain Vranica, and is known for its endemic species of flora
and fauna, such as triton. The Franciscan monastery has a rich museum collection of
minerals and rocks samples, ancient annals, incunabula, books, pictures and charters in
Bosnian Cyrillic, Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Latin etc.
In order to improve spa tourism offer in Bosnia and Herzegovina it is important to choose
one or more potential tourist segments for this tourism sector and to elaborate strategy
based on market research and analyses of tourist offer from neighbour states.
Spa tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as many other tourism sectors is still
mainly dominated by socialism structures, and spa tourism offer is attractive for domestic
tourists due to social balneal culture and social insurance systems. Mentioned spa centers
in Bosnia and Herzegovina offer tourist arrangement within their facilities and yre trying to
develop additional leisure infrastructure, organize field trips, sports events in the attempt to
attract more tourist, not just seniors. Bosnian spa centers also need to consider
development of rehabilitation cures and spa packages.
72
CONCLUSION
Mineral, thermal and thermal mineral waters of Bosnia and Herzegovina have a wide range
of application in balneology, medicine, recreation, sports, tourism, bottled water industry,
salt and gas extraction from water, water supply and etc.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Reumal and Vrućica near Teslić stand out by the number of
overnights. Much smaller number of overnights stays is registered in spas: Slatina near
Laktasi, Ilidţa in Gradaĉac Aquaterm in Olovo and Mljeĉanica in Kozarska Dubica.
Current level of spa tourist valorization in Bosnia and Herzegovina is not satisfactory.
Faster development of spa tourism, implies greater investment in the facilities construction,
as well as the enrichment of the offer and a well designed marketing. In Bosnia and
Herzegovina term spa is still connected to the treatment of patients and tourist trip to spas
for rest, recreation and entertainment is not represented as it is in the world. This is one of
the reasons why the spas are mainly visited by seniors who come for treatment.
Tourist capacities of spas in Bosnia and Herzegovina are not used properly. It is necessary
to invest in the development of the existing spa centers (expanding facilities such as fitness
and wellness services) and in construction of new recreation centers. In addition,
marketing activities should be improved and in particular Internet presentation of the spa
centres.
Spa tourism sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the last two decades transformed by the
political and socio‐economic changes, but is still dominated by elements from the socialist
period that was characterized by mass tourism and mass accomodatian structures. Spa
centers in Bosnia and Herzegovina try to adapt to new market trend and forms of spa
tourism and orient itself towards international tourism trends and patterns.
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i mogućnost njihovog korištenja za toplifikaciju grada Bijeljina. Arhiv za tehničke
nauke br. 6, Tehniĉki institut Bijeljina, p. 1-9
2. Erdeli, g., Dincă, A. I., Gheorghilaş, A. Surugiu, C. (2011): Romanian spa tourism:
a communist paradigm in a post communist era. Human Geographies – Journal of
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3. Hudson, S (2003): Sport and Adventure Tourism, The Haworth Hospitality Press,
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4. Josipović, J. (1971.): Mineralne, termalne i termomineralne vode na teritoriji
Bosne i Hercegovine, Geološki glasnik knjiga 15., p. 233-275. Sarajevo.
5. Katzer, F. (1919.): K poznavanju mineralnih vrela Bosne, Glasnik Zemaljskog
muzeja BiH, p.191-264, Zemaljska štamparija,Sarajevo
6. Kubat I., (1966.): Problem rudarenja i odreĊivanja zaštitnog polja mineralnog vrela
Veliki (Crni) Guber kod rudnika „Srebrenice― u istoĉnoj Bosni, Geološki glasnik
11., Sarajevo, str. 289-301.
7. Ludvig, E. (1893.): Mineralni izvori u Bosni, Geološki anali Balkanskog
poluostrva, knjiga. IV, p. 244-278., Beograd.
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Unsko-sanskog kantona, Bilten Speleološkog društva "NAŠ KRŠ" XX – XXI, p.33 –
34, Sarajevo.
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9. Skopljak F., (2006.): Odnosi podzemnih voda područja Ilidže kod Sarajeva,
Posebna izdanja geološkog glasnika, knjiga XXIX, Sarajevo.
10. http://www.espa-ehv.eu/ (Accessed 27.08.2015.)
74
GEOECOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF TERRAIN IN NATIONAL PARK
UNA
Edin Hrelja1
Nusret Drešković2
Ranko Mirić3
Boris Avdić4
Abstract: This paper has a geoecological evaluation of terrain in National Park Una as its study
object. Aim of the research is to clarify how valuable and useful are particular terrain segments for
tourism valorization, construction of various objects, certain economic activities etc. Geoecological
evaluation of terrain is strongly relevant methodological procedure, which can be used for acquiring
of results about real value of particular areas.
Paper consists of several parts. First part defines the exact area of exploration and geographic
position of National Park Una. Second part is concerned with geomorphological characteristics of
explored area and possibilities of its valorization, by detailed analyses of hypsometric facts, angle of
slope inclination, vertical articulation and terrain exposition. Geoecological evaluation of terrain is
performed in third part, for which purpose a bonity categories are used.
Geoecological evaluation of terrain is based on previous geomorphological analysis. Methods used
in this paper are: analysis, synthesis, statistical method, cartographic method and GIS analysis.
Method of terrain evaluation is also used, through four categories: hypsometric characteristics,
angle of slopes, vertical articulation and terrain mobility.
Key words: Geoecological evaluation, GIS, bonity category, National Park Una
INTRODUCTION
Because of the increasing need for the environment protection and conservation, spatial
management and land use should be optimized. For that purpose various methodological
procedures are developed and used for adequate valorization of geographical space.
Geoecological spatial evaluation objective is determination of environmental advantages
and limitations for certain social purpose. Also, it is useful for exploration and
categorization of natural resources. All that contribute to proper environmental
management in order to achieve sustainable development. Besides the need for spatial
development, geoecological evaluation can be conducted also for spatial planning. In this
procedure, more valuable areas are differentiated from less valuable.
Relative geoecological evaluation of terrain in National Park Una is conducted by
categorization of absolute altitude, angle of slopes, vertical articulation and terrain
mobility. This kind of methodological procedure includes various geomorphological
analysis. By application of GIS, basic results of geoecological evaluation of terrain in the
1
Senior Teaching Assistant, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo,
2
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo,
Sarajevo, Bosnia nad Herzegovina.
4
75
National Park are gained. Application of this methodology is possible in any land area on
the planet Earth and for any purpose.
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF NATIONAL PARK UNA
National Park Una is proclaimed as protected area in 2008 and it is one of the three
national parks in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the northwestern part of the
country, bordering Republic of Croatia. Protected area covers the canyonlike part of upper
valley of Una river. It streches from village of Lohovo, through Una and its tributary Unac
valleys, to Drvarsko Polje, as well as interspace between these two rivers. Whole territory
of National Park, with covered area of 19.800 ha, is administrative part of City of Bihać.
This area is characterized by rare natural geographic elements, which make it unique
enough to get a status of national park. Physical geographic uniqueness of studied area is
emphasized through component geological, geomorphological, climate, hydological and
biogeographical elements, all of which makes this National Park an area of complex
landscape diversity. Beside natural components, this area also have rich cultural and
historical heritage, which contibutes to attractiveness in the context of tourism
development. Natural values in the National Park are protected by the law on nature
protection, while the areas of cultural significance are regulated in accordance with law
provisions about cultural heritage.
According to the Law on National Park Una, territory of 19.800 ha in total size is divided
into two different zones – first with regime of strict and targeted protection (13.500 ha) and
second with regime of targeted development (6.300 ha). Zone of regime of strict and
targeted protection is intended for achieving the goals of natural resources protection,
protection and conservation of ecosystems and natural processes without human
intervention, as well as preservation of unspoiled natural areas, biodiversity and natural
habitats. Visits to National Park for tourism, recreation, education or scientific research are
enabled to the extent where adverse impact is kept at the minimal level. In the zone of
targeted development, some traditional and previously existed economic activities (e.g.
agriculture, food production, forestry, tourism atc.) are allowed, under the condition of
compatibility with local specificities.
Fig. 1. Location of National Park Una
76
TERRAIN FEATURES IN NATIONAL PARK UNA AND VALORIZATION
POSSIBILITIES
Terrain features are very important factor with impact on spatial planning processes, where
morphological, hypsometric and morphographic features are taken into account.
Morphological features are valorized through analysis of diversity and attractiveness of
terrain.
During tourism valorization of terrain, it is very important to consider its morphometric
characteristics, especially:
- Altitude;
- Slope inclination;
- Vertical articulation;
- Slope exposure.
Morphometric and morphological advantages and limitations significantly affect
distribution of population, building different objects, roads, as well as way of life and
tourism activities. In the terms of vertical categorization, it could be said that terrain under
200 meters represents lowland; terrain between 200 and 500 meters usually is represented
by hills; lower mountains are between 500 and 1000 meters high; medium mountains lies
between 1000 and 2000 meters, and terrain above 2000 meters is regarded as high
mountain.
Fig. 2. Hypsometric features of National Park Una
According to this categorization, GIS analysis showed that whole terrain of National Park
Una can be classified into three vertical zones – first under the 500 meters (221 – 500 m),
77
second between 500 and 1000 meters, and third above 1000 meters (1000 – 1167 m). Zone
that lies between 221 meters (lowest point of Nation Park) and 500 meters occupies 42,4%,
zone between 500 and 1000 meters takes 56,77% and highest zone (above 1000 meters)
has share of only 0,76% in total land area. On the basis of altitudinal belts analysis,
hypsometric structure is used for determination of possibilites for various activities, like
cultivation of different crops, zonal differentiation in forestry, winter sports, recreation etc.
Slope inclination analysis provides determination of advantages and limitations for various
types of land use. Slope inclination angles are differentiated in accordance with difficulty
and costs of object construction from the aspect of land use. Even terrain with steep slopes
(less suitable) can be used for various purposes, but it requires higher expenses due to
adjustment. In evaluation of terrain usefulness for construction, following categories are
considered:
- 0-2° - very suitable for construction;
- 2-5° - suitable for construction;
- 5-12° - suitable with minor adjustments;
- 12-32°- unsuitable, only with major adjustments can be used for construction;
- 32° or more - totally unsuitable for construction. (Bognar, 1992)
Fig. 3. Slope inclination in National Park Una
Based on cartographic and graphical representation, it can be concluded that unsuitable

terrain that can be used for construction of objects only with major adjustments has the
largest share in total area of National Park Una, with 43,7%. Generally suitable terrain with
78
minor adjustment needed comes second with percentage of 26,39%, while suitable and
very suitable terrain covers 22,52% in total. Completely unsuitable terrain makes only
7,39% of total National Park area. Even though the object of this analysis is terrain of a
National Park, it is important to examine slope inclination in the context of construction,
not only of residential objects, but also other objects and infrastructure for tourism and
monitoring of environment.
Analysis of vertical articulation implies determination of difference in altitude between the
highest and the lowest point on the unit of area (m/km²). This method is very significant
from the aspect of possibility of its valorization for various economic purposes. There are
several categories of vertical articulation: values up to 10 m/km² represent flattened terrain;
values of 10 to 40 m/km² represent slightly broken plains; 40 to 60 m/km² stands for
slightly broken terrain; values 60 to 100 m/km² implies moderately broken terrain; 100 to
300 m/km² represents broken terrain and values higher than 300 m/km² imply extremely
broken terrain.
Fig. 4. Vertical articulation in National Park Una
GIS map and chart of vertical terrain articulation show that five out of six mentioned
categories can be found in the territory of National Park – there is no extremely broken
79
terrain (above 300 m/km²). Slightly broken plains are represented by largest percentage of
31,69%, followed by moderately broken terrain (22,89%), slightly broken terrain (18,3%),
broken terrain (15,45%) and flattened terrain with only 11,67% in total land area.
Evaluation of slope exposure is very important procedure for general valorization of some
area. Slope exposure orientation of terrain surface is in relation to the Sun. In the context
of various purposes, slope exposure can be identified as suitable or unsuitable. For
example, southern exposures are very suitable for agriculture, while northern exposure is
better for development of ski tourism. This is the reason why evaluation of slope exposure
is an integral part of comprehensive geographical terrain analysis. GIS methodology is
used for cartographic and chart presentation of distribution of different types of slope
exposure in National Park Una. Through this visualisation, it became very clear that
highest percentage of slopes belongs to northeastern, eastern, southwestern and western
exposure, due to general direction of Dinaric mountain chains. However, this category of
terrain is more useful for detailed specific analyses than for general geoecological analysis
like this one.
These simple percentage-based representations of certain terrain elements don't show the
real picture of possibilites for various activities. Functional evaluation of terrain requires
analysis of multiple elements, cartographic overlapping of oleates and drawing complex
conclusions based on that.
GEOECOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Geoecological evaluation of natural environment includes optimal space management,

whose objectives are determination of environmental advantages and limitations for certain
social activity, like tourism, sport or recreation. Except for spatial development,
geoecological evaluation can be conducted for the purpose of spatial planning in terms of
environmental protection. In spatial planning, natural resources must be taken into account,
to that right decisions about its exploitation can be made in accordance to principle of
sustainable development.
Applied method is based on summarizing the values for defined elements. Obtained
summation coresponds with bonity category of evaluated terrain. Certain terrain categories
were evaluated, and evaluation methodology is adjusted to terrain specificities of
researched area.
Geoecological evaluation of terrain in the National Park Una is conducted with
methodology of summarizing values for categories of hypsometry, slope inclination,
vertical articulation and terrain mobility. Evaluation procedure is implemented in a manner
of overlapping of net consisting of units of area (62.500 m2 – 1x1 cm on the map of scale
1:25000) net and maps of slope inclination, vertical articulation and hypsometry. To each
unit of area is given adequate numerical value for each category: vertical articulation,
hypsometric features and terrain mobility in accordance to slope inclination.
General hypothesis of terrain valorization method is that zones with the lowest
hypsometric level, minimal slope inclination, minimal vertical articulation and minimal
gradient of terrain mobility have the highest value, and vice versa. Terrain of the highest
value received 100 points, and terrain of the lowest value got 16,4 points in total.
Terrain mobility is evaluated according to the potential mobility and slope inclination:
- 0-20 (stable slope);
- 2-50 (weak erosion);
- 5-120 (increased erosion with landslides);
80
- 12-320 (intensive erosion)
- 32-550 (intensive material movement, slopes are generally without vegetation);
- > 550 (occurance of escarpment and talus slopes). (Bognar, Bognar, 2010)
-
Fig. 5. Methodology of terrain evaluation in National Park Una by using the units of area
net
Tab. 1. Points by categories within geoecological evaluation of terrain in National Park

Una
Slope Terrain
Altitude Terrain
Cat. Points incl. Points art. Points Points
(m) mobility
(0) (m/km2)
221,1-
1. 25 0-2 25 0-5 25 stable terrain 25
379,1
379,1- moderate
2. 20,8 2-5 20,8 5-30 20,8 20,8
537,1 erosion
537,1- erosion and
3. 16,6 5-12 16,6 30-100 16,6 16,6
695,1 landslide
695,1- intensive
4. 12,4 12-32 12,4 100-300 12,4 12,4
853,1 erosion
853,1- material
5. 8,1 32-55 8,1 300-800 8,1 8,1
1011,1 movement
1011,1- large
6. 4,1 >55 4,1 >800 4,1 4,1
1167,2 escarpment
By using this methodology of geoecological evaluation of Terrain in National Park Una,

numerical indicators for each unit of area are obtained. These indicators were basis for
defining terrain value. After summarizing the points by defined categories, it is conducted
classification of terrain areas by bonity categories with values form 0 to 9, i. e. from
extremely unsuitable terrain to one of the highest value.
81
Tab. 2. Terrain bonity categories
Category Class Points
9 Terrain of the highest value 91-100
8 Highly valuable terrain 81-90
7 Generally valuable terrain 71-80
6 Relatively less valuable terrain 61-70
5 Generally less valuable terrain 51-60
4 Relatively unsuitable terrain 41-50
3 Gennerally unsuitable terrain 31-40
2 Unsuitable terrain 21-30
1 Very unsuitable terrain 11-20
0 Extremely unsuitable terrain 1-10
Source: Bognar, Bognar (2010)
By using this methodology of geoecological evaluation of terrain in National Park Una,

numerical indicators for each unit of area are obtained. These indicators were the basis for
defining terrain value. After summarizing the points by defined categories, it is conducted
classification of terrain areas by bonity categories with values form 0 to 9, i. e. from
extremely unsuitable terrain to one of the highest value.
Fig. 6. Bonity categories of terrain in National Park Una

82
According to conducted evaluation, it can be stated that in the researched area does not
exist extremely unsuitable, very unsuitable and unsuitable type of terrain. On the other
hand, generally unsuitable, relatively unsuitable, generally less valuable, relatively les
valuable, generally valuable, highly valuable and terrain of the highest value are registered.
Detailed anaysis and cartographic visualization proved that, despite its exceptionally
attractiveness (unique hydrological, geomorphological and biogeographical features),
National Park Una has only modest potential in term of its terrain characteristics.
On the basis of precise numerical values, it can stated that over a half (51,5%) of the
National Park territory belongs to the bonity category of relatively unsuitable terrain.
Generally less suitable terrains come second with 21%, followed by category of generally
less valuable terrain (10,4%), relatively less valuable terrain (10,4%), generally valuable
terrain (5,4%). Terrain with the highest value and highly valuable terrain have the lowest
share in the territory of National Park Una, with only 0,7% each.
CONCLUSION
On the basis of analysis presented in this paper, it can be concluded that geoecological
evaluation is significant methodological procedure, which is used for obtaining the real
value of terrain in National Park Una. This kind of methodology includes various
geomorphological analyses. During the first phase, geomorphological research of the
terrain is conducted. Various analyses of certain terrain elements (hypsometric
characteristics, vertical articulation, slope inclionation and terrain exposure) are conducted
within this research. However, it is not possible to get the relevant results for the total
value of terrain in explored area by these individual anaylises only.
Geoecological research has determined specific characteristics of terrain in Nation Park
Una. It is obtained on the basis of complex geomorphological analysis of cartographically
visualised geomorphological features. Terrain in National Park Una is evaluated through
method of analyzing the criteria of hypsometry, slope inclination, vertical articulation and
terrain mobility. In this way, various types of terrain are clearly differentiated into
generally unsuitable, relatively unsuitable, relatively less valuable, relatively valuable,
generally valuable, highly valuable and terrain with the highest value. It can be stated that
most of the territory of National Park do not provide great opportunity for development of
high number of activities, like mass tourism, except in certain limited locations. Obtained
results are very important, because in the spatial planning for special purpose taking it into
account can significantly improve, remediate or adjust certain integral elements of terrain,
as well as geoecological and tourism value of this protected natural area.
REFERENCES
1. Bognar, A. (1992). Inţinjersko geomorfološko kartiranje. Zagreb

2. Bognar, A., Bognar, H. (2010). Geoekološko vrednovanje reljefa Republike
Hrvatske, Geoekologija XXI vijeka – Teorijski i aplikativni zadaci. Nikšić.
3. Maksin-Mićić, M. (2008). Turizam i prostor. Belgrade: Univerzitet Singidunum.
4. Martinović-Uzelac, A. (2001). Prostorno planiranje. Zagreb.
83
ON CLIMATE CHANGE ALARMISM IN TOURISM
Amir Shani1
Abstract: A state-of-the-art scientific evidence is provided that supports the need of tourism
scholars to adopt a critical approach when evaluating the various aspects of climate change. The
extent of uncertainties regarding the subject matter does not allow those who study climate change
and tourism to dismiss substantial doubts and counterevidence with the usual response about
"consensus" or "climate deniers." Human-induced climate change is a phenomenon not yet well
understood, and thus advocating greenhouse gas mitigation strategies for the tourism industry is
precipitous and likely to inflict enormous costs and involve serious pitfalls.
Key words: Climate change, Global warming, Skepticism.
INTRODUCTION
Climate science is not settled. True, the scientific community accepts that the
concentration of man-made greenhouse gases could affect the climate, but despite the vast
resources invested, the crucial and complex questions for climate policy remain
unanswered. Somewhat surprisingly, in their essay "on climate change skepticism and
denial in tourism", Hall et al. (2015) seem to agree with that premise, stating that "(t)here
is substantial debate over many aspects of climate change science, not only with respect to
levels of confidence and uncertainty, but also paradigms and frameworks within which it is
understood as a problem to be managed and solved…there is substantial contestation over
issues of adaptation, mitigation, vulnerability, and resilience" (p. 17).
These open questions are by no means minor issues but rather substantial deficiencies in
the current state of knowledge (Shani & Arad, 2014). Despite these uncertainties, tourism
researchers can be found advocating far-reaching steps for the tourism industry to
substantively reduce its greenhouse gas footprint (e.g., Gӧssling, 2009; McKercher et al.,
2010; Müller & Weber, 2008; Simpson et al. 2008). It is argued here that these and many
other environmental-policy suggestions are ill-timed, are of limited practicality, and may
even have a negative impact on the tourism industry. Instead, a scientifically-based,
skeptical and cautious approach in studies on climate change and tourism is advocated, one
that recognizes the complexities and doubts that are the reality of climate change science.
In a response to a previous paper on the subject matter (Shani & Arad, 2014), Hall et al.
(2014) issued a harsh response, which is characterized with all the familiar demagogic
tactics of climate change alarmists1, including labeling the authors as "climate change
deniers," referring to "inconvenient" studies as "outliers," misrepresenting arguments as
well as resorting to ad hominem attacks. Shani & Arad (2015) issued a response addressing
most of the concerns raised Hall et al. (2014, 2015). The purpose of the current
commentary is to reply to some of the more fundamental arguments mentioned by climate
change alarmists such as Hall et al.
1
Senior Lecturer, Department of Hotel and Tourism Management, Ben-Gurion University of the
Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
84
CURRENT CLIMATE MODELS ARE UNRELIABLE
Hall et al. (2015) argued that climate models, which are relied on by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), "have improved considerably since they were first
developed and are well validated" (p. 7), yet provide no evidence to back this claim, apart
from quoting the IPCC's statements in its own reports. Indeed, the models have
consistently predicted more warming than what has actually been recorded, and have failed
to indicate the temperature stability that has been observed over the past 18 years
(Beenstock, Reingerwetz & Paldor, 2014; Curry, 2014). This is significant as since 1990
atmospheric carbon dioxide have risen 13% (McKitrick, 2014). Hall et al. (2015)
reluctantly recognized this evidence, but attribute it to natural internal variability, citing the
IPCC's statement that "more that 90% of the net energy increase in the climate system is
stored in the oceans" (p. 8).
However, climate models that have hitherto failed to effectively account for natural
influences and variability are clearly deficient in serving as a reliable basis for public
policy decisions, including those that are tourism oriented. Recent studies also indicate that
the climate sensitivity (i.e. the amount of global surface warming that doubling the
concentration carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would eventually produce) is significantly
lower than that estimated in the IPCC's latest report (Aldrin, 2012; Lewis & Curry, 2014;
Otto et al., 2013; Skeie et al., 2014). Such evidence implies that humanity has more time to
diminish greenhouse gas emissions than argued in the IPCC's reports as well as more time
to improve climate projections and provide more accurate information to policymakers.
Moreover, a recent NASA study refutes the controversial suggestion mentioned by Hall et
al. (2015), namely that the deep ocean plays a crucial role in heat uptake. Analyzing
satellite and direct ocean temperature data from 2005 to 2013, Llovel et al. (2014) found
that the earth's ocean abyss below 2,000 meters has not measurably warmed, while the rise
in the temperature of the upper oceans – above 2,000 meters – cannot account for the pause
in global surface warming. This and other unforeseen evidence (e.g. the significant
continuing growth and thickness of Antarctic sea ice, see Williams et al., 2014)
demonstrate the severe limits of climate models. Consequently, "(i)t seems too hasty and
irresponsible to recommend that the tourism industry take drastic and expensive courses of
action that are based on climate forecasting models that have demonstrated very limited
success" (Shani & Arad, 2014, p. 83).
RECENT WARMTH IS NOT ANOMALOUS
Despite Hall et al.'s claims, recent studies (Gennaretti et al., 2014) did provide strong
evidence "for substantial warmth during Roman and Medieval times, larger in extent and
longer in duration than 20th century warmth" (Esper et al., 2012, p. 1). These are essential
discoveries since the infamous "hockey stick"2 studies (e.g., Mann, Bradely & Hughes,
1998), which were designed to demonstrate that temperatures in the late 20th century were
exceptional compared to previous centuries, have been extremely influential in the climate
change discourse and used to illustrate that anthropogenic global warming (AGW) is
growing and poses a serious problem (McIntyre & McKittrick, 2003; Soon & Baliunas,
2003).
The indication that the past decades were not the warmest in the past millennium does not
disprove the AGW theory on its own, but indicates that human influences on the global
climate are far smaller than natural variations. This "smallness" can perhaps explain why
85
climate models have thus far failed to project human influences on climate change. Indeed,
despite the assertion made by Hall et al. (2015) that our contemporary period can be
referred to as the "Anthropocene," Gibbard & Walker (2013) argued that it is uncertain
whether anthropogenic effects on the climate are "sufficiently distinct, consistent and dated
for the proposal of Holocene/Anthropocene boundary to be substantiated" (p. 29). The
"Hockey Stick" repudiation also demonstrates the contribution of rational skepticism
notwithstanding well-accepted scientific paradigms, even in the face of delegitimization
and personal attacks commonly used in climate debates.
ASSESSMENTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ARE UNSETTLED
The likely effects of climate change are varied and include both positive and negative
outcomes. Up to now, climate change has improved human and planetary welfare (Tol,
2013), and Tol (2009, 2013) calculated that climate change would be beneficial overall up
to a 2.2°C increase in warming from 2009 (i.e. ~3°C since the pre-industrial era). In light
of the aforementioned recent low climate sensitivity estimates, this provides humanity
much more time to adapt to changed temperatures and decarbonize its energy production
technologies affordably than is assessed by the IPCC. This, of course, also sheds doubts on
the assertion made by Hall et al. (2015) regarding the "urgency to reduce emissions" in the
tourism industry.
As evidence to the accumulation of heat in the oceans, Hall et al. (2015) cited the IPCC
declaration regarding the rise in global mean sea level. Nevertheless, Rohling et al. (2014)
reconstruct sea levels over the past 5.3 million years and show that the current rise in sea
level is by no means unprecedented or different from prior interglacial periods (see also
Stevens et al., 2014). Additionally, the IPCC oceanographic methodology and views have
been criticized for relying on computer modeling rather than on observational facts
(Mörner, 2010, 2014). Based on extensive observational studies, Mörner (2013) stated that
there "is a very strong argument against the IPCC postulate of an ongoing rapid rise in sea
level, and specifically against the proposed acceleration during the last decades" (p. 525)
and that the IPCC claims "cannot be validated by observational facts" (p. 528).
Due to uncertainties regarding the social costs of greenhouse gases, more accurate
scientific information is required before advocating hasty policies that are detrimental to
economic growth, as the necessary technological advances for affordable stabilization of
atmospheric carbon dioxide are still missing (Galiana & Green, 2009; Pielke, Wigley &
Green, 2008). Impact assessments of current climate change have also been criticized for
not suitably accounting for substantial future improvements in adaptive capacity, which
will advance the capability of coping with climate change. As noted by Goklany (2007a),
"(f)uture generations will not only be better off, they should also have at their disposal
better and more effective technologies and greater human capital to address not just
climate change but any other sources of adversity" (p. 1043).
WEALTHIER IS HEALTHIER
Hall et al. (2015) correctly stated that "climate change is real" (climate is naturally volatile
and has indeed always been dynamic) and "(t)he issue now is how to best respond over the
short and long terms" (p. 18). Contrary to the confusion, inaccuracies and uncertainties
surrounding the effects of future climate change, data clearly demonstrates that despite (or
due to) the rise in carbon dioxide emissions and increase in global surface temperatures
86
over the past century, climate has become more – not less – livable for humanity (Goklany,
2007b, 2009). For example, from 2004-2013, worldwide climate-related deaths plummeted
by 88.6% compared to 1930-1939. Epstein (2014) concludes that the fossil-fuel economy
dramatically improves civilization's resilience to adverse climate impacts such as extreme
weather events, extreme temperatures, droughts, floods and wildfires (see also Goklany
2011; Ridley 2010). Therefore, "(h)istory provides us ample evidence that 'wealthier is
healthier,' since as societies become more affluent their capacity to adapt to changing
environmental conditions is significantly improved" (Shani & Arad, 2015, p. 350).
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In order to provide "the balance that is missing from the overly alarmist studies on climate
change and tourism" (Shani & Arad, 2014a, p. 82), the reviews of Shani & Arad (2014,
2015), as well as the current paper, present prominent studies that express skepticism
regarding the mainstream assessments of climate change and its consequences.
Questioning essential elements of the AGW theory (which is still a scientific theory,
regardless of the extent of body of evidence that supports it) is not a "denial" by any
means. Acknowledging counterevidence and scientific disputes is a responsibility – not an
act of "denial" – of those who study climate change and tourism.
Hall et al. (2015), like other climate change alarmists, declare that they wish "to improve
the quality of climate change knowledge and its communication," (p. 6) but at the same
time frame the climate change discourse within arbitrary narrow boundaries of fallacious
"consensus" and "settled science." The so-called consensus (see Cook et al., 2013) refers,
at best, to a high percentage of scientists who agree that human factors play some role in
climate change. However, as was clearly demonstrated, "issues such as the extent and rate
of climatechange, the extent of the human factor in causing climate change, the
consequences of climate change, and the optimal strategies torespond to climate change are
at the heart of the scientific debate" (Shani & Arad, 2015, p. 349). That being the case,
speaking of "consensus" is no more than a distraction designed to silence dissenting voices
within the scientific community.
One may ask, in light of Hall et al. (2015) explicit confidence in the validity and
implications of the AGW theory, why they chose to refer to the "precautionary principle"
as the strategy that needs to be applied in coping with climate change. This principle goes
further than refraining from actions that have established risks, which Hall et al. argue is
the case with human-induced climate change. It calls for exercising caution even with
regards to developments with no verifiable risks. Nevertheless, if climate change science is
settled, then the precautionary principle is extraneous, as the supposedly harmful AGW
was 'proven' and its implications are obvious. But climate science is not settled, and thus
the use of the precautionary principle is indeed very useful for climate change alarmists, as
it places the burden of proof on climate change skeptics rather than on the alarmists. We
are told to take precautionary action to mitigate climate change, even though the crucial
aspects of the latter are still under intense scientific dispute. This is not the result of a
rational and sustainable approach. but of quasi-religious bigotry that is disastrous for the
very concept of human progress.
Jumping on the climate change bandwagon with popular suggestions to curb the
greenhouse gas emissions of the tourism industry (and consequently its economic growth)
through coercive measures such as carbon caps, taxes and behavioral change of tourists, is
a radical manifestation of the precautionary principle, and is not in line with the current
87
state of climate change knowledge. The latter supports our call for a skeptical approach in
studies on climate change and tourism. The tourism industry is a crucial engine for global
economic development, and consequently to the adaptive capacity of humanity regarding
climate change. This conclusion is akin to the evidence that vulnerability to natural hazards
is significantly reduced as societies become wealthier (Goklany, 2009; Pielke, 2010). As
noted by Shani & Arad (2015), "(t)he AGW policies advocated by tourism scholars will do
little to reduce warming, but instead inflict enormous costs and serious pitfalls, preventing
the tourism industry from fulfilling its full economic potential" (p. 350).
The American author and philosopher Ayn Rand recognized the ruinous influences of the
radical ecological movement long before contemporary AGW hype. In her essay, ―The
Anti-Industrial Revolution‖ (1971/1999), Rand reminded us that "(t)he dinosaur and its
fellow-creatures vanished from this earth long before there were any industrialists or any
men . . . . But this did not end life on earth. Contrary to the ecologists, nature does not
stand still and does not maintain the kind of ―equilibrium‖ that guarantees the survival of
any particular species—least of all the survival of her greatest and most fragile product:
man" (p. 276). This is a crucial lesson to remember in the presence of current climate
change alarmism, which regretfully has found its way into tourism studies as well.
Notes
1. Climate alarmism is the excessive/exaggerated alarm about climate change and its
consequences; the "deliberate ignorance" regarding counterevidence, and the
communication of climate change through inflated language while condemning
"dissenting" scientists.
2. The "hockey stick graph" (which was eventually invalidated) "purports to chart
global temperatures over the past millennium; a sharp rise at the current end is the
‗blade‘ that makes the otherwise flattish line look like a hockey stick" (Brumfiel,
2006, p.1032).
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au Accessed 14 December 2014.
90
SESSION: URBAN TOURISM AND CULTURAL HERITAGE
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN HISTORY FOR URBAN TOURISM RESEARCH

AND PRACTICES: THE CASE OF BURSA .................................................................... 93
TRANSLATOR‟S ROLE AND CONTRIBUTION ......................................................... 107
TO THE CULTURAL HERITAGE TOURISM ............................................................... 107
URBAN TOURISM AND CULTURAL TOURISM IN THE CONTEXT O BELIEF
TOURISM: KONYA SAMPLE ........................................................................................ 112
CONTRIBUTIONS OF COUNTRYSIDE RESTAURANTS TO RURAL TOURISM: A
MANAGERIAL PERSPECTIVE ..................................................................................... 119
DO MEMORIAL SITES FROM THE SECOND WORLD WAR POSSESS POTENTIAL
FOR TOURISM DEVELOPMENT – EXAMPLES FROM CROATIA AND BOSNIA
AND HERZEGOVINA ..................................................................................................... 130
CONVERSION OF FORMER INDUSTRIAL PORTS INTO TOURIST ATTRACTIONS.
HAS INTEGRATION BEEN ACHIEVED? .................................................................... 142
CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE UNA NATIONAL PARK, UNSEPARABLE PART
FROM THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT...................................................................... 149
IS CONSERVATION OF CULTURAL PROPERTIES A TOOL FOR TOURISM
HOSPITALTY?................................................................................................................. 163
A RESEARCH ABOUT REVENUE MANAGEMENT AWARENESS AND
APPLICATIONS IN TURKISH HOTEL INDUSTRY .................................................... 177
CLIMATE IMPACT ON ORIGIN AND TOURISM VALORISATION OF
TRADITIONAL URBAN ARCHITECTURE IN BOSNIA&HERZEGOVINA AND
CROATIA ......................................................................................................................... 189
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFIC FORMS OF TOURISM IN MOSTAR AND
WEST HERZEGOVINIAN TOURIST-GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS .......................... 201
THE EFFECT OF HOTELS' TRAINING ON OVERNIGHTS, REGIONAL GROWTH
AND EMPLOYMENT ...................................................................................................... 213
91
92
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN HISTORY FOR URBAN TOURISM
RESEARCH AND PRACTICES: THE CASE OF BURSA
Funda Songur1
Abstract: Heritage is the historical result of past interactions. Urban history reveals components of
that heritage in the context of a city and helps us to perceive cultural values in their unique
connections. Historians have several kinds of references that are used to study urban history.
Travelbooks and yearbooks, two of those historical sources, are deliberately emphasised in this
study. They introduce not only tangible and intangible cultural heritage of a city as possible tools for
sustainability and diversity, but also are essential references in tourism research for particularly
historical academic views. Cultural heritage of today together with those lost or almost forgotten
can be interpreted through urban history sources within its own methodology but in favour of urban
tourism. The outcome is incomparable data for related territory. Besides, it can generate possibilities
to enhance not only cliché methods for urban management but also understandings of business
leaders. This paper,therefore, underlines distinctive studies of Ottoman Urban History as
interdisciplinary input within tourism literature and for possible contributions in improvement of
city tourism practices.Urban history studies are considered along with theperception of cultural
heritage. The city Bursa is used as a case study in order to exemplify aims of this paper in wider
conceptions for urban tourism research and practices. Introduced and evaluatedtravelbooksand
yearbooks are hence written about Bursa. Travelbooksare especially chosen from those written by
European travellers within nineteenth century. As a result, evaluation also captures perceptions of
travellers in mentioned period. Yearbooks of the same era, on the other hand, are also introduced
within the concept of urban tourism and cultural heritage.
Keywords: Urban History, Urban Tourism, Cultural Heritage, Bursa, Yearbook (Salnâme),
Travelbook (Seyahatnâme).
REVIEWING URBAN HISTORY LITERATUREAS PART OF URBAN TOURISM
Urban History is utmost important research area for history researchers and for their micro
studies. It comes to the forefront as one of very closest areas for interdisciplinary research
due to its own diverse informationspecialness. Sources that the area takes into account
provide most detailed information about a city. Such a city research, subject to a total
history approach, not only delivers political history of a city but also puts forth its social,
economic and cultural particulars.
Urban history research area became rather important after various evaluationsof
humankind through nineteenthand twentieth centuries. Researchers tremendously studied
on migration towards cities (or between countries), city developments, planning of
districts, emerged problems, dealing with such problems, solution definitions, substructure
and superstructure formations, society aspects, cultural and social progresses, architectural
extents and so on. Eventually, such massive studies have developed a literature culture.
Urban history research became an independent area, having intense number of work, in the
West, whereas yet became a field of interest in Turkey (Uğur, 2005). Turkish urban
historians are concentrated on city analysis of Ottoman period due to the fact that reference
documents are varied and accessible. Physical aspects of cities in Ottoman period,
situations of inhabitants together with their social states and detailed and varied
1
PhD Student, Department of History, Faculty of Art and Sciences, University of Uludağ, Bursa,
Turkey.
93
information can be confirmed fully and extensively in substantial archive documents
(İnalcık and Arı, 2005). In order to enrich collected information, a researcher works
onadditional sources such astravelbooks and yearbooks. Analysed information is
transferred in a systemized way so that information which may have no connection
between each other can be gathered together for solid meanings. Outcome of this process,
therefore, may become useful knowledge for different disciplines.Such works of urban
historians reveal city analysis containinga variety of aspects from political, and economic
view to tangible and intangible cultural values, population features, and society practices.
Such richanalysis is not only for own development of a city but also for improvement of
urban tourism activities and associated products.Scientific approach of history maximises
degree of seeing localcultural values and illustrates new methods for urban tourism
research and practices. The paradox of unique urban attractions as once-in-a-life-time
experienceswhich can be overcome either by approaching new markets or by creating new
tourist products (Ashworth and Page, 2011)may be overwhelmed with the influential help
of urban history sources in crafting products. Urban tourism industry, a serious economic
input for a city, improves itself for about last thirty years, is full of rivalry and changeable
opportunities. Urban history can thereforebe a tool for local strategies to generate
differentiation within dynamic urban tourism industry. Western and Eastern historians
study cities of Ottoman period within concept of cultural heritagethat enlighten secrets of
cities. Existingcity history researches with indisputable results are for both theoretical and
practical sense of use for urban tourism. Limited number of literature will be exemplified
below in order to point out possible gains.
Present-day trend for Arabian area urban history research of Ottoman period is on cultural
aspects. As Hanna (2005) underlines, urban history research increase due to new sources as
manuscripts, archival documents, waqf records remodels especially traditional way of
looking at an Islamic City or Middle East City and modernises perceptions of historians
according toactual sources. In other words, Arabian history is rewritten with historical
sources in contrast to eurocentricorientalists‟ myths2. Such progress comprises
characteristic to change perceptions of “West” about the “East”. Therefore, updated studies
can be utilised by actors of tourism destinations as a tool for such anadjustment.
The literature of Balkans area urban history research of Ottoman period, including
different areasand several researchers, is uniquely on city itself together with development
processes and cultural configurations or as in monography providing information on
social-economic and demographic developments (Turhan, Kolçak, and Gökaçtı, 2005).
There are extensive worksrevealinghundreds of cultural signs and architectural studies that
expose cultural values of the Balkans3. Experiential urban history researcher Machiel
Kiel,has travelled within the Balkans since 1959, collected information about Ottoman
artefacts, recorded many of those together with that are not successfully lived up to today
and worked even at several restorations (Turhan, 2005).Todorov, for instance, is very first
researchers on the Balkans city history until publications of Bruce McGowan and
2
André Raymond, is the leading researcher, studies several sources and archive thoroughly and
scientifically
3
Please see following studies: “Ekrem Hakkı Ayverdi, Avrupa‟da Osmanlı Mimari Eserleri,
İstanbul: istanbul Fetih Cemiyeti, 1977”; “Nur Akın, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Dönemi Konutları,
İstanbul: Literatür Yayıncılık, 2001”; “Ömer Turan-Mehmet Z. İbrahimgil, Balkanlardaki Türk
Mimarî Eserlerinden Örnekler, Ankara: TBMM Kültür, Sanat ve Yayın Kurulu Yayınları, No: 97,
2004”
94
GézaDavid (Koç, 2005).There are also international symposiums on Ottoman signs in
Balkans4. Mentioned studies are to be used in order to create new tourist products enriched
by the area‟s own history.
African area urban history research of Ottoman period is concentrated on political issues;
however, there are researches involving with cultural studies. Nour(2005) lists rich sources
of area research under four main groups: Travelbooks and notes of European officers are
mentioned, even though they are mainly on the purpose to answer the needs of Europeans,
local information can be found to lesser extent.
Anatolian area urban history research of Ottoman period is at considerable level. “Some
prominent Ottoman Anatolian cities, with no doubt, are honoured by much of interest of
researchers. For example, Bursa is one of the most attractive cities for leading urban
historians (Öz, 2005, p. 66)”. Municipalities of Bursa have a significant library on city
history which is the consequence of numerous projects between local officers and
researchers of the city university5.
Urban history conveying such knowledgebecomes vital as a source to tourism research and
practises.Lost tangible and intangible culture can be analysed throughout and revived by
tourism actors in order to be offered as a local tourist product. Likewise, progress in urban
tourism practices by use of urban history research may bring the sense of responsibility to
wider interest groups. Active cooperative approaches among stakeholders and involvement
of all parties reduces conflicts and increases understanding during development process
(Songur, 2012). History, at that point, may become a tie for destination societies;given
thatnotion of urban tourism has strong connections with locals and it is in need of actors
who haveadvanced understanding of the phenomenon.
Miller and Mumford(1992) state that each generation writes their biography on buildings
they build. Such heritage is taken over not for today but to transfer to coming generations.
Urban history studies reveal city within heritage aspects and those studies ensure serious
inputs for urban tourism improvement. It is within this context that the present paper seeks
to emphasise the importance of urban history and its sources for reviving lost cultural
values to accelerate the current progress and to prosper today as well as conveying them to
the future.
SOURCES OF URBAN RESEARCH
Due to the fact that countries have different documentation within different time periods
and cities are livingunits;sources that academicians use vary. They are not usual and not
continuously same for every city. As Uğur (2005) declares, cadastral record books were
initial sources before 1960 for city historians of Ottoman period, whereas after 1960s
Court Records, Temettiiatregistries, and yearbooks (salnâme) have been particularly used.
Sources differ between centuries studied and dramatically increase in quality and in
number as time passes. In that variety, academicians on one hand are forced to work into
details on the other hand the outcome is fruitful in the light of new information (Koç,
2005). Moreover, visual, archival, literacy and material sources should be interwoven in
order to see the city truly (Ebel, 2005).However, photographing has started towards to the
mid of nineteenth century and the first photo of Bursa was Irgandı Bridge taken in
4
Such as http://organizations.vgm.gov.tr/index.aspx?Dil=EN
5
Please see“Nezaket Özdemir, Bursa Kaynakçası, Bursa Büyükşehir Belediyesi, 2011” – as one of
latest bibliographies of Bursa.
95
1854(Dostoğlu, 2001). Therefore, sketches of travellers associated with each travelbooks
are vital for researchers who examine a selection of sources for their studies.
Progress in urban history is progress in understanding cultural heritage. However, sources
differ in accordance with the importance and the size of cities. A tourism researcher has
valid concerns for not acquiring well-qualified information for each city. Therefore,
available travelbooks and yearbooks are subjects for specific considerations. Their precise
relations with very first travel movements and tourism investments make them the sources
for urban tourism developments and tourism history research.
Yearbooks and their importance
Yearbooks are rare official documents revealing history of a city from different points of
view. They have varied versions but this study emphasises on especially province
yearbooks.Case city of this study is rather important within yearbook tradition. Bursa has
37 yearbooks printed between 1869 and 1927; yearbook of 1907 is the last printed one
before Turkish Republic was established (Yearbook, 2013). Due to its rich and detailed
information6, this study presents 1907 yearbook. Urban related data provided in those
books are important sources not only for urban history but also for tourism history and
today‟s urban tourism assets. We learn from the yearbook that Uludağthen was a famous
mountain and named as Bithynian‟s Olympus at early periods. It is written that its fame
was mentioned even by early historiansHeredot and Istrabon. Fame of the mountain
continued after Ottomans‟ conquest. Ascending to its summit was a famous city excursion
for travellers of nineteenth century. Another famous excursion area of the same era
wasUluabat Lake and the islands located on that lake.1907 yearbook presents that there
were small islands on the lake which had ancient Byzantine foundations. Ancient
Byzantine structures were also located on the island village of Ancient Apollyon
(Apollonia on the Rhyndacum) that could be reached through a wooden bridge. Some of its
towers and walls were toldto be steady and solid. It was then believed that a ruined temple
and dock located on one of other island (called Kız Island) belonged to Apollonia. The
yearbook provides detailed information on status of each ruin that can give the chance to
compare to those of todays and to find out hidden ones, if any.
One of the mostly mentioned features of Bursa was its abundance of water sources and
thermal water for varied illnesses. Yearbook provides an in depth information about
natural content of water with percentages and illustrates cultural traditions in relation to
bathing at thermal baths.
Ancient harbour Dasklionand three-saint home of Tirilyewhich lately became a
muchdemanded tourist destinationis mentioned in the yearbook. A revealed bridge from
fourteenth century is NilüferHatun Bridge that welcomed travellers who entered the city
from Mudanya in nineteenth century. The bridge was under restoration and is currently
under protection and exempt from vehicles.
1907 yearbook (p. 561-573) provides followings for existing ancient cities: Apameia
Myrleiaas ruins with two breakwaters; Apollonia du Rhyndakos as ruins at good
6
Information oncalendar, sultans, diplomacy and formalities, farming, population and weather,
waterfronts and islands, mountains, woods and detailed number of trees, rivers, lakes, hot and cold
water sources, thermal springs, mine resources, history, ethnography, industrial activities, ancient
cities and their existence, railways, product information, statistics, import and export details,
economy, education and schools, taxes, fairs etc.
96
conditions; Basilinopolis a Byzantine and its cemetery; Daskylion and Hadrianoi
monuments including a great building, marble pillars, pillar pedestals, kiosk with few
epitaphs and tombs; Lopadium a Byzantine monument; a Roman artefact Miletopolis with
several epitaphs, a bridge, sculptures, reliefs, pillar pedestals;Purusawith several Byzantine
traces; Nicaeawith very well protectedcity walls, a theatre, epitaphs, Kasyos‟s Obelisk,
Romanian path; Sen Sofi church with well-protectedmosaics.Given details about
monuments, sculptures, epigraphs, inscriptions and cemeteries are rich enough to be used
in comparison to today‟s status of each item.The yearbook also details international visitor
numbers of ancient places for the years of 1902, 1903 and 1904. It stands as an early
cultural tourism statistics for the province itself.
Travelbooks and their importance
Travelbooks are travel notes that were written for centuries, had detailed and authentic
narration, werean expression method for desire of travelling, seeing, knowing and
conveying. Act of travel writing is as old as the invention of writing. The first travelbookis
Hatshepsut‟s travel reliefs (Löschburg, 1998). Since then, motives of writing for travellers
from Heredot to Marco Polo, İbn-iBatuta, Jean de Thévenot, EvliyaÇelebi, Gérard de
Nerval, Charles Texierand for numerous travellers were varied.They were assumed as
source of knowledge due to scarce means of transportation and communication.
Knowledge and the desire to know that was prepossessed the minds by the age of
enlightenment, open up the new era for both travellers and readers. It gave the courage to
others to travel. Apparently, travelbooks became interesting and widespread reading
material for knowing and gradually increased in numbers as reader and traveller population
increased.
In the nineteenth century, the meaning of travel had a shift towards travelling for education
and culture. However many of well-known travelbooks, as can be understood from their
contexts, was written in order to learn a lesson from other nations and be an actor to bring
their nation to perfection (Löschburg, 1998). In due course, differences became reason for
curiosity; hence,travelbooks written on Middle East and their people became rather
popular (Lewis, 1968).
It was European tourism substructure expansion in the mid nineteenth century that
afterwards travelbooks started to lose effect on readers. Mode of writing altered towards
transparent, direct and understandable explanations by first hand language. In accordance
with change in tourist demands, perception shifted from “where to be visited” to “where
should be seen” (Koshar, 1998). Transportation has been developed and profession has
been evolved, apparently,travelbooks located themselves in shelves of historical books.
Such development progress was started in England, in 1836, by publishingof the John
Murray‟s Red Book, giving information about Holland, Belgium and Rhine; following by
Karl Baedeker‟s Hand Books.Notwithstanding the more guides were printed the less there
were pages in the guides and information turn into a reduced amount of subjectivity
(Löschburg, 1998).
Analysing ahistorical travelbookfor research should initially deal with thepossibility
ofbiases. Period of travelling, mean for travelling, duty of traveller had great importance
on outcome of travellers‟ individual observations.Initially, developed Eurocentric approach
after the Age of Enlightenment affected many eyes for objectivity. For instance traveller
Turner (1820, p. 181) admits:
97
“I thought the Turks of Brusa extremely goodhumoured: all seemed willing to oblige us,
and fanaticism and hatred of Christians, which I expected to see in full perfection in a place
where so few Europeans are seen, seemed much less prevalent here than at
Constantinople”.
Secondly, most of travellers did not know the language of visited country, possible biases
of translators should be considered (Lewis, 1968).Travelbooks are parts of resourceful
urban studies. Mentioned negative issues can be overwhelmed with scientific criticism
along with the field‟s own methodology. Ultimately, all travelbooks somehow enlighten
the history and convey information on cultural components towards us. For instance, Book
of Travel of EvliyaÇelebi comprehends information that cannot be found in other sources
(Polatçı and Tavukçu, 2012). Study has become an important source for Ottoman urban
history researchers who study seventeenth century7.
BURSA IN THE LIGHTS OF TRAVEL BOOKS
Bursa was conquered (in 1326) just a while later Ottomans established; therefore it is said
that Bursa has to be seen in order to understand Ottoman Empire and its culture. One of the
travellers,Walker (1886), for instance, finds Bursa infinitely oriental than İstanbul. Bursa
as the first capital and international trade centre of Ottoman Empire was the citywhere
Ottomans developed their understanding of urbanism. Bursa as located very close to its
latest capital İstanbul was one of very famous locations for travellers. Almost everyone
who visited İstanbul travelled to Bursa mainly for sight-seeing and healing at thermal
waters. Travellers of Bursa conveyed information about social and economic history,
architectural structure, cultural components, and natural disasters in their travelbooks in
following languages Turkish, Arabic, Bulgarian, Danish, Flemish, English, French,
German, Italian, Latin, Armenian, and Greek (Özkan and Demirhan, 2009).
Travellers wrote down each detail starting from their preparations until arrival, each
excursions and return experiences. Travellers of the nineteenth century were „well-
informed‟ given that they studied destinations prior to travelling. However, Bursa was not
the first beaten track of any travellers. They were traveling to Ottoman borders to be able
to visit İstanbul or holy lands. They were motivated for travelling after whatthey heard
about the city together with its interesting beauties and thermal sources. Such instant plans
were kept away travellers to study about the city prior to their visit and therefore it
contradicts to the nineteenth century classic traveller qualifications (Lowry, 2004). Lowry
(2004) introduces hundred and eighty travelbooks written about Bursa during the years
between 1326 and 1923. He lists hundred and one travellers from different nations for the
nineteenth century. This paper aims to present several travelbooksby showing what they
bring into the forefront and how tourist demands were elaborated. This study analyses
fourteentravelbooksthat were written by Europeans8.
7
Hasan Basri Öcalan, Evliya Çelebi Seyahtnâme’ye Göre Ruhaniyetli Şehir Bursa, Sistem Ofset,
Ankara, 2012. Researcher worked on the Book of Travel of Evliya Çelebi, by dealing only the
chapters written about Bursa. He collected and organised traveller‟s all explanations under main
patıculars of the city in a simplified language.
8
William George Browne; John Macdonald Kinneir; William Turner; John Füller; George Keppel;
Charles Addison; William Hamilton; Julia Pardoe; Robert Walsh; Edmund Spencer; George
William Charlisle; Mary Walker; Georgina Max Müller; Ida Pfeiffer.
98
This very analysis confirmsthat what was writtenin travelbooksis not entirely about the city
itself but is actually about Europeans‟ way of seeing Bursa. Almost all of evaluated
travelbooks start with a historical background of Bursa, a stunning explanation for its
greenery and picturesque view, abounded of trees and vegetation, cultivated plaine,
salubrious air, rich water sources, meaning of bakhshish as early tips for given services,
culture of coffee houses, populations by nation, souvenirs of local products, distance
information, inhabitants‟ physical and personal characteristics, heat and weather, etc. a
kind of a tourist guide. Besides, information about custom and features of a daily life is
provided. Some of them deliver information very much into details. For instance
Walkerand Pardoe are worth mentioning that their travelbooks are as rich as city guides of
today. When all fourteen travelbooks are considered it might be said that they are having
information similar to each other. However after careful analysis, it would be seen that
their thorough information desire attention to enrich today‟s urban tourism.
For instance, reaching to Bursa by road was thought to be uncomfortable and troublesome
byBrowne (1820). Hedeparted from Istanbul in June, 1802 and found it difficult to procure
a conveyance on the half way and used several means of transportation which at the end
took 31,5 hours to reach to destination. Travellers reached to Bursa by several ways of
transportation and they arrived to city from different locations. Some part of travellers
departed from İstanbul, some others travelled Bursa from west. We should mention
traveller Browne again to distinguish him from lots of travellers. He had knowledge of
some of local languages and wore traditional costume. Hence, he had better and close
communication with locals than many of other travellers. Kinneir(1818) for instance had
no relations with inhabitants at all. Travellers provide information about locals as
following:Turner (1820, p. 187) underlines that“The people of Brusa are less bigoted, and
consequently more civilized”. Inhabitants told him that they were forced to entertain gratis,
all travellers to and from Bursa, who passed daily in great numbers. Pardoe (1837) also
finds Turks universally hospitable. Besides, she adds that her appearance at baths did not
create a sensation among the bathers; which may illustrate a sense of familiarity with and
acceptance of foreigners. According to traveller Spencer (1838) inhabitants live together in
friendship and harmony in spite of cultural differences. Walker (1886) explains that
inhabitants of Bursa were famous for their hospitality, they were good humoured and
respected others from different religions; but she excludes kids from these characteristics.
Hamilton (1842, p. 93) exposes “Whatever may be said of Turkish hospitality, and
however strongly recommended the European traveller may be to a Turkish host, I will
always find myself treated with more zeal and attention in the houses of Greeks or
Armenians than in those of Turks, and will be less exposed to the curiosity of intruders.”
There is inconsistency; however it was mostly highlighted that locals were hospitable.
Improving this tradition even further by educating related stakeholders is irresistible
attribute of today‟surban tourism.
Pardoe (1837, p. 9) highlights the city as “the richest clump of vegetation that I ever met
with in my life”; she continues (1837, p.11) “at the base of the highest mountain lay
Broussa, and even in the distance we could distinguish the gleaming out of the white
buildings from among the dense foliage which embosomed them.” The colour green and
rich plantation is also characterized with today‟s Bursa thanks to its mountain and city
parks even though industrialisation has had negative effects on its greenery.
99
Curiosities for analysed travellers are mostly those which are still some of attractions of
today. Baths mentioned by each traveller, however not experienced by all of them.
Addison (1838) mentions numerous natural warm baths were inviting invalids from all
quarters. He especially highlights that natural warm and cold water tabs are located in the
same room. Müller (1897) gives precise information including physical characteristics
whereas many of analysed travellers could not bear with the heat and vapour to stay
longer. Turner (1820) even though could not experience the baths; he took some sample of
water together with him back to England for tests. Because it was said to be good for
illnesses, Charlisle(1855) encountered with a Frenchman who visited Bursa for health
purposes. Walsh (1838), as a rare visitor act, procured and enjoyeda separate room at
baths. He (1838, p.205) writes that “I have been more particular in detailing the process to
you, because these are the most celebrated baths in the Turkish empire, and the great resort
of all ranks for health or luxury.” Thermal tourism of today is one of the main attractions
for visitors within modernized buildings at several quarters of the city.
Mosques are mentioned numerous (as 387 and 366) even though lots of them were not
visited and found as simple buildings which were not charming. Only Ulu Cami, as one of
the urban attractions of today, was found interesting. Green Mosque is another attractions
mentioned by Müller. Each traveller astonished with the silhouette of minarets while
entering into the city. Turner (1820) was surprised that he could visit the mosques without
cavil. Pardoe (1837, p. 40) expresses “while those of Stamboul are almost a sealed volume
to the general traveller, he may purchase ingress to every mosque in Broussa for a few
piastres; and well do many of them deserve a visit”. Pfeiffer (1853) underlines that mosque
visit may not be case without a consular. It might be the case because she and her
acquaintances explored the city together with the consular assistant. Each traveller
mentions tombs of early Ottomans and gives thorough information about buildings and
their status. Provided detailed explanations of travellers are rich enough to be used for
restorations of today. Besides, some travellers visited Bursa more than one time and if
there was a disaster between visiting periods, it can be tracked easily and returned to
resourceful information. Bursa has 126 historical mosques lived up to today which were
renovated after several local disastersand are open to all visitors together with tombs.
Inner of city was found dirty, narrow and not well housed; however populous and
extensive.Füller(1830) onlyfound the inner of the city well built. Turner (1820, p. 151)
conveys the situation as “there are several khans in the city, all of stone; the bedestens and
bazaars seem to be considerable, …there are some tolerable streets, but all of them are
badly paved, and most narrow and dirty”.City, in accordance with the remarks of
travellers, was recovered from natural disasters and developed after the last quarter of the
nineteenth century. New governor Ahmet Vefik Pasha was mentioned by Walker and
Müller. Pasha got built so many architectural buildings, modern roads, hotels, and worked
to develop social and commercial life of Bursa (Dostoğlu, 2006). Renovated Khans of
today are worth mentioning which are used as commerce centres and as tourist attractions.
Such travellers witnessed modernisation of Bursa at that period. Yet, there were still tourist
attractions not renovated and left to ruins. Each of them can be traced and renewedwith the
help of information provided by travelbooks.
Quality of silk and silkworm breeding, some other commercial activities and industrial
information was given. Walsh details commercial activities. Walker mentions forty four
spinning mills which have two to three thousand women employee. She provides vast
information on economic situation of the city as all other travellers. They witnessed very
first industrialisation of the city as much as its modernisation. In the light of travellers, a
100
very old culture of silk produce might be transformed to a tourist product by reviving an
old factory into a production area as close as to travelbooks. Bursa has already a sericulture
museum today which was established in a renovated old building used as a seeding
school.One of its famous cultural value transformed to a tourist product in the light of
travelbooks deliver a different experience to today‟s tourists.
Coffee shops strongly mentioned by each traveller, besides some travellers lodged at those
shops as Turner did. Coffee shops of today differ from those of the nineteenth century. A
new tourist product may be created from coffee shops inspired by travelbooks.
Environs of Bursa are worth mentioning as travellers took several excursions. Ascending
to Mount Uludağwas the famous excursion among travellers, besides İznik/ Nicaea ruins
and its Lake, Apollonia ruins and its Lake, Rhyndacus River, Mudanya were other places
travellers visited. Each place they visited has detailed explanations about the status of
ruins, if they were well preserved or not, have any inscriptions on it, how they were treated
by locals etc. Kinneir for instance stayed at Nicaea for several days at a local house (bed
and food) and he delivered detailed information about each ruin and the gates of the city.
Addison (1838) is the only traveller mentions Seven Sleepers Monastery but he adds that it
was well one of as other 50 places.
“Picturesque” fountains which were located almost at all corners of the city are other
mentionedcity attractions. Each traveller mentions water and fountains as well as they
mention vegetation of the city. Unfortunately a big amount of those fountains are not alive
today. Very limited ones were restored.
Some churches were mentioned by travellers which many of buildingeither were used as
private factories or damaged during time passes. Churches and temples which were saved
from several distractions are steady today and located in the city and its outer districts.
Staying duration varied starting from 2 days upto 12 days. Four out of fourteen travellers
stayed in a hotel. Pardoe (1837) explains a lodger of a khan or caravanserais would be a
place for traveller merchant or a traveller having no chance to procure private houses.
Khans were found inconvenient and confined in size. However square with a fountain was
approvable.Walsh found the khans of Bursa to be superior compare to other places. Rest of
travellers either lodged at khans and coffee shops or at houses of villagers. Those who
were lucky to have a “letter” at their hands stayed in private houses belonging to
Armenians or Greeks. Hospitality industry started in Europe in the seventeenth century;it
was the mid nineteenth century for Istanbul and Bursa. Walker (1886) writes about
improved roads and hotel establishments whichcared for tourist comfort. This comparison
is quite important given that European travellers of the nineteenth century would wish to
comfort themselves as they were used to.Walsh had to pass several villages without
accommodation because of silkworm areas occupied in houses.
Walke r(1886) identifies Bursa as a combination of mountain, water and trees and
expresses meaningless of a tourist voyage to further places when there was such a place so
close to Europe. She believes that visitor number of Bursa was less in front of what it had.
According to her, Bursa should have attracted more visitors. Who knows readers of Mary
Walker may pay a visit to Bursa after reading her travelbook as good as a guide. She adds
that even though tourists left cities with a hope to revisit but they rarely accomplish their
desire. Difficulties of relocation of past might withhold travellers, but today as long as
cities keep alive such notion by providing varied attractions to generate a total combination
of experiences, visitors will be like Walker. Walsh (1838, p. 197) adds that “I had heard
much of this Asiatic capital of the Turks, but the reality far exceeded the picture of my
imagination.”He should have encountered with such a remark of Spencer‟s (1838, p.156)
101
“My next excursion in the environs was to Prusa (or Brusa), one of the most remarkable
towns in the Turkish empire, and which I would recommend every traveller who may
sojourn even for a short time in Stamboul to visit.”
Considering analysedtravelbooks, theyall have similarities in conveying information. At
one hand, it generates a standardised way of looking for new visitors and reduced
attractions to several numbers of cultural items. On the other hand, those attractions
mentioned continuously by each traveller have quite a solid place in readers mind which
stand as an important marketing tool. It should be a consideration factduring use ofeach
travelbooks for any destinations.
Bursa today, as mirror of the past
There are congress papers presenting itineraries by following routes of some travellers 9.
Bursa has rich travelbook literature that can be analysed country by country to generate
different and authentic tour programmes. Stopovers of famous travellers could bea part of
visiting points to make travellers alive within projects. Popularity of historical periods and
the cities is equal to popularity of that cities and their cultural heritage. Therefore,
converting travelbooks to tourist products is noteworthy.
Urban tourists less possibly will visit the same city (Ashworth and Page, 2011); this is why
differentiation and variability within urban areas has great importance. Due to its several
tourism attractions, Bursa has the power to generate continuousness among its visitors.
Cultural and historical places together with cities‟ social and cultural characteristics are
primary elements for city tourism and lots of cities tend towards culture and cultural
heritage components to increase their competitive profile (Chang et al., 1996). Bursa, as a
city of history, has no difficulties to make suchthriving development.
For each investment to develop urban tourism global and local factors and general
economic agendas have to be taken into consideration (Chang et al., 1996). Besides,
deficiency in considering changes in international tourism market results weak local
methods and practices. As it is seen in all cultural consumption, urban tourism is a fashion
activity that is directly related to a tourist‟s personal life; it makes cities in or out
(Ashworth and Page, 2011). Urban tourists are not related only to cultural aspects; hence it
is rather grift and hard to generalise. Therefore, those factors should be reconsidered before
presenting a revived cultural value within tourism market. Models in order to foresee
whether project investment on revived product is functional are vital. Otherwise
investment may result with no interest among visitors. Consequently, a project should be
subject to a prior examination in front of possibleeffects of general economy, fluctuations
within international and national tourism markets, features of cultural consumptions, and
exclusivity of urban tourism as grift and ungeneralised structure.
This study presents possible contributions of historical studies and sources into urban
tourism researches and practices. Possibility of new marketing strategies for Arabic cities,
new tourist product options for the Balkans, prioritize cultural values in African cities,
9
For refenerence:Gül Erbay Aslıtürk – Canan Dikyar, 1200-1900 Yılları Seyyahlarının Anlatımıyla
İzmir ve Aydın İlleri İçin Gezi Önerisi, III. Disiplinlerarası Turizm Araştırmaları Kongresi, Aydın
04-05 Nisan 2014, pp. 476-487; Gül Erbay Aslıtürk – Süheyla Gökçe, 17.-19. Yüzyıl Seyyahlarının
Kaleminden İstanbul: Avrupa Yakası Gezi Önerisi, III. Disiplinlerarası Turizm Araştırmaları
Kongresi, Aydın 04-05 Nisan 2014, pp. 488-501. Caroline Finkel presented an excursion designed
out of Book of Travel of Evliya Çelebi for Tourism Summit, Bursa: 2012.
102
differentiation by diverse projects in Anatolian cities. Visual components of a city are
limited in number and incompatible in quality. Bursa, with an aware notion to revive
history according to historical components and to convey this culture onto future
generations, reintroduces every historical building in the city. Moreover, seven city
museums of today will reach to eleven at the end of this year. Since first museum of the
city was opened in 1902, understanding of museum has been shifted towards compatible
standards. Bursa stands not only as an open air museum, but also has a strong varietyof
museums for different orientations.
There are certainly differences between analysed travelbooks and actual city of today.
Narrow and dirty streets with mud houses had been changed with modern streets and
blocks. Uncomfortable roads together with scarce means of transportation are not the case
of today. Service and hospitality sector is already advancedprospered with international
hotel chains and restaurants. Ancient traces and Ottoman monuments have been renovated
for the sake of urbanisation. Urban tourism is not only a tourism type, but also an integral
part of a city life; in other words its traditional face (Garbeâ, 2013). Bursa has copious
attractions that can answer any type of needs from mounting to nature walking, sightseeing
to cultural tours, faith tourism to shopping and several urban charms (museums, parks,
lakes, attracted local cuisineetc). Municipalities of Bursa are aware of the fact that the city
can be a brand not only through industries but also along with its soul and cultural identity.
This is why historical and cultural values are revealed and renovated tofunctional extent.
Tourism investments together with strong transportation and substructure investments of
latest years show developed of understanding among city governors.There have been more
than eight hundred and fifty structure restorationslately which helped to awaken historical
importance of the city. Local governors have several future projects to increaseservice
quality and visitor numbers for health tourism, senior tourism, faith and culture tourism,
winter tourism introducingthe mountain‟s monasteries, crater lakes, ski centres, urban
tourism for increased attractions along with museums, congress centres, and historical
places.One million visitors (three hundred thousand as international visitors)of today is
planned to reach at five million in the year 2023 (1. TurizmZirvesi, 2012).Bursa was
thought to be a city ofagriculture, industry, andtourism, all at once. However, a
complicated identity problem of the city is trying to be overcome at latest years together
with various investments on cultural aspects of the city. Each investment strengthens its
position within cultural extent of identity issues. Bursa, along with its actual mottos “Great
City” and “the city of history”, is listed as World Heritage by UNECSO in 2014. This
evaluation helped the city to proceed in identity of cultural and historicalcapital.
CONCLUSION
Urban history studies record cultural heritageand constitute a valuable source for urban
tourism. Such studies preserving cultural heritage and the city itself stand as one of the best
method for sustainable destinations. They are strong tools to reject projects for temporary
success. Derived information enhances tourism research and diversifiesurban tourism
attractions that make cities both attractive and sustainable. Besides, travelbooks and
yearbooks standing as significant sources of history arepresented to tourism researchers
and other actors for strategiesto develop urban tourism industry.
Resourceful urban history and its sources:
- are solid marketing tools,
103
- provide directive information to public administration forbetter tourism
management,
- are useful for private sector to generate projects for better cultural offers,
- can be initiated with tourism institutions to bring studentsdiverse way of looking,
- can be analysed to strength the literature, especially for Western travelbooks,
- can become tools to regain lost culture and sustainability can be strategized,
- can enrich thetourism literature,
- can flourish definite and limited urban products,
- are to be strategiesfor being an “in” city and for protecting the existence within
industry.
More than half of the population today live within cities, 61% of population,which is
estimated about five billion people, will live in cities in 2030 (UNWTO, 2012). While such
population will demand to experience other cities, tourism will continue for being an
important factor for urban development. Protecting cultural differences and conserving
diversities are become tools to challenge urban tourism movements. Tourists will keep
visiting cities not like they live in but cities which exhibit their dissimilarities and
originalities which arederived from their own historical values.
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account of their antiquities and geology, Vol. II, London: William Clowes and
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Selimno and Pravadi; also by a visit to Azani, and other newly discovered ruins in
Asia Minor, in the year 1829-1830, Vol II, London: Henry Colburn and Richard
Bentley.
8. Kinneir, J.M (1818), Journey through Asia Minor, Armenia, and Koordistan in the
years 1814 and 1816; with remarks on the marches of Alexander, and retreat of the
ten thousand, London: C. Roworth.
9. Lowry, H.W. (2004), Seyyahların gözüyle Bursa 1326-1923, Çev: Serdar Alper,
Istanbul: Eren Yayıncılık.
10. Löschburg, W. (1998), Seyahatin kültür tarihi, Çev. Jasmin Traub, Ankara: Dost
Kitabevi.
11. Müller, G.M. (1897), Letter from Constantinople, London: Longsmans, Green and
Co.
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12. Pardoe, J. (1837), The city of the sultan, and domestic manners of the Turks 1836,
Vol II, Henry Colburn.
13. Pfeiffer, I. (1853), Visit to the holy land, Egypt and Italy, Second Edition, London:
Ingram, Cooke, and Co.
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stakeholder theory, Saarbrücken: Lap Lambert Academic Publishing Gmbh & Co.
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15. Spencer, E. (1838), Travels in the western Caucasus, Vol II, London: Henry
Colburn.
16. Turner, W. (1820), Journal of a tour in the levant, Vol. III, London: W. Clowes.
17. Walker, M. (1886), Eastern life and scenery with excursions in Asia Minor,
Mytilene, Crete, and Roumania, Vol II, London: Chapman and Hall Limited.
18. Walsh, R. (1838), A residence at Constantinople, Vol II, London: W. Clowes and
Sons.
19. Yearbook (2013), Hüdâvendigâr Vilâyeti Salnâme-i Resmîsî H 1325 – M 1907,
Vol I., Translated by Hüseyin Delil and Ömer Faruk Dinçel, Bursa: Bursa İl Özel
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106
TRANSLATOR’S ROLE AND CONTRIBUTION
TO THE CULTURAL HERITAGE TOURISM
Pelin Şulha1
Abstract: In a globalizing competitive world, the communicative role of the translator in the
tourism sector as a mediator between cultures and languages is essential with respect to the
presentation of country‟s remarkable attractions and heritage. This study aims to explore in what
ways the production or rewriting of the original text, based on the purpose and the function of the
translational activity, enables the full appreciation of the inestimable reminiscences from the past.
Turkish texts on two of the historical masterpieces in Istanbul are chosen to compare with their
English versions. This analysis is carried out within the frame of Skopos theory which views
translation as a cultural act to reveal behavioral patterns specific to the culture under consideration.
The validity of the translator‟s decisions depend on not only whether the source content is
transferred or not but also the strategy applied, i.e. the skopos of the action in relation to the
expectations and needs of the assumed audience precedes the mode of the action and a redefinition
of the relevance of certain source textual elements becomes necessary so as to attain a functional
transfer (Vermeer 2004; Reiss & Vermeer 2014). In the analysis, it is observed that the translator
remains faithful to the source text which means to place the tourist audience on the periphery; for
instance, he/she would find it interesting to be informed about the architectural design of the
building mentioned in the Turkish text, but he/she would be even more eager to discover the real
stories and secrets hidden behind the stone walls, which may be included in the translator‟s
narration. One of the aims of translating tourism texts is to represent a country‟s distinctive cultural
identity that offers new traditions and opportunities, so there is a leeway for the translator to move
away independently from the source text and use his craft to reconstruct a target text more appealing
to the tourist.
Key Words: Tourism Texts, Translation Studies, Skopos Theory, Cultural Mediator, Cultural
Heritage Tourism
INTRODUCTION
In cultural tourism the moving of the cultures from one particular destination to another
and how these cultures are perceived by the tourists is essential since tourism stands out as
an international system of exchange (Robinson &Smith 2006, pp.1-2). The term cultural
tourism makes reference to “the cultural nature of, and the role of, tourism as a process and
set of practices that revolve around the behavioral pragmatics of societies, and the learning
and transmission of meanings through symbols and embodied through objects” (ibid., p.1).
Tourism reflects the culture that emerges out of life itself and takes part in the change and
production of cultural forms. This complicated chain of relationships reveals the
problematic nature of the term cultural tourism. It is not merely used in the sense of the
generation and consumption of high art and heritage, but also relates to the identity
formation and self-perception of the individual and the society and thus the interpretation
of the world. From a European point of view, culture is traditionally associated with the
romantic, the beautiful, the educational and the moral. Hence, it would be natural to
assume that these shared values found at the core of today‟s cultural tourism have been
inspired by the grand tour of the 18th and 19thcenturies popular among the social elite; yet
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Translation and Interpreting, Faculty of Letters, Dokuz Eylul
University, Tınaztepe Campus, Buca/Izmir, Turkey.
107
there are certainly other factors, which have also promoted the steady development of the
cultural heritage attractions, such as new opportunities to experience tradition and arts
particularly in small cities, effective marketing campaigns focused on destination branding
that conveys the notion of culture as a moral and economically beneficial product.
However, to attract the cultural tourist, culture should be viewed within broader societal,
political and organizational conditions of a rapidly changing world. Although cultural
tourism is promising and continues to grow, the culture of the ordinary and everyday and
self-indulgent activities are still at the very top of the touristic agenda; it has been observed
that most tourists prefer to learn more about the daily practices and behaviors of the host
culture instead of visiting the formalized cultural settings such as museums, galleries and
historic buildings (ibid. pp.4-6, 8). To benefit from the economic rewards of tourism, a
destination should prioritize its unique historical artifacts, which is a worthwhile venture
for our country with its advantageous potential. Approaches to history in view of the
different memories, emotions and concerns it evokes are likely to transform these places
into new destinations of the tourist who seeks far more than enjoyment and social contact.
Tourists with different backgrounds and attitudes need to build connections with their
momentary environment no matter how distant it is from their own but at the same time
experience the feel of otherness and appreciate nature, people and pasts unknown to them.
Therefore, when visiting an attraction, the flow of information, data and messages between
the sender and the receiver is important since the desired impact determines this
communicational interaction (Robinson & Smith 2006, pp. 9-10; Puczko 2006, pp. 227-
228, 232).
The translator as a cultural mediator should be aware of these intentional relations and
make his/her choices in the translation process accordingly. In other words, as a result of
the socio-economic changes and technological developments in today‟s globalizing world,
tourists tend to discover and narrate the everyday culture where the original taste and
texture meets rather spending time to gain a deeper insight into art and history. For this
reason, informative texts about the cultural heritage addressed to tourists should be
prepared in such a way as to capture their attention and make them believe in the idea that
without full exposure to these artifacts their travel will not be able to fulfill its purpose. In
this vein, the translator as a rewriter of the source texts attempts to meet the constantly
changing conditions, demands and marketing strategies of the tourism sector and
practicing his professional craft intervenes when necessary, i.e. the translator‟s perspective
cannot be text-based only as the extra-linguistic factors the text is born into play an equally
important role as the textual properties themselves.
METHOD
As the Greek term Skopos implies Hans Vermeer‟s target text oriented Skopos Theory
prioritizes the intended function or purpose of a translation. Vermeer focuses on the
bicultural competence of the translator since he views language as part of a culture not as
an independent system. The text like the language is dynamic and shaped by the needs and
expectations of the reader. In addition to the linguistic components, the representation of
meanings embedded in the textual material is also related with the extra-linguistic reality
expressed in various relationships. Based on this approach there is no one perfect
translation and the aim and the contextual situation determines the mode in which the
translation is carried out. Discussing these specifications clearly with the client who
commissions the action helps the translator for his successful accomplishment of the task.
108
One of the translation types the skopos theory has put forward is the communicative or
instrumental translation. This type of translation gives priority to target culture norms and
conventions and is produced by adaptation or modification of the source text to serve a
particular purpose. Thus, the source language equivalence plays second fiddle and the
practice of translation gains a more realistic identity. Moreover, the target reader is not
able to distinguish at a glance between the original text and its translation. Vermeer‟s
dynamic and holistic approach which disapproves the linguistic conception of translation
seeing its practice as a cultural transfer, views purpose or function of the translation in the
receiving culture as the most important factor to be considered in both the process and
product of translation. It should also be noted that in most cases what the translator intends
and how the translation functions in the target culture do not comply because the cultures
and the audience the source and target texts address are different in various ways. Another
essential function this theory emphasizes is the intratextual coherence that enables the
reader to understand the given message and relate it to his/her situation. A new concept of
the status of the source text brought about by the skopos theory has led to the elevation of
the translator‟s position to an expert in translational action whose voice must be respected.
As the professional responsible for the commissioned task and the final translatum, he/she
is expected to predict the results of his/her choices and decisions in relation to his/her
specified skopos, for instance the effect of the translated text on the receiver. The translator
acts according to a commission which includes the instruction given, e.g. the specification
of purpose or addressees, to carry out the translation. The target culture conditions
determine whether the commission is acceptable or not. It is possible for the translator to
make some adjustments concerning the purpose when necessary. These adjustments may
be followed by the decisions for changes in the translatum as regards the source text. The
defined skopos expands the possibilities of translation and tells the variety of strategies to
be used such as paraphrasing and completely re-editing and thus translation is not limited
to the faithful imitation of the source text which may result in an enforced literalness
(Snell-Hornby 2006, pp.52-54; Vermeer 2004,pp.227-237).
RESULTS
In this study, Turkish texts on two of the historical masterpieces in Istanbul are chosen to
compare with their English versions. The texts are taken from the website of the Istanbul
Metropolitan Municipality (2008) which presents the city as the “European Capital of
Culture”. This analysis aims to reveal how the English translations of the websites about
the kulliyes built in Uskudar and Edirnekapı to honor Mihrimah Sultan, the only daughter
of Suleyman I, may be improved within the frame of the Skopos theory to represent
Turkey‟s distinctive socio-cultural identity and bring the cultural heritage tourism into the
forefront as a means of economic welfare.
The texts displayed on the website convey brief information about the historical buildings.
In the English translation some additional though limited explanations concerning the
presumably unknown architectural parts are given, but they are literally true. To
familiarize the tourist with the various phases of the Ottoman life becomes necessary to
avoid misinterpretations. The concept of Kulliye in the Islamic tradition refers to a self-
sustaining and philanthropic development established to serve the society‟s needs where
the governmental, religious and political entities work together as one, so to leave the word
as it is in the English translation may be more appropriate as the word complex used
partially reveals the connotations that Kulliye includes (Jenkins 2008, p.80). Madrasa is
109
described as “a theological school attached to a mosque” (Köksal 2015), however apart
from the Islamic sciences; students were able to study a variety of subjects ranging from
mathematics to astrology. Besides, upper level madrasa did not only provide education but
also functioned as a milieu of socialization which encourage students enter into urban and
cultural life (Şahin 2013, pp.21-22). An explanation related to the multidimensional notion
of education in the madrasa is needed for the target reader. Both Kulliyes were built by the
chief imperial architect Sinan. The Mihrimah Sultan Mosque in Edirnekapı looks as
splendid as the Selimiye Mosque. According to some myth, the nature has also adored its
magnificence and once a year, owing to the designer‟s unique perspective into aesthetics,
the sun goes down on the Edirnekapı Mosque while the moon rises between the minarets
on the Uskudar Mosque to symbolize its Sultan whose name means the sun and the moon
(Sezer & Özyalçıner 2010). Although it is not present in the source text, the translator may
include this story in his target text as complementary information appealing to the tourist.
To fulfill his/her task and make the necessary choices, the translator is expected to know
both the features of the text type and the demands of the target audience.
CONCLUSION
Translation as an intercultural activity has a purpose or skopos which directs the

translator‟s choices in the processing and production of translation. The translator‟s
expertise gives him the authority and responsibility to identify this purpose that is expected
to work properly for the communicative situation at hand. Tourism texts are pragmatic
texts written to inform the tourist about a country‟s attractions and contribute to the
sustainable development of the tourism sector. The mediator-translator, being aware of the
changing socio-economic trends in the recent tourist demands, should be in an attempt to
attract the tourist‟s interest to the appreciation of cultural heritage artifacts instead of the
everyday activities specific to the host culture. The Skopos theory has a broader
conception of the translator‟s task removing the traditional limitations imposed by the
notion of fidelity and hence providing the opportunity to expand the use of various
translation strategies for rewriting, as is the case with the translation of tourism texts.
REFERENCES
1. Akçakaya, Ali. Üsküdar Mihrimah Sultan Külliyesi. Accessed July 15 2015,

http://www.ibb.gov.tr/sites/ks/tr-TR/1-Gezi-Ulasim/kulliyeler/Pages/uskudar-
mihrimah-sultan-kulliyesi.aspx.
2. Akçakaya, Ali. Edirnekapı Mihrimah Sultan Külliyesi. Accessed July 15 2015,
http://www.ibb.gov.tr/sites/ks/tr-TR/1-Gezi-
Ulasim/kulliyeler/Pages/edirnekap%c4%b1-mihrimah-sultan-kulliyesi.aspx.
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URBAN TOURISM AND CULTURAL TOURISM IN THE CONTEXT O
BELIEF TOURISM: KONYA SAMPLE
Ibrahim Kaynak Kaynak1

Tahsin Karabulut2
Abstract: The Anatolia is the ferment, cradle of civilizations and cultures, and a heaven on earth.
The yeast of the civilization dough in this cradle has been put at the 10.000's B.C. and has reached
up to modern times by a rich, sweet temper, which makes it a rich, generous geographical place and
destination.
Too many cities in Anatolia are hosting this historical heritage. Konya, is one of the most rooted
cities of our Homeland both culturally and industrially. The documents proving that the
revolutionary acts of conversion from nomadism, forager into settlement and agricultural life, in the
history of humanity, have realized in these lands, have occured during the Konya Çatalhöyük
excavation works. Konya which is assumed as the cradle of world civilization today, has an
important location in terms of faith history. The Mother Goddess which has formed in Çatalhöyük
at 6500‟s B.C., also forms the first cores of paganist religions of the Kybele cult. Konya has also
hosted other religions during the historical phase. In this study, by evaluating the belief and cultural
values within Konya in terms of Christianity and Islam religions, its contribution onto the Urban
Tourism will be discoursed.
Key Words: Anatholian Culture, Çatalhöyük, Urban Tourism, Christianity, Islam
INTRODUCTION
As a form of organisation, the city is the source of civilization. This urban civilization's
yeast is formed of religion, geography, politics and economy equation. The society which
forms out the city, is served by religion in terms of mentality, geography in terms of
locations, politics in terms of administration and economy in terms of forming the
economic relations. In the Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greek and Roma which are the
cradle of the civilization, the religion with all its variations has always been a common
source of value. In this formation, the religious structures have played a leading role in
forming a civilization through their temples and altars, sanctuaries and sites; the politics
with its urban administration, municipality and parliament structures; economy with its
marketplaces and bazaars, have fulfilled their duty of forming the urban identity. The
constituent element of the last civilization in Anatolia has been Islam.
Thesimilardevelopmentshave been encountered in the Islamic civilization and the cities
have been the indispensable elements of the life. Konya, has been represented as the
Islamic city until the modern times. The western cities which have obtained a Greek-
Roman and Christion line, has reformed a new urbanisation process through the Industrial
revolution since the 18. century. This new urban civilization's main characteristic has
started with the population migration from rural to urban and by forming a new manner of
work and life, have led to a modern urbanisation. The religion and politics which have
been a form of organisation in the processes of civilization, occured to be the elements
1
Asst. Prof. Dr., Necmettin Erbakan University, Tourism Faculty, Turkey, e-mail:
ihkaynak@konya.edu.tr.
2
Assoc. Prof. Dr., Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Turkey, e-mail: tkarabulut@konya.edu.tr.
112
determining the society and social organisation, the economy on the other hand, through
capitalism and modernisation phases, has been the main element determining the city,
society and social organisation. By means of industrialisation and modernisation phases, an
economy focused conception has occured in the cities. In this point of view, changing the
nature of the city, the sanctuary focused urban structures have left their places to trade
focused structures. From now on, the avenues of city aredirecting not
tothereligiousstructures but totheshoppingcenters.
Wearecurrently on a world where anything is quickly produced and consumed, the
information and transportation spreading and developing fast. This conception and manner,
has become a life style which effects both young and old, from rich to poor as a form of
living philosophy.
Within a consume based economical conception, the cities have started to get their own
parts, the city and city cultures formed of centuries, have converted into a consume culture.
On the other hand, the current time has dominated the past, the cultural and religious
continuations have been broken. Thanks to tourism which is among the biggest economic
sectors of the world, and a social, modern fact, the cities have been a means to form a
historical consciousness by highlighting their historical continousness, thus, the studies
have established in order to protect the historical identity of cities. As a result, the urban
tourism has been started to mention as an alternative tourism possibility. In too many cities
in Anatolia the studies oriented on the urban tourism have been paid attention by stepping
the Historical Environment Protection Policies. In the studies, Konya has started to take its
own part consequently, the tourists of the city at least had the opportunity to see Konya
through its past and today. Within the context of Historical Environment Protection
Policies, the cities with a civilization identity, have started to step in with their own
cultural assets.
CITY AND THE TOURISM
The city is not only a geographical place which adjusts the humane relationships by
obliging the mankind to mankind, but is also a life circle which covers the socio-
psychological life. The city as a place of living, is one of the most important yet most
complex spatial areas (Alver,2012:25).From this point of view, the city, expresses itself
with a natural geographical area, through a landscape invaluable to be seen with its
buildings, streets, roads, pavements, markets, amusement places, museums, religious,
financial and political structures (Alver,2012:25). Tourism is on the other hand an activity
of travel which consists of the holiday the "escape and directing", amusement, rest, culture
and faith oriented people.
The tourism fact is a modern phenomenon. This fact belonging to contemporary modern
societies, has converted into an organisation which anyone can participate in through the
globalisation. This organisation, alongside with its formation of sociocultural action
between the tourist sending and tourist receiving countries, has established an economic
motion related with the countries. The tourism, thanks to its economical dimension, has
directed the countries into alternative tourism searches, and the last stop it arrived has been
the urban tourism. The urban tourism, is meeting more than half the demand for tourism all
over the world.
Even though the world tourism's appearance goes up to the 19. century, the expectations of
tourism into the urban economics have been a subject on the agenda of local
administrations, after 1980 (Kızıldere,2007:27).The urban tourism is a type of tourism
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which is carried out in big cities of metropol scale. The interest on the "Urban Tourism"
which consists of holiday, obtaining historical and cultural information and experience,
spectating sportive activities, participating in the artistic activities, familial and friend
visits, shopping and work travels, is dramatically increasing all over the world
(Emekli,2013:138).
All the cities come into prominence with its own features. Even one word, would be
enough to give a thought on its identity. For example, even though there are too many
historical and cultural heritages in Konya, the first place to come into mind is Mevlana.
This is, its authentic and introductory feature. In that case, Mevlana steps in formation of
Konya's urban identity, among all those works since long time. That looks enough by itself
in formation of Konya's urban identity and image. The city has the capacity of an open-air
museum with its mosques, Moslem theologic schools, hamams and foundation works of
Seljukian and Ottoman eras. This open air museum appearance, has started with
Konya/Çatalhöyük, by tracking the Roma, Byzantine, Seljuk and Ottomans.
The economical, political and socio-cultural conversions the social structures and
individuals experience, have contributed positively and negatively on the city to have a
new identity. Those conversions and structuring models formed through the globalisation,
is carried out in Konya and our country under the urban renewal and urban construction
conceptions just like it is all over the world. Through this phase we experience, the
branding of the cities, and formation of brand cities have been on the agenda, to this end,
for branding the cities in a planned manner, the Culture and Tourism Ministry has
established "Turkey Tourism Strategy 2023 and Tourism Strategy Brand City Action plan"
(2007–2013) in 2007. Within the context of this plan, by boosting the urban tourism on the
cities like Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir and Antalya which are selected under the Brand Cities
Project; and by boosting the cultural tourism in cities such as Adıyaman, Amasya, Bursa,
Edirne, Gaziantep, Hatay; Konya, Kütahya, Manisa, Nevşehir, Kars, Mardin, Sivas,
Şanlıurfa and Trabzon, it is foreseen to form the brand cultural cities
(www.şehirplanlam.org).
The historical center of Konya city, satisfies not only the urban central function where the
economical activity and administrative services are focused on, which serves all the urban
population in terms of easy accessibility/transportability and urban field usage design and
functional positioning and its central location in terms of geography, but also thanks to its
spatial and functional pattern accompanied by cultural heritage values and on the other
hand, the values subject to its close vicinity's cultural heritage, has appeared to be an urban
area with spatial and functional, cultural tourism oriented development
potential(Özcan,2009:4).
2.STUDIES ON THE URBAN TOURISM IN KONYA
In tourism, the geographical, cultural and historical features the cities have are presented to
visitors as the urban tourism activities within the natural life of that society. The cities are
developing the protection and zoning projects for being able to make use of the tourism by
bringing their authentic features to forefront.The changes experienced in the behavior and
lifestyles of people, has caused an increase in the interest to the alternative tourism types in
spite of the sea-sand-sun conception holidays. In this point, the urban tourism which
contains of short term visits to cities related with the social, artistic and many other aims
have stepped in (İçellioğlu,2014:41).
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At the base of this interest, is the desire to know and understand better, the physical, social,
cultural and functional identities people have established.At this juncture, Konya, besides
having all those identities, has been foreseen as a cultural city within the context of
"Turkey Tourism Strategy 2023 and Tourism Strategy Brand City Action Plan" (2007–
2013) of the Culture and Tourism Ministry in 2007.
The Konya historical city center concentrates basically on four focals.First of them is the
hill town known as Alâeddin Tepesi, and its close vicinity.The second urban focal is
Mevlana Museum and its close vicinity which forms the historical urban center.The third
focal point of the historical center, is the historical urban square situated on the Mevlana
road known today as Kayalı Park.The fourth and the last focal point which describes the
historical city center is; the Bedesten region where the traditional Konya Bazaar is situated
(Yenice,2014:72-73).
For the purpose of making Konya a cultural city, the Metropolitan Municipality of Konya
has primarily started the Protection and Amelioration activities in Accordance With the
Historical Vicinity and Konya Historical City Center, Protection and Development in 1996
to this end. As a result of those studies, by considering the transportation, environmental
values, historical structures and their features, the zoning plan has been established and
applied for protection purpose. This urban project studies has started the following
planning studies in accordance with the Konya Cultural and Natural Assets Protection
Council Decisions for the purpose of protecting and surviving the architectural and
environmental qualifications within the historical city center. The projects which has been
included within the planning and accomplished:
1.The studies of development studies related with the Railed Public Transport between
Alâeddin Tepesi and Mevlana Social Complex which have been considered since 1970's,
and working the Railed Public Transportation on east-west direction suggested in the
Protection plan between Mevlana Social Complex and Mevlana Cultural Center and
including the (Tuncer, 2006: 51) to connect the eastern part of the city are about to finish.
2. The regions of "Arasta/Bedesten", Aziziye, Kapu, İplikçi and Şerafediddin Mosque
vicinity, where the traditional Konya Bazaars are intense, have been considered to become
the urban conception areas (Tuncer, 2006: 54) but the historical places around the
Bedesten, Kapu Mosque and Aziziye Mosque continue to serve as the traditional urban
places by getting restored.
3.The area between the Şerafeddin Mosque part, Foundations regional direction and Yapı
Kredi Bank is at the service of pedestrians today while before serving as the cab stand and
parking area.
4.The landscape projects of the square between Şerafeddin Mosque part, Government
Office, PTT and known as the Kayalı Park by people, are accomplished and have been
applied and presented into service.
5.The ancient Konya houses around the Mevlana Social Complex vicinity have been
restored and taken into service and rendered into the service of urban tourism.
The Aya Elana Church has been restored with the historical Sille houses and rendered into
the faith tourism.
3. THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF KONYA WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF

FAITH TOURISM
The faith tourism is based on the desire of people to visit the sacred places as part of their
beliefs from diverse religions. There are four reasons on accepting a place as sacred :
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1.Indication by the God of the place which is accepted as sacred(Erbaş,2002:98): The
indication of the Solomon Temple to his holiness David by Yahve, (Tekvin,8:21-22)
indication of Kaaba to his holiness Ibrahim (Surah of Haj, 26).
2.The participation of God at there with his allmight : Thus, it has been believed in too
many religions that the God resided in the holliest part of the temple.
God's disclosure of his power there: The talk of God Yahve with his holiness Musa at the
Mount Sina and according to Kur‟an, his appearance there. Thus this place has been
assumed as holy by the Jews.
The appearance of god there (theophany): The behaviors conducted by the Israelis on too
many ancient temples they inherited from Canaanites and protected. Those temples have
been considered as legalized by their God Yahve only by means of theophany for Israel
(Erbaş,2002:99).
5.Consideration of a place to be sacred by people:A place has been considered as sacred
where a leader was born and grown up or got busy, the martyr graves are present or the
religious saints' remembrances are preserved(Erbaş, 2002:99).
One of the first settlement centers of humanity history (7000B.C.) and having the traces of
too many civilizations within the historical flow Konya, Hittite, Rome, Seljuk and Ottoman
eras' artifacts, represents an open air museum identity. As it is for all the cities, Konya has
a foundation story as well: According to this story, a monument has been constructed for
presenting the gratitude to a person who kills a monster damaging the city, and a picture is
drawn explaining that event. That monument has been named as the Iqonium. The mother
goddess cult showed up in this land, has developed by converting into Cybele in Phrygia,
Artemisia in Greeks and Virgin Mary in Christianity. As a result of the carried out studies,
when Konya is considered in terms of Cultural and Belief Tourism, it has shown up to
have important values for Christianity and Islam religions starting from the pagan culture.
In pagan cultures any city has its protective god or goddess. Facing any situation they are
demanded to shelter and vows are made. The Main Goddess Zizimmene has been
respected in Konya and its vicinity. In excavations carried out in Konya/Sızma that was
read on a stone: „‟Has made a vow to Mother Zizimmene‟‟(Bildirici,2006:5). On a
scripture found in Konya /Meydan village, it was determined that the Light-Sky Go- Zeus'
name has been written as "Dii" (Bildirici,2006:5). The universal light- Sky God has
become local in diverse cultures and in Konya / Zıvarık (Altınekin) it was made wov by
the name "Aphia Zeus" (Bildirici,2006:10).
On another writing seen on a fountain stone in the Şeyh Ahmet Quarter, and read by the
researcher Calder "Has made a vow to Meiros and his wife Damalis Zizimmene
(Bildirici,2006:5).
The Paul of Tarsus who is the architect of modern day Christianity, has visited to Konya
and Lystra during his visits to spread Christianity and the first seeds of this religion has
drillt there. Among the important saints of Christianity, Timetheus of Lystra and Aya
Thekla have converted into Christianity there.
Sille has been an important settlement situated on the Rome - Jerusalem route during the
Christianity era, and the basements of Aya Elene which is the biggest church of Sille has
been made during one of those sacred pilgrimage voyages in the 327 (Sarıköse,2009:8).
At the city center of Konya, on the location called Arapoğlu Makası, there is a Roman
Catholic Church dated to 1910's, which is currently open for worship.
The Anatolia, has entered into a construction era in both intellection and art by Seljukian
Turks since the 11. Century and during this phase, Konya has taken its place on the world
civilization history by being equipped with Turko-Islamic artistic masterworks. When told
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Konya it comes Mevlana to people's mind, when said Mevlana it comes Konya to people's
mind. The tolerance idea which forms the base of the Belief Tourism, the appeal of
Mevlana "Come, Whatever you be, come", the cultural activities to Remember Mevlana
between the dates of 10-17 December every year continue.
Konya, today, despite all its historical phases, lives both the traditional people culture and
the life circle brought by the modernity at the same time.
The Christianity and Islamic belief centers situated in the Konya city center are grouped in
four:
1. Churches: The Klistra ancient settlement, Sille Aya Elana Church, Sille Cave
Churches, Sille White Abbey Church, Konya Center Saint Paulus Church
2. Mosques: Alaaddin Mosque, İplikçi Mosque, Şerafettin Mosque, Sahip Ata
Mosque, Konevi Mosque, Selimiye Mosque, Aziziye Mosque, Kapı Mosque,
Nakiboğlu Mosque, Şemsi Tebrizî Mosque, Hacı Fettah Mosque, Piri Mehmet
Paşa Mosque, Tavusbaba Mosque.
3. Small Mosques: Meram (Hasbey) Small Mosque, Sırçalı Small Mosque, Hacı
Ferruh Small Mosque, Hoca Hasan Small Mosque, Ferhuniye Small Mosque,
Beyhekim Small Mosque, Zevle Sultan Small Mosque,Karatay Small Mosque.
4. Shrines: Selçuklu Sultanlar Shrine, Yeşil Shrine (Mevlana and his Family), Şemsi
Tebriz-i Shrine, Sadreddin Konevi Shrine, Tavusbaba Shrine, Ateş Baz Veli
Shrine, Tahir and Zühre Shrine,Ahmet Fakih Shrine, Ulaş Baba
Shrine(Tapur,2009:479).
CONCLUSION
The Cultural Heritage and Urban Tourism in the Context of Belief Tourism: When the
Konya Example is interrogated:
The Belief Tourism and Cultural heritage of Konya the nature, must be taken into
consideration in context of cultural values and infrastructural and super-structural studies
must be carried out in terms of urban tourism.
The urbanisation and urban renewal must be planned taking into consideration the touristic
destinations and nature, tourist, human who form as a base for tourism.
The ways must be searched for presenting to local and foreign people, the religions and
beliefs visually, audially and sensorily which are considered to be the main elements of the
Belief Tourism and evaluated to be the contributive to the meeting of cultures and
civilizations.
As a service sector, the educational seminaries must be held in order to form the
consciousness that the tourism has environmental, sociocultural and economical
dimensions.
The Cultural heritage of Konya which is currentlyalive and strong must be led up to obtain
the functionality with literal projects.
The Urban Tourism is considered as the re-achievement struggle of the economical sources
in the cities.
While the Urban Tourism is considered as the struggle to boost the daily life in cities in
terms of socio-culture and economy, it must be designed and carried into effect in a
manner not to harm the history and social tissue.
When we take a look at Konya from past to today we encounter too many artifacts. They
give on one hand how the city is designed in terms of urban tourism on the other hand they
should give the conception idea on how to redesign a city.
117
Konya must be presented and marketed in a healthy manner by revealing more than one
richnesses possible to visit.
New strategies must be determined in order to make Konya as a tourism destination the
effort must be made in order to remove the obstacles to this end. Thus, the local people
must be eager to tourism, the opportunity must be presented to the educated and
experienced people.
REFERENCES:
1. Kur‟an-ı Kerim
2. Kitab-ı Mukaddes
3. Alver Köksal, (2012), Kent Sosyolojisi Hece Yayınları, Ankara,
4. Emekli, Gözde, (2013),Öğrenen Turizm Bölgeleri Yaklaşımı ve Kent Turizmi -
Öğrenen Turizm Bölgeleri, Kentler ve Kent Turizmine Kuramsal Yaklaşım, 3rd
International GeographySymposium - GEOMED 2013.
5. Erbaş, Ali, (2002),İslam Dışı Dinlerde Hac, Sakarya Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi
Dergisi 5 / 2002,Sakarya.
6. İçellioğlu, Cansu Şarkaya,(2014) Kent Turizmi ve marka Kentler:Turizm
Potansiyeli Açısından İstanbul „un Swot Analizi, İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal
Bilimler Dergisi, Sayı: 2014 / 1, 37-55.İstanbul.
7. Kızıldere, Dicle, (2007), 1980 Sonrası İstanbul‟un Tarihi Kent Merkezinde Sosyo-
Ekonomik ve Mekânsal Dönüşüm: Talimhane, Beyoğlu Örneği, Yeditepe
Üniversitesi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul.
8. Özcan, Koray, (2009), Sürdürülebilir Kentsel Korumanın Olabilirliği Üzerine Bir
Yaklaşım Önerisi: Konya Tarihi Kent Merkezi Örneği, METU JFA,2009/2
9. Sarıköse, Barış, (2009), Sille, Bin yıllık Birliktelik, Çizgi, Konya.
10. Tapur, Tahsin,(2009), Konya İlinde Kültür ve İnanç Turizmi, Uluslararası Sosyal
Aratırmalar Dergisi TheJournal of International SocialResearchVolume 2 / 9 Fall
11. Tuncer, Mehmet, (2006),Tarihsel Çevre Politikaları Konya, Konya Büyükşehir
Belediyesi, Konya.
12. Yenice, M.Serhat (2014),Konya Tarihi Kent Merkezi İçin Turizm Odaklı
Yenileme Stratejileri,ARTİUM, Vol. 2, No.1, 2014,Gaziantep.
13. http://www.mehmetbildirici.com/post_attachment/stream?,Halkİnanışına Göre
Konya‟da Yatan Peygamberler
14. Erişim,2015.
15. http://www.sehirplanlama.org/index.php?option=com,Erişim,2015.
118
CONTRIBUTIONS OF COUNTRYSIDE RESTAURANTS TO RURAL
TOURISM: A MANAGERIAL PERSPECTIVE
Özcan Zorlu1
Ali Avan2
Seyhmus Demircan3
Abstract: With the growing attention on alternative tourism activities and environmental
protection, rural tourism has become one of the most attractive tourism typesover the last decade,
and many more studies have been conducted in the field of rural tourism development and in all
other aspects except the importance of countryside restaurants (CSRs).Nevertheless, we see that
only a few studies concerning CSRs exist in the current literature. However, CSRs are an important
part of rural tourism with their specific service standards including indigenous food & beverages,
high customer satisfaction as a result of individual service and a natural & attractive atmosphere.
Thus, the prior aim of this study is to stress the importance of CSRs and how those establishments
contribute to the development of rural tourism. Within this scope, the study isconducted on 12 CSRs
operating in Muğla and a semi-structured interview technique is used as a part of qualitative
analysis. As a result it‟s concluded that CSRs contribute to rural tourism by respecting-protecting
and landscaping the nature, by serving local dishes made by indigenous crops, by employing locals
and by supplying local foods. Finally, some suggestions are made in order to improve CSRs
contribution level and rural tourism development within a managerial perspective.
Keywords: Rural tourism, countryside restaurant, regional development, local dishes.
INTRODUCTION
Tourism industry primarily affects the environment and is also primarily affected from it.
Within this mutual interaction, environmental assets which are the natural resources of
tourism can be transformed into socio-economic assets by considering the “protect and use
environment” principle. In recent years, with the growing interest on alternative tourism
activities and special interest tourism, people has begun to pay more attention on some
destinations giving opportunity to be intertwined with the nature and serving local products
& services, in an effort to attend different tourism activities by actively participation
distinctly form 3S tourism. This increasing demand on natural & local destinations has also
featured rural tourism destinations. Rural tourism destinations which offer exotic tourism
experiences, with their nature and historical & cultural heritage, have a great potential on
satisfying a large variety demands of customers.
Although OECD (1994: 8) simply define rural tourism as the tourism activities
experienced in rural areas, it is quite difficult to make a common definition, due to its
complicated structure and its diversification among different countries(Reichel et. al.,
2000; Frochot, 2005; Maestro et. al., 2007; Cai& Li, 2009). However, rural
tourismactivities involve a journey to a rural area or a place located far from city &
tourism center with the aim of experiencing different activities in proportion to daily ones
and consider at least one night staying there (Pesonen, Komppula, Kronenberg& Peters,
2011). Further, an activity can be regarded as rural tourism as long as it is placed in rural
1
Assist. Prof. Dr., Faculty of Tourism, Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
2
Assist. Prof. Dr., Faculty of Tourism, Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
3
Doctorate, Institute of Social Sciences, MuğlaSıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Turkey.
119
areas by containing small-scaled initiatives and as long as it is sustainable in nature
(Reichel, Lowengart&Milman, 2000: 451). Rural tourism activities consists a wide variety
of activities such as nature-based events, festivals, agritourism, artistic activities and some
other activities towards local people. Moreover, rural tourism has a multidimensional and
complicated structure owing to its interrelations with ecotourism, agrotourism, health
tourism, adventure tourism and ethnic tourism (Mair, Reid, George & Taylor, 2001: 1;
Maestro, Gallego&Requejo, 2007: 951). Rural tourism contains a variety of activities
which are integrated with traditional countryside holiday. And, it is a growing industry
within the industrialized world, the growth being largely attributed to changing consumer
trends and behavior; higher levels of disposable income, improved lifestyles, increases in
health awareness, car ownership and second holiday/weekend break markets (Alexander &
McKenna, 1998: 203).
Rural tourism activities have remarkably increased in all developing countries from the
beginning of 70s. However, rural tourism activities are originally dated back to Industrial
Revolution in which the city dwellers from rural areas had a desire to go back to their
hometowns (Perales, 2002: 1101). In the ongoing process, most of rural tourism
destinations in many countries have started to restructure from the beginning of 90s which
is generally characterized by the transformation from Fordism to Post-Fordism (Cawley&
Gillmor, 2007: 316). Rural tourism, its contribution on socio-economic development of
(rural tourism) destination and also transformation of local/cultural values to value-added
resources has been the subject of many academic studies in the last decade (Perales, 2002;
Sharpley, 2002; MacDonald &Jolliffe, 2003; Briedenhann&Wickens, 2004; Fleischer
&Tchetchik, 2005; Frochot, 2005; Cawley& Gillmor, 2008).
Today,rural tourism is one of the most important industries that contributes the rural socio-
economic development & regeneration. Rural tourism activities also offer substantial
employment & income potential for rural areas where the agricultural activities constantly
decrease (Sharpley, 2002: 233). Cawley&Gilmor (2007: 137) implies that the contribution
of the rural tourism on rural economic development is significant thanks to its diversified
sources and stakeholders. Rural tourism also allows a dynamic rural economy and enables
local products to gain commercial value (Liu, 2006: 878). On the other hand,rural tourism
is commonly accepted as an indigenous part of a socio-economic structure by adjoining
with agriculture in rural areas. Thus, rural tourism activities could directly make an
important contribution on the sustainability of cultivated agricultural areas by providing an
extra income for farmers and locals (Fleischer &Tchetchik, 2005: 493).
In rural tourism, touristic and recreational attractivenessof rural areas are relevant with
rurality. Rurality here refers to a lifestyle without show off and perfect harmony of a
person with his/her nature. In other words, rurality is relevant with a traditional and
romantic discourse of the good old days (Kastenholz, Davis & Paul, 1999: 353). The
demand for rural tourism has particularly increased in the last two decades as a result of
tourists‟ expectations towards using rural, environmental, natural and architectural sources
intimately.On top of providing financial support, contributions of rural tourists to local
economy can be defined as creating new employment opportunities and revitalizing
traditional local economy (Perales, 2002: 1103). Those rural areas not only create demand
for rural tourism but also increase recreational activities and amenities, quality foods and
light manufacturing sectors. Furthermore, rural areas could be turned into areaswhere they
120
spend a certain period of life of individuals from a different social status such as retirees
and businessmen. These positive fluctuations in rural areas create new investment
opportunities and new ways of providing income, and contribute locals directly or
indirectly (Stathopoulou, Psaltopoulos&Skuras, 2004: 405).
It is possible to mention a number of factors that are important in increasing the interest in
rural tourist destinations. The desire to escape to the nature from the city chaos, to taste
local delicacies made from natural and organic foods, to meet and experience the culture
which is peculiar to rural areas and live that authentic atmosphere are among the natural
charms of these factors. CSRs that include andcombine all those natural charms are an
important part of rural tourism with their service encounter in touch with nature, organic
food and beverages and an atmosphere fulfilling tourists‟ longing to nature. In the context
of environmental protection, serving indigenous and organic products at the CSRs also
contribute to the sustainability of tourism and rural tourism as a sine qua non for
sustainability.Further employing locals at those restaurants is just one of the economic
contributions of CSRs among others. Supplying/buying food & beverages from the locals,
selling local products such as village bread, honey, butter and etc. are some other economic
contributions.CSRs also enhance destination image positively with their high customer
satisfaction rates. Since more customers get better service in an authentic atmosphere,
popularity of the destination will increase steadily.
In spite of their multidimensional and crucial contributions to rural tourism, the numbers of
studies concerning CSRs are still limited. Thus, the main motivation of this study is to
make a contribution to the relevant field. As a result of this study, which is pioneering in
the field, we assume to reveal some important findings about socio-economic contributions
of CSRs as wells as their effects on environmental protection, nature-based marketing
strategies of them, and eventually future of them.
METHODOLOGY
Population and sampling
This study aims to reveal the importance and contributions of CSRs on development of
rural tourism. Starting from this point of view,CSRs operating in Muğla province are
chosen as the population of this study. According to the data gathered information from
Muğla Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism officials, there are thirty-four CSRs
throughout Muğla as of April 2015. However officials have stated that only 12 of 34 CSRs
serve with touristic purposes. Those 12 CSRs are chosen as the sample of this study in the
first step. Within this scope,interviews were made with an authority from each restaurant.
Data Collection and Analysis Process
Interviewing method is used to gather required data in this study. As one the most used
techniques within the qualitative research methods, interviewing method has been used to
observe the contributions of CSRs on rural tourism in detail and to get precious knowledge
from the CSRs authorities. Also, limited sample and descriptive structure of the study was
the other basic reasons in choosing interviewing method.
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Within this framework, firstly a semi-structured interview form was designed in
consequence of detailed literature review, and theninterviews were carried out by face to
face meeting in June 2015. After researcher interviews, the gathered data was reviewed
overall and updated for the analysis process. At the second phase, data was reviewed by
two scholar and key terms were determined in the scope of the study. As a result of
expertise, it is concluded that the determined key terms are substantially similar. Then, the
relevant key terms is classified in three main dimensions which are also the main themes of
the study as “contributions to rural tourism,evaluations of current situation and
suggestions”,“contributions to environment protection & sustainability” and “socio-
economic contributions”. So, the contributions of CSRs on rural tourism areanalyzed
throughout these themes. At the last phase of the study, some suggestions have been made
in the context of the research findings.
Findings
Descriptive findings of the study indicate that the founding year of CSRs generally
rangesfrom 1985 to 2008. Four of these CSRs belong to the owners while others are rented
from the municipality or regional directorate of forestry. Two of these restaurants employ
at least 30 or more staff, and quantity of the staff rangesfrom 2 to 14 at others. Six CSRs
serve both domestic and foreign tourists whereas rest of them serves only domestic
tourists. Results also indicate that German and English tourists pre-dominate foreign
tourist groups. Therefore, we see that touristic CSRs operate in Muğla are generally
founded as small enterprises and employ less than 30 staff.
a) Contributions to rural tourism, evaluations of current situation and suggestions
Participants who also represent the responded CSRs inform that they contribute to rural
tourism mainly by respecting and protecting nature and offering quality service. By
founding an establishment in rural areas, they share the nature with others, support regional
employment, and enhance the promotion of region by serving local dishes. Hence their
statements such as “There are two or three nice places on the way and here is one of
them.If we had not found this restaurant, someone else would build a house and live here,
thus sharing of this beauty would not be possible”, “I think we mostly contribute the rural
tourism by providing high-quality service”, “I believe that we help rural tourism by
serving and promoting and selling local dishes or foods”, “We make a great contribution
to local employment. For instance our four personnel we employed at the beginning
brought their families here to live” emphasize the importance of CSRs to rural
tourism.Besides they believe that everyone should landscape their life spaces without
dense housing in order to improve rural tourism in the relevant area. The ideas like “It will
not be enough only if I landscape here, rather, to contribute to rural tourism first off all
living style of locals, their houses and other common life spaces must be in harmony with
rural tourism. And rural activities should be maintained in order to protect this beauty.
Hence, I believe that rural tourism will develop so long as this attractive atmosphere is
preserved without illegal dense housing.”
After determining the main contributions of CSRs to rural tourism, participants were asked
to remark what can be done in terms of rural tourism development. Gathered answers
emphasize the importance of environment protection. They have a clear view that each
person should be aware of and feel responsible toward nature in unity, due to fact that
122
protection of environment will not be successful unless all locals and operators adopt this
idea.Additionally, participants believe that local authorities must organize some training
programs to create awareness about environment protection, as well as continuing service
quality improvement efforts. The necessity of improving and diversifying alternative
nature based tourism activities in terms of rural tourism development is another important
finding of this study. Nearly, all responded CSRs officials highlight that the existence of
alternative tourism activities will promote rural tourism in the region by expressing
“Improving diversity of alternative tourism activities will enable rapid rural tourism
development”.
Another emphasized issue by the participants is financial supports in terms of improving

rural tourism. Most of the participants complain about the inadequacy of financial supports
given by authorities. Normally it is expected to use such types of supports at the
foundation phase, since there are some regulations of financial supports or grants for rural
tourism investments. Contrary to this, responded CSRs have stated that they did not use
any rural tourism support, SMEDO (Small and Medium Scaled Enterprises Development
Organization) support, credit support or any kind of public infusion of capital because of
the difficulties and inadequacies at the obtaining process.Further, most of the CSRs were
founded through the owners‟ own mean and in case of need their personal house
appliances such as refrigerator and kitchen equipment were used at early stages, eventually
all other needs fulfilled with the earned money in time. The statements “Nobody wants to
take any risk, since there is not any financial support. And this reality severelyaffects rural
tourism development. Also, formal procedures about foundation and operation are very
difficult” summarize the negative conditions for the CSRs in a financial sense. Thus, they
insist on the necessity of enlarging the quantity and variety of financial supports. After all,
professionalism of these CSRs and making contribution to development and promotion of
rural areas is only possible as long as CSRs have government promotion & support. So, it
is a fact that the authorities must revise some regulations in the field of promotion&
support procedures for local establishments such as CSRs.
Besides improving alternative tourism activities and enlargement at financial support,

participants of the study emphasize the necessity of substructure enhancements. Results
stress on the importance of transportation to maintain sustainability and improvements at
rural tourism. Participants overemphasize that transportation system should be improved
urgently by saying “we have many problems with substructure. But transportation and
accessibility of the region is maybe the most important subject that authorities must
immediately pay attention. We are far away from the city center and transportation costs
as well as freights are very expensive, so it becomes more difficult to attract potential
customers”. On the other hand,it is concluded that participants looking forward to get
natural gas services as soon as it is possible, since they cannot use natural gasat present.
Results regarding to substructure improvement also indicate that enhancements on
substructure investments are expected after being taken into metropolitan district area.
The last issue addressed at this section is to determine marketing strategies of CSRs. The
results emphasize the importance of word of mouth marketing for CSRs. Hence, responded
CSRs stated that experienced service by the customers is the best marketing tool.
Statements given below support this idea. “At the marketing process we do not use many
tools, only our guests speak of us to his/her friends and so we trust on word of mouth
123
marketing. Satisfied guests wistfully tell their positive ideas and nice memories andalso by
statingI was satisfied with the service”. “Our guests know us well since previous
customers adverted us beforehand”. “We have a certain customer group constituting of
loyal ones, and we can get new ones by the help of previous customers”. Additionally TV
series have a great impact on promotion, since the participants think that these series are
more efficient and more directly appeal the target population than CSRs own promotion
efforts.
b) Contributions to environment protectionand sustainability
Contributions of CRSs to environment protection and sustainability have beenresearched

from the perspectives of nature protection, planting & landscaping, waste disposal
processes and eco-friendly energy using. The results of the study demonstrate that concern
about the “protect the nature then use it” principle is the first important finding of the
study. Statements of the participants such as “We cannot be here without our protected
nature”, “our primary goal is to conduct our activities without harming the environment”
and “our main goal is to protect the environment” emphasize the given importance to
environment protection and sustainability. Another important finding about environment
protection is about planting. Almost all of the CSRs stated that they have made planting
and have allocated a serious budget for landscaping at foundation phase. Hence, the
statements “in the past this place was almost idle, but we have planted, greened and
landscaped here by ourselves”and “we both protect the nature and reforest these areas”
are confirming the environment protection efforts of CSRs.
Another issue addressed under the research is the disposal process of solid and liquid
waste. In terms of the results, it is concluded that the big majority of the CSRs leave their
solid waste to dumpsters without any sorting, since the municipality do not have waste
parsing/sorting system. “Nobody sort the garbage since the municipality does not provide
different containers for the solid waste”, “there is not any recycling process for the waste,
so we do not sort the solid waste. Further there must be a strict policy to waste
management and it must be implemented throughout the country” statements clearly
summarize the reasons of leaving the solid waste without any sorting. Participants also
state that liquid waste is collected by a private company per week and chemical waste such
as detergents are directly wasted to sewage. Thus, it can be assumed that waste
management processes of the CSRs and also municipality is not efficient in terms of nature
protection and sustainability.
The last issue researched in terms of environment protection and sustainability is the
green-energy usage. As a result of the growing importance of green-energy, almost all
enterprises have begun to consider green-energy usage as a corporate social responsibility
today. Thus, like other businesses, CSRs must also seriously address green-energy usage,
since it is very important for the sustainability of rural destinations. However it is
concluded that CSRs are using solar energy only for the water heating while they use
energy saving bulbs for the lighting. More interestingly, they use air-conditioning, solid
fuel (wood or coal) for heating, although usage rate of solid fuelis still very low because of
temperate climate. Once for all, it is determined that only two CSRs have fuel gas filter.
This situation may seem negative for environment protection, but it should be noted that
the usage rate of solid fuels is very low as mentioned before.
124
c) Contributions in the field of socio-economic development
One of the most important socio-economic contributions of CSRs to the region in which
they operate is the employment potential created by them. Hence, employment of the
locals and simultaneously increments on the family income and welfare is generally
accepted as an efficient way of socio-economic development for the relevant region.
Further, the idle labor force firstly becomes a part of active labor force, then began to
promote production by starting to work at CSRs. Results of the study indicate that a big
proportion of responded CSRs select their staff from the local people except in the case of
high season. Participants have stated that they can employ staff from outside of the region
when they have to bear with a peak demand. On the other hand, it is also concluded that
their contributions to rural employment is still limited since they are family-run restaurants
and employ a small amount of staff. In terms of employment, participants also notify that
they have difficulties at finding qualified personnel because of limited social activities,
being away from the city-center and inadequacy of transportation.
Within the context of the study, another prescribed socio-economic contribution of the
CSRs is local supplying processes. All participants informed that they supply the big
majority of food and beverages they use in service production from the local farmers.
Fruits and vegetables, milk and dairy products are the most supplied materials from the
local farmers. Meanwhile, 25 % of the CSRs grow these crops in their own farms.
However these field crops constitute only half of whole crops used in service production.
The other materials or crops which cannot be supplied from local farmers are generally
bought from the nearby professional suppliers. At this point,participants as the owner or
managers of CSRs particularly emphasize the production capacity of local farmers. It is
stated that the most important reason of using professional supplier is the inadequacy and
floating production capacity of local farmers. “We compulsorily buy from other suppliers,
when they cannot satisfy our demands in terms of food and beverages”, “Even though, we
want to supply everything from the local farmers, we can supply only %50 of our needs
which we use for service production” statements summarize the unsteady supplying
processes between CSRs and local farmers.
Considering the fact that the some authentic or rural restaurants rarely sell local products,
participants has been asked to whether they have a separate stand for the purpose of selling
local products such as honey, butter, olive, olive oil and village bread. They have stated
that there is not a separate stand, butthey sell these types of products only in the case of the
customer demands. While two CSRs have reported that they sell honey and olive oil, the
rest of the participants do not respond positively to selling local products at the restaurants
commercially in general. At this point, it can be assumed that the CSRs have some
justifications. For instance, they do not want to create an impression on customers toward
getting double earnings by selling the same products separately,since they serve local
foods made by these products. Rather, it is believed that CSRs primarily promote and
market the region, then themselves by serving local foods through combining them with
different combinations at their menu. Contrary to this fact, some restaurants serve only
certain types of meals while they are also serving local foods. Participants of these
restaurants believe that people prefer to eat roasts, grills and variety of fishes due to the
natural atmosphere. Thus, they prefer to serve local appetizers and village bread with the
meals rather than serving wide range of main courses. These participants also agree on
125
others by thinking that the most ideal way is to serve local foods (village bread, egg and
butter and etc.)with the breakfasts.
Interestingly, despite of their numerous contributions to rural areas, it is concluded that

responded CSRs do not carry out or maintain any social responsibility projects (SRP).
They just support some charities in case of demand. This approach to SRP may be
explained by being a small-sized family restaurant and the low degree of
institutionalization. “Although we do not carry on SRP, we support charities in the
region”, “we also support a variety of activities performing for handicapped people”,
“sometimes we do not charge anything for the meal from handicapped or needy people”
and “we don’t have any time” statements clearly represent the current situation about SRP
of responded CSRs. These statements also indicate that responded CSRs perform some
efforts (endowing the mosques, giving money or supporting needy and handicapped
people) as a way of carrying out SRP. Further, these establishments do not organize any
special events or activities for the local people, instead they support some festivals
organizations occasionally or they rarely perform small-scaled breakfast organizations.
CONCLUSIONS
With the growing attention to rural tourism, environment and sustainable tourism today,
many more studies are conducted in the field of rural activities and rural establishments.
CSRs are one of these establishments located in rural areas which serve local dishes. So,
these types of establishments constitute an important part of the rural tourism. Hence,many
studies in this field are expected to be conducted. Unfortunately the number of the studies
concerning CSRs and their contribution to rural tourism is still very limited. Thus this
study has been conducted in order to determine the contributions of CSRs on rural tourism
in terms of sustainability, environment management and socio-economic development.
Findings of the study indicate that;
CSRs operating in Muğla are aware of the importance of protecting nature

meanwhile they are using this attractive atmosphere presented by the nature.
Respecting and protecting the operating nature as well as landscaping and high-
level service quality are means of contributing to the rural tourism for these
establishments.
Although these establishments directly contribute local employment by selecting
their staff from the locals, they barely find qualified staff. Difficulties at finding
qualified personnel basically originate from being distantfrom the city center and
very limited social activity opportunities. Furthermore, most of them operate as
family companies and this fact cause a limited contribution to local employment.
Responded CSRs market and promote themselves by word of mouth marketing
mostly. In other words, they consider their newcomers and loyal customers are the
most important marketing tool.
Substructure and transportation problems seen in the area lead to a decrease on
rural tourism demand, and correspondingly regional development cannot increase
as planned. Additionally, diversification of rural tourism activities performed in
relevant area and social activities are very important for the promotion.
126
There are some problems at waste management for the CSRs such as
parsing/sorting the solid waste and inadequacy of liquid waste collection which are
undesirable for rural tourism development.
Inadequate and unsteady local production of organic and endemic food constrains
responded CSRs to use professional suppliers or to buy from somewhere else.
Responded CSRs generally do not want to sell any indigenous crop since they find
it as unethical and interpret as unfair profit.
However respondents emphasize that they care about the “protect and use the
nature” principle but they do not care enough at supplying and using green energy.
Responded CSRs approach social responsibility efforts positively. But the quantity
of these types of efforts is still very limited as a result of mistakable aim of the
SRP.
Findings of the study listed above clearly demonstrate that formal/local authorities must
support this types of attempts financially and morally.Because, idle rural tourism potential
can be set into motion by supporting these attempts and improve rural activities in
accordance with alternative tourism facilities. Additionally owners or managers of CSRs
and authorities should take into considerationsuggestions mentioned below.
Government incentives and promotions to rural tourism must be revised in terms
of their allowed amount and procedural simplification.
Waste management is one of the most neglected issues by the CSRs operators.
Thus, local government units should carry out comprehensive waste management
programs including formal procedures and collecting efforts.
For the CSRs, it is very important to maintain basic activities by considering
ecological balance and sustainability. Thus, each CSR must fulfill its responsibility
for sustainability.
Overcoming the substructure-superstructure and transportation problems is very
important within the context of discharging accessibility principle which is one of
touristic attraction elements. Hence, a rural destination or a region can create
touristic demand as long as it is accessible for everyone.
Considering that the local dishes is the most valuable service tool of CSRs, local
authorities and farmers should increase the supplement capacity and quality of
local crops. Also, incentives and promotions provided in this field actively should
be actively used by farmers.
Although green energy usage is very important for all business, it is particularly
vital for the companies whose unique capital is nature. In all circumstances where
the energy demand continuously increases and alternative energy resources are
important, these types of companies located in nature must be pioneers at green
energy usage in order to protect the nature which is our common heritage.
Eventually, it must be noted that this is a descriptive study tackling the contributions of
CSRs in the frame of participants‟ ideas. Thus, this study does not contain any comparative
or causation results. Indeed it summarizes the current situation and brings some
suggestions to help the development of rural tourism. So, more descriptive studies as well
as comparative researches should be conducted in order to understand the contribution
levels of CSRs on rural tourism. Also some studies involving quantitative and qualitative
research methods simultaneously must be conducted in order to gather detailed knowledge
127
from relevant establishments. We assume that this study can also help the authorities or
operators in terms of its findings and suggestions that have been made within a managerial
approach.
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DO MEMORIAL SITES FROM THE SECOND WORLD WAR POSSESS
POTENTIAL FOR TOURISM DEVELOPMENT – EXAMPLES FROM
CROATIA AND BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Snježana Musa1
Jasenka Kranjčević2
Dario Šakić3
Abstract: This paper researches memorial sites built in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in a
planned manner to mark the Second World War sufferings or military operations. Most of the
analysed sites were planned, designed and built following an urban-architectural competition. All of
these sites were designed by the best local planners and artists of the time. Nearly all of them are
located in protected natural areas (of varying degrees of protection). Depending on the significance
of a particular memorial site at the time, it was planned and constructed as a memorial, educational
and/or tourist centre with numerous recreational and accommodation facilities, restaurants and other
facilities. This paper examines the role memorial sites played, the current state of memorial sites as
a whole, the state of the natural heritage, the state of the cultural heritage, the state of buildings and
infrastructure and the present possibilities for tourism development. Memorial sites from Croatia
included in the analysis are: Jasenovac, Podgariš, Kalnik, Petrova Gora, Kumrovec, Brezovica,
Korenica, Matiš Poljana etc. Memorial sites located in Bosnia and Herzegovina and included in the
analysis are: Sutjeska, Kozara, Jablanica, Makljen, Sanski Most, Konjuh Planina, Drvar etc. Taking
into consideration that planned memorial sites from the Second World War lost their political
significance, the conclusion summarizes the state of memorial sites by site, country and the
potential for tourism development.
Key words: memorial sites, Second World War, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, cultural and
natural heritage, tourism
INTRODUCTION
Most of the monuments of the anti-fascist battle, which were built during the sixties and
seventies in all of the former republics of Yugoslavia, have gone into oblivion. The
monuments were built on the sites of significant historical battles in World War II or in
places of large civilian and partisan casualties and all of those are the works of skilful local
sculptors and architects, such as Dušan Dţamonja, Vojin Bakiš, Bogdan Bogdanoviš, Ivan
Saboliš, Svetislav Liţina, Vojin Stojiš, Vanja Radauš, Gradimir Medakoviš, Miodrag
Ţivkoviš, Jovan Grabulovski, Janez Lenassi, Petar Krstiš, Vuk Bombardelli, Boško
Kušanski and Marko Mušiţ.
The subject of this paper are memorial sites from Second World War in Croatia and Bosnia
and Herzegovina which were big part of tourism from sixties all the way to nineties. All
these memorial sites in both countries mark the locations of military battles, camps,
1
Full professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Mostar, Mostar,
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
2
Senior research scientist, Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, Croatia.
3
Research assistant, Faculty of Science and Education, University of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
130
cemeteries and other forms of suffering during World War II. Larger memorial complexes
per year toured between four and five million visitors, which was reason enough for them
to be treated as a tourist site. The important fact is that this work has grown out of an
extremely precious experience: field work of author together with students in the last
twenty years has consisted from visits to these memories, with efforts to include them in
fostering a tradition of anti-fascism, tourism, memories and inexpensive destination.
%
U Capital
N
$ Smetovi
$ $ Sanski Most
U Zagre b
% $ $ Grmec
$ $ Igman
$ Partizansko groblje Mostar
$ $ $ $ Drvar
Re $ Vrace
pu
bl
$ $ Makljen
ic
of
Cr
$$ $ Jablanica
oa
tia
$ $ Kozara
Bo $ $ Sutjeska
sn
ia $ Matic poljana
an U
%
Sa ra je vo
$
d
He $ $$ Batina.shp
Ad
rz
eg
ov
$ $ Petrova Gora
ria
ti cS
in a $ $ $ Kumrovec
ea $ Podgaric
$ Jasenovac
1:3944688
Fig.1.Memorial sites in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina

Source: Authors
Considering increased importance of memorial tourism in Europe and the world this paper
aims to verify:
whether or not memorial sites in socialist period had the same touristic, memorial,
educational and political role
whether or not memorial sites of World War II have the potential for development
of special interest tourism such as memorial tourism/dark tourism/thanato tourism
Incentive for research was the fact that the memorial areas of the Second World War such
as France are still very attractive for tourism and growing number of visitors. Only location
for Normandy landings of Allied Army known as "D-Day" in Normandy in 2014 had
5,926,409 visitors, which is 1.3% more than in 2013.
The location in 1995 had a little more than 3,000,000 visitors (http://ctn.pro-normandie-
ourisme.com/content/media/document.php?id_document=4971&id_format=1;
(17.7.2015.)) which proves that the said location has memorial, educational and touristic
meaning. Memorial areas in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina during socialist period
were systematically designed, almost everywhere marked by artistic sculptures, sometimes
built with museum and other structures necessary for selective forms of tourism. Most
tourists or visitors were: school children, participants in the war, politicians and others.
Without going into detail of historical and military facts, here is revalued their value for
the restoration of the memorial tourism or restoration of selective forms of tourism, and
eventually designing and shaping a common theme routes of dark tourism.
131
Overall observing, certain memorial areas from that period have emerged as the best works
of artists of Yugoslavia, and besides memorial have certain artistic value. According to
some foreign researchers, it is incredible how the artists of the time were talented and what
kind of messages they were sending to the world. One of such researchers is a Belgian
artist Jan Kampenaers, Associate of the Royal Academy of Ghent who carried out the
project "Monuments: end of an era" in which he emphasizes how impressed he was with
"abstractness of Yugoslav monuments, their futuristic looks and artistic quality untypical
for socialist realism as it raged in those years eastern Europe ". For many European
architects those monuments are more museum sculptures in the open, rather than the usual
war memorials, but unfortunately they are little known in the world. Same situation is in
both of these countries as no one wants to know about these monuments.
Most of these monuments are located in areas with different levels of protection of nature,
and if nature is preserved that does not mean that monuments are in the same category. All
this shows also that the subject memorial areas in both countries are located outside of
cities and often in protected natural areas.
On some locations there have been set megalomaniac monuments/statues as symbols of

suffering which were designed by some of the best artists of the former Yugoslavia. As
artists were not bound by economic indicators, their work was dedicated to contemporary
design. After socio-economic and political changes in the 1990s, systematically arranged
memorial areas today are abandoned and largely devastated and have not been included as
a part of tourism offer.
Regarding the special interest tourism forms that indicate the location of military
operations, death, disaster, cemeteries and other events in recent years have received
increasing attention of researchers (Sharpley and Stone, 2009; Stone 2012, Stone 2013,
etc.). Putting the location and / or events related to the topics listed in touristic offer is
increasingly the subject of research, and less attention was given to the motivation of
visitors (Dunkley, Morgan and Westwood, 2001) and to the visit of authentic locations
(Cohen 2011).
Methodology
For research purposes, it was necessary to carry first out the so-called mapping of locations
of memorial areas from World War II. At the beginning five most important memorial
areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia were determined. After that there was also
determined their state of conservation of cultural and natural heritage, and whether there
are resources to rebuild the memorial tourism.
To be able to analyze and evaluate mutually memorial areas, the goal of this paper is, in
the first stage, making the records of the above areas i.e. mapping in order to determine
their status for the purposes of tourism. It had also been made a comparison of relations
between the memorial and areas of tourism in Europe, especially in France and the
mentioned countries.
132
ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT SITUATION IN DARK TOURISM OFFER
Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia are not recognized as countries that offer memorial
tourist areas of World War II of international importance. Primary research has identified
unique destinations of memorial tourism from the period of World War II in both countries
and their connections can represent a variety of projects. Each state for itself will not
achieve international significance of these sites unless a common platform is created that
will include touristic offer and tourist cooperation of memorial significance. It is necessary
to rebuild the devastated areas and put them in the function of tourism, so as to modernize
the presentation of the above scope.
In the tourist offer should definitely be included organizations engaged in tourism but also
as in France schools, civil associations and so on.
Tab. 1. Memorial sites in Croatia
Protecte
Have Built State of Protected
Munic d area of
Location County spatial location natural
ipality Yes/No cultural
plan today area
heritage
Sisak – Jaseno Park of

Jasenovac Yes Yes Good Yes
Moslavina vac nature
Bjelovar –
Podgarić Berek Yes Yes Bad Yes Yes
Bilogora
Krapina - Kumro
Kumrovec Yes Yes Medium Yes Yes
Zagorje vec4
Significan
Petrova Devastat
Karlovac Vojniš Yes Yes t Yes
Gora ed
landscape
Osijek –
Batina Draţ Yes Yes Good No Yes
Baranja
In 1976.
26 of
Primorje – protected
Matić Mrkop stone
Gorski Yes Good Yes as
poljana alj sclupt
Kotar historical
ures
route
Source: Authors
The memory of war or war memories in the words of Tamara Banjeglav5, have resulted in
the destruction of heritage memory of the Second World War on the territory of Bosnia
4
Ethnographic Open-Air Museum
5
In her research in the work ofRE: VISION OFTHE PAST, officialpolitics of memoryin Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Croatia and Serbiasince 1990, Alumni Associationcenter forinterdisciplinary
Postgraduate Studies(ACIP S), Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung
133
and Herzegovina and Croatia. In early nineties in both countries occurred changes in the
policies of memory that in a way changed the attitude towards World War II, which was
characterized at the beginning of the 1990s by anti-communism and the new nationalist
interpretation of the partisan movement, which caused many changes in commemorative
practices and official policies of memories today. The focus of this study were also the
policies of memory of World War II through the condition of cultural heritage and
memorials. So it turned out that all the complexes were equipped, containing the museum
complex, the memorial rooms, trails, hotel accommodation. Tourism memories lived there
through school trips, youth gatherings, schools and other forms of self-management.
Tab. 2. Memorial sites in Bosnia nad Herzegovina
Protect
Have ed area
Built State of Protected of
Municipali spatial
Locatio plan Yes/N location natural cultura
County ty
n o today area l
heritag
e
Sutjesk Republic Devastat National

Foţa Yes Yes Yes
a of Srpska ed Park
Republic National
Kozara Prijedor Yes Yes Good Yes
of Srpska Park
Herzegov
ina –
Neretva Jablanica No Yes Medium No Yes
Neretva
County
Sarajevo Hadţiši and Devastat

Igman No Yes No Yes
County Ilidţa ed
Canton
Drvar Drvar Good Yes Yes
10
Herzegov
Maklje ina – Prozor- Devastat
No No No Yes
n Neretva Rama ed
Canton
Šušnjar Una –
Sanski
, Sanski Sana Yes Yes Good No Yes
Most
Most County
Grmeč Una – Sanski Medium No No
134
Sana Most No
County
Zenica –
Smetov
Doboj Zenica Good No No
i No
County
Sarajevo Novo
County Sarajevo
Devastat
Vraca and and Istoţno No No No Yes
ed
Republic Novo
of Srpska Sarajevo
Partisa
n Herzegov
Memor ina –
Mostar No No No
ial Neretva Bad Yes
Cement County
ery
Source: Authors
After socio-economic and political changes in the 1990s, memorial areas today are
abandoned and largely devastated and have not been included as a part of tourism offer.
Given the increased importance of memorial tourism in Europe and the world, this area
could have a significant share of these special interest tourism forms as well. Although in
the past it suffered great damage, some even complete destruction, they still represent
places of gathering of those living participants of the war, like Sutjeska or places where
young people gather for low-cost tourism, but very rarely tourism memories.
135
Fig. 2.MinedmonumenttoMakljen, near the settlementProzor Rama
Photo: Authors
Tab. 3. Built accommodation capacities in Croatia before the last war
Pavili
Num ons
Locatio Municipa ber and
County Hotels Motels Inns
n lity of depad
beds ans-
chalet
SutjeskaB 134
Sutjesk 292 210
RS Foţa Mladost B 123
a
Hotel
,,Kozara“ 171
(871) on
Mrakovica; 500
B-category;
Settlement
for youth
Kozara RS Prijedor „Bratstvo-
jedinstvo",
on 200
Mrakovica,
136
with 500
beds
Prijedor:
Hotel
„Prijedor"
(200), B-
category
.
Hercego Hotel
vaţko ,,Jablanica“
Neretva Jablanica
neretvan (88 1), B- 160
ska category;
Hotel
„Beograd“
(60), B-
category;
120
Motel
Drvar 25
,,Bastašica“
40
(14 ),
Inn
„Turist“
(21 ),
Hotel
,,Korčanica
“on
Korţanica,
B-category;
70
caffee,
restaurant;
Sanski
Hotel
Most 70
,,Sanusu“
in Sanski
12
Most; B-
category;
Motel in
Luška
Palanka
Novo
Sarajevs Many
Vraca Sarajevo,
ka/RS hotels
I. NS
Hercego
Partizan
vaţko Many
sko Mostar
neretvan hotels
groblje
ska
137
Although before the war during the disintegration of socialist Yugoslavia these sites were
visited by millions of visitors today those numbers are negligible. Given the level of
construction, incorporation, ambience and even the need for anti-fascist education, the
memorial areas of World War II have the potential for the development of special interest
forms of tourism, especially memorial/dark tourism, or thanato tourism.
Modern education and upbringing of young people does not know this kind of memories
and that void is felt the most by empty accommodation capacities in these areas. The fact is
that such memorial areas even during their construction during socialism had the purpose
of being touristic, memorial,educational and of course political centres.
Tab. 4. Built accommodation capacities in Bosnia and Herzegovina before the last war
Pavilions
Numeber
and
County Municipality Hotels of beds Motels Inns
Location depadans-
or rooms
chalet
- - -
Jasenovac Sisaţko- Jasenovac Sava 98B
moslavaţka
- - -
180
Podgariš Bjelovarsko- Berek Gariš
rooms
bilogorska
- - -
Kumrovec Krapinsko- Kumrovec Dom 140
zagorska boraca
- - -
Petrova Karlovaţka Gvozd None -
Gora ţupanija
- - - -
Batina Osjeţko- Draţ
baranjska
- - - -
Matiš Primorsko- Mrkopalj
poljana goranska
138
Fig.3.Partisan Memorial Cemeteryin Mostar
Photo: Authors
The reasons for the occurrence of this form of tourism, according to the findings of
sociologists, are found in the so-called de-sacralization of public life and the extrapolation
of death in the zone of privacy. "Dark" tourism therefore represents, according to that,
reasoning of sustainable acceptance and coping with death. On the territory of South
Eastern Europe this type of tourism has been present for a long time. It is woven in
Christianity, so "dark tourism" registers its beginnings through visits of Jesus tomb,
numerous graves around the world, memorial service, and in the Balkans it is especially
popular from the steps of Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo, across Sutjeska and all the way to
Potoţari.
CONCLUSION
Memorial areas from the Second World War during their designing in 1960s and 1970s
during socialist period had touristic, commemorative, educational and political role.
Unfortunately, their existence is tied to the period of socialism, which has a negative
connotation among politicians but also part of the population.
Memorial areas from the Second World War on the territory of both countries undoubtedly
have the potential for the development of selective forms of tourism such as Memorial
Tourism / dark tourism /thanato tourism.
Although in this case we are about memorial sites from the Second World War, it can be
concluded that these potentials in contemporary Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia are
not recognized enough as an attraction for the development of dark, memorial or thanato
tourism. Regardless of that these exist as potentials for the development of not only the
memories but also education, and therefore the spaces for the development of "black" or
thanato tourism.
139
Because of these findings, the paper concludes that the memorial areas of the Second
World War in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina are under-utilized for the development
of the memorial, dark or thanatos tourism. At the same time we want to point out that this
form of tourism in both countries is not recognized and is positioned in the system and
strategies for tourism development.
The meaning of the above areas would certainly have contributed to the design of dark
tourism trails from the Second World War. They might be associated with sites of
suffering from the last war (1990s) that claimed many lives.
The memories of socialism in the former Yugoslavia in the media usually have negative
connotations. Facts about the horrors of the last war, is mostly linked to the cause and
effect of just this type of socialism, so memories of suffering in Croatian and Bosnia and
Herzegovina are very much alive, the horrors of war are not forgotten, and should not be,
but in the culture of memory and the construction of tolerance there is still no place for the
development of thanato tourism.
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141
CONVERSION OF FORMER INDUSTRIAL PORTS INTO TOURIST
ATTRACTIONS. HAS INTEGRATION BEEN ACHIEVED?
Daniel Barrera-Fernandez1
Marco Antonio Hernandez-Escampa2
Abstract:The transformation of redundant port facilities has become a priority in many cities
willing to attract a larger number of tourists. From Baltimore‟s successful initiative to Barcelona‟s
dissemination of the model in Europe, one city after another have implemented the same examples
with few variations. The objective of the research is to analyze the renovation of former industrial
ports in two medium-size cities: Plymouth and Malaga, focusing on whether the projects have
matched the initial objectives to turn the facilities into tourist attractions as well as to integrate them
in the city life. The methodological process is based on a comparative analysis of five different
issues, namely external accessibility, internal mobility, activities, heritage protection and general
integration in the urban context. The research process has ended up in the production of
comparative maps. Major differences between both examples can be found in the integration of
heritage, both cultural and natural, the consolidation of a mix of uses and the existence of physical
barriers between the port and the rest of the city.
Key words: urban tourism, cruise facilities, waterfront, heritage, regeneration
THE TOURIST USE OF A SINGULAR PIECE: THE WATERFRONT
The regeneration of the waterfront for tourism and leisure uses is a solution to the decline
of port facilities.In general, all projects of this kind follow the same models, from the first
interventions in Baltimore and other cities in USA, through their adaptation to European
cities to their current globalization (Ward, 2006). According to Andrade Marqués and
Blasco López (2012), three phases can be distinguished in port regerenation. In the first
phase in the 1960s-1970s, only leisure activities were established. In the 1980s residences
were introduced. In the 1990s, spectacular architectural projects were developed
coinciding with mega-events. Finally, in the 21st century, factors of competitiveness are
differentiation and maintainance of the local port identity.
A common negative effect of these projects is that they contribute to the substitution of
traditional port activities and loss of heritage assets (Williams, 2004). Some of the
difficulties in planning these spaces are the existence of physical barriers between the port
and the rest of the city, the participation of various government agencies (Alemany
Llovera, 2005) and the increasing security requirements (Estrada Llaquet, 2006).There is a
substantial difference in the presence of built heritage depending on whether the port has a
military or commercial origin (Pinder & Smith, 1999). In addition, there is sometimes a
delicate natural heritage closely dependent on built structures (Howard & Pinder, 2003).
Finally, integration of non-material values has to be considered to achieve a sustainable
development (Van Hooydonk, 2009).
1
Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, University of
Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico.
2
Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, University of
Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico.
142
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE TOURIST REGENERATION OF PORTS
IN PLYMOUTH AND MALAGA
Introduction to both cases
Sea and port activities are crucial to understand the history, urban development and
character of Plymouth (England, UK). Unbuilt areas for military reasons led to the open
spacesthat arenowadays the symbolic image of the city. The Army built its facilities in
areas of difficult access by land but suitable for naval function and, after losing its strategic
interest, some of these sectors have been integrated into urban life. These features have
made Plymouth's waterfront a relatively little changed area, with great heritage value,
making it a major tourist resource.
On the other side, the waterfront in Malaga (Andalusia, Spain) is the result of a series of
profound changes in the coastline. The port has been extendedthrough land reclamation
and the city has taken over the former coastal areas. During the twentieth century the city
and the port evolved independently, gates and fences were installed and high capacity
roads were created, acting as a physical barrier. Fisheries and port activities were no longer
visible from the city and Malaga's maritime character was lost.
Currently, Malaga's waterfront has two distinct parts. The port is located in the city centre,
divided into a touristsection and anindustrial area. The rest of the waterfront is made up of
urban highways, sea promenades and sandy beaches with residential uses, with only two
exceptions to this rule: the former fishermen's neighborhood of Pedregalejo and the former
seaside resort of Baños del Carmen (Barrera-Fernandez, 2012).
External accessibility
Unlike other cities, in Plymouth there is no road or rail infrastructure acting as a barrier
between the waterfront and the rest of the city. Historical reasons are the difficult
topography, military uses and the twisting shape of the coastline. Apart from them, tourist
plans and urban policies have repeatedly decided not to intervene aggressively in order to
preserve this unique space. Today, the waterfront is only accessible by secondary roads
and the parking area is very limited, being far more practical to reach it by bus, taxi, bike
or on foot.
Malaga has a main road acting as a barrier between to the waterfront. While regeneration
of the port was being carried out to increase tourist activities, some proposals were
suggested to mitigate the barrier, but none of theme was finally developed. Even the long-
term demand of removing the fence between the port and the city has been accomplished
only partially.In fact, the solution applied was in the opposite direction, an underground
car parkand a new traffic lane were created, thus increasing traffic significantly.The
physical separation of the port and the rest of the city is just the implementation of the
division and lack of coordination between the different agencies intervening in the port:
City Council, Port Authority, Andalusian Government and Spanish Government.
143
Fig. 1. External accessibility to the waterfronts of Plymouth and Malaga. Source: Barrera-
Fernandez, D.
Internal mobility
In Plymouth's waterfront there are several ferry connections, from those serving its
neighborhoods to those connecting with France and Spain. In general, bike paths are
shared with pedestrians or vehicles. In particular, the South West Coast Path National Trail
goes all along the waterfront. Apart from it, pedestrians have access to the waterfront
through paths and stairs except in military and industrial areas. Granting public access has
been a priority in all urban plans and regeneration policies since the 1990s.
In the case of Malaga, pedestrian mobility is possible in the beach areas but problems
appear when trying to reach the port. In the tourist section, pier 1 is accessible only in the
commercial sector, while in pier 2 two levels have been created and only cruise passengers
have access to the coastline. Bicycles have even more restrictions than pedestrians, since
there are no bike lanes along the waterfront. In addition, cycling is prohibited in the non-
tourist section of the port. Pedestrian mobility and cycling havebeen made more difficult
after the renovation of the port to attract tourist activities. Fences, prohibition signs and
security cameras have multiplied to prevent visitors from leaving the tourist sector. As a
result, public access is forbidden to the stretches from which the best views of the
waterfront can be enjoyed.
Activities
In relation to activities, Plymouth's waterfront is currently characterized by a mix of uses

and a coexistence of activities that tend to be segregated elsewhere. A variety of uses has
been an objective inall kinds ofregeneration-related policies since the 1990s, as reflected in
documents such as Tomorrow's Waterfront (Plymouth City Council, 1990), the Local Plan
First Alteration (Plymouth City Council, 1996),the Vision for Plymouth (MBM
Arquitectes, AZ Urban Studio, 2003) and The Plymouth Local Economic Strategy 2006 -
2021 & Beyond (Plymouth City Council, 2011). Although port activities such as shipyards,
ancillary industries, freight and fishing do not have the weight they had before,
regeneration policies emphasize the importance to keep them in order to diversify the
economy, reducing the overreliance on tourist and commercial activities.
144
Currently, the city offers a wide range of berths and marinas along the coastline. Tourist
and commercial uses have been enhanced in three sensitive areas: Royal William Yard,
Sutton Harbour and The Hoe. In all of them the variety of shops, restaurants and services
has been expanded although with different results. Royal William Yard has been fully
restored, however, the place lacks the desired multifunctionality and has a uniform
picturesque appearance. The Hoe has managed to retain its character as an open space and
Sutton Harbour has made an effort to keep its mix of residences and tourist uses, although
not without tensions. The city's tourist policies have put the emphasis on the development
of the waterfront in a sustainable way, thinking about a future in harmony with the
environment and the aspirations of the local community. Nevertheless, this search for a
consensus has made some operations excessively slow, like the cases of the unrealised
projects to reuse Drake's Island or the new infrastructure for cruise passengers in Millbay.
Malaga's waterfront can be divided in two main sectors: sandy beaches and the port.
Although beaches are officially considered as open spaces, they are being increasingly
occupied by restaurants and hammocks.In contrast to the case of Plymouth, regeneration of
Malaga's waterfront to promote tourist and commercial activities has not been balanced
with a recognition of exisiting port activities and there has not been an effort to make them
more present in the city's daily life. In fact, they have been hidden away from the tourists'
gaze.
In general terms, Malaga's waterfront is characterized by segregation of activities. Each

section is designed to accommodate only one activity. Moreover, there are no activities to
attract citizens unless they act as tourists. As a result, social mix and spontaneity are
unresolved matters. To this artificiality, specific port regulations have contributed. As an
example, it is forbidden to sell or consume food and beverages outside restaurants, playing
in water sources is prohibited and permission is required to play music or perform artistic
or cultural events.
Fig. 2. Land uses on the waterfront of Plymouth and Malaga. Source: Barrera-Fernandez
145
Heritage protection
As mentioned above, tourist plans in Plymouth's waterfront always begin with a

recognition of the cultural, natural and landscape value of this environment and their
preservation is a main objective. A positive feature in this regard is that heritage protection
is not limited by ownership or administrations involved, resulting in a large amount of
listed military sites in the waterfront. In relation to port heritage, a wide range of assets
have been listed, such as docks, bollards, walls, warehouses and facilities of all kinds. In
addition, there is a listed wreck. Regarding protected urban areas, there are four
Conservation Areas includingwaterfront sections within their limits.
Furthermore, Plymouth's waterfront concentrates a number of protected natural sites, since

it serves as the habitat of several communities of plants, fish and birds, some of them
endangered. Therefore, interventions carried out in the waterfronthave to assess their
impact on marine life (Plymouth City Council, 2007). Finally, non-tangible values
associated with the port have a leading role in the city, in aspects such as the cultural life,
scientific research centres and marketing strategies. The new city's brand itself of
"Plymouth, Britain's Ocean City" states the close relationship that this city keeps with the
sea.
On the other side, Malaga's waterfront is very poor in terms of cultural heritage and
protected natural areas. One factor that explains this situation is land reclamation, which
has made former port facilities lose its location close to the sea. Another reason is that the
Andalusian Government does not have the power to protect heritage assets linked to State-
run services (Act 16/1985). As a result, the entire coastline presents a great artificiality,
with annual supply of sand, which has serious consequences for marine life. Furthermore,
the port belonged to the central Conservation Area until 2012, when it was excluded of the
new delimitationand nowadays the only listed asset is the Virgen del Puerto chapel. This
lack of protection resulted in the destruction of a significant amount of industrial heritage
assets when the port was regenerated to attract cruise ships, losing the grain silo,
warehouses, cranes, port facilities, pavements and townscape elements.
General integration in the urban context
Suming up all the aspects analyzed, it can be considered that Plymouth's port is well
integrated with the rest of the city, since access from other neighborhoods is relatively
easy, there are no inner barriers, there is a continuity of the urban fabric, the port is socially
inclusive, it has an intense daily activity and regulations are as restrictive or permissive
than in other parts of the city. The only areas in which unauthorized access is forbidden are
military sites, shipyards and fishing facilities. Some areas such as marinas and leisure
facilities have a very specific use but they are accessible anyway. Open spaces have an
inclusive design to allow mix of activities and users.Only Drake's Island is a pending task
since it remains abandoned and is only accessible by private boat.
In the case of Malaga, the port's integration needs further improvement. Beach areas are
fully accessible but private occupation is increasingly limiting public use. The tourist
sector of the port can only be accessed partially. Entry to marinas and cruise berths is
banned for general public. The commercial area has been designed as an open-air shopping
centre, where there is no space for activities not related to consumption. The closest dock
146
to the city centre has been divided into two parts, being the waterfront reserved only for
luxury cruise ships. In the tourist and commercial area users are encouraged to move in a
limited area and to act in accordance with the intended uses, thus creating an atmosphere
of artificiality and exclusion, more similar to the one of a shopping centre than to an open
space. In fact, since the port was reconverted to a tourist attraction, new fences and
controls have been installed, separating the port even more from the city. In Malaga's
waterfront there is a lack of long-term vision that results in rigid parts, unconnected to each
other and impossible to cross without authorization. In addition, recognition of the port's
non-material values is still pending, as well as the integration of port activities in the city's
daily life and identity.
Fig. 3. Integration of the waterfront with the rest of the city in Plymouth and Malaga.
Source: Barrera-Fernandez, D.
CONCLUSIONS
This research has presented two models of renovation of former industrial ports to attract
further tourist and commercial activities. In Plymouth's example, tourist activities have
been developed without losing its mix of uses. On the other hand, Malaga has neglected
social inclusion and public access in favor of a project fully devoted to cruise ships and
shopping. Several keys arise from the comparative analysis for cities aiming at
regenerating redundant port facilities in a sustainable way. A priority is to grant
accessibility from the rest of the city, which has not always an easy solution due to the
existence of physical barriers such as roads or railways, thus a long-term vision is needed
where urban plans and economic delivery strategies play necessarily a main role.
Secondly, a diversity of users, not only tourists, needs to be achieved. In this regard,
internal mobility is recommended to be granted by public transport, bike or pedestrian
walkways both along the coastline and perpendicular to the different specialized sections
of the waterfront.
Focusing only on tourist-related activities leads to a lack of social mix and underused
areas, thus incorporation of other uses more related to the city's daily life is crucial to grant
activity around the clock. Finally, an extended risk in reconversion of former industrial
ports is the development of tourist attractions very similar one to another. Distinction can
be achieved by integration of built heritage, especially industrial assets, the natural heritage
represented by the ecosystems coexisting with built structures and non-material values,
closely related the role that the port has in the city's history and identity.
147
REFERENCES
1. Act 16/1985 of Spanish Historic Heritage. Art. 6b.

2. Alemany Llovera, J. (2005). El frente marítimo, entre el urbanismo y la
planificación portuaria. Portus, 10, 2-3.
3. Andrade Marqués, M.J., Blasco López, J. (2012). Puerto-ciudad. Estudio
comparativo de buenas prácticas. Malaga: Servicio de Programas Europeos.
4. Barrera-Fernandez, D. (2012). Los Baños del Carmen a traves de los planes y
proyectos que intervinieron en su creacion y que proponen su regeneracion. eDap.
Documentos de Arquitectura y Patrimonio, 5, 42-51.
5. Estrada Llaquet, J.L.(2006). Las exigencias de protección obligan a un cambio
cultural de la explotación portuaria y de las relaciones puerto-ciudad. Portus, 11,
12-17.
6. Howard, P., Pinder, D. (2003). Cultural heritage and sustainability in the coastal
zone: experiences in south west England. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 4, 57-68.
7. MBM Arquitectes, AZ Urban Studio. (2003). A Vision for Plymouth. Final Copy.
8. Pinder, D., Smith, H. (1999). Heritage and change on the naval waterfront:
opportunity and challenge. Ocean & CoastalManagement, 42, 861-889.
9. Plymouth City Council. (1990). Tomorrow‟s waterfront: a strategy for Plymouth
waterfront.
10. Plymouth City Council. (1996). City of Plymouth Local Plan 1991-2001. First
Alteration.
11. Plymouth City Council. (2007). Local Development Framework, Core Strategy.
12. Plymouth City Council. (2011). Plymouth Local Economic Strategy 2006 – 2021
& Beyond.
13. Van Hooydonk, E. (2009). Port city identity and urban planning. Portus, 18, 16-23.
14. Ward, S.V. Cities are fun!.(2006). Inventing and spreading the Baltimore model of
cultural urbanism. In: Monclús, J., Guardia, M. (eds). Culture, urbanism and
planning. Aldershot: Ashgate. 271-286.
15. Williams, R.J. (2004). The anxious city. Oxon and New York: Routledge.
148
CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE UNA NATIONAL PARK,
UNSEPARABLE PART FROM THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
Ševkija Okerić1
Aida Korjenić2
Abstract: Total area of the National Park ''Una'' belongs to the municipalities of Bihaš, Drvar and
Bosanski Petrovac. Within these municipalities, the National Park encompasses 26 inhabitated rural
areas, some totally and some partially. Inhabitants of these areas have been practicing primary
activities so far. The valleys of the upper reaches of the Una, as well as the valley of the Unac, both
coming into the area of the Una National Park represent a unique nature unity in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, very important for preserving its total natural diversity. The National Park abounds
with a rich heritage in a cultural-historical point of view as well. Cultural heritage represents any
concept or a thing, natural or artificial, considered being esthetical, historical or spiritual important
(ICOM). Inclusion of the cultural heritage goods into the programmers of protected area represents
also post-admission obligation of the European Union's members. It means that sustainable
development of the Una National Park is unthinkable without inclusion of the cultural heritage
goods into the all tourism development plans. However, cultural heritage contributes to
attractiveness of a certain touristic destination, and so it is often precondition for the touristic
choice. Adjusting to the measures and lifestyle inside a specific category of nature protection is a
challenge that these areas will have to face in the coming period. The topic of this paper is the
analysis of the transformation of agricultural areas into the touristic ones in the National Park ''Una''.
Keywords: The Una National Park, cultural heritage, tourism, sustainable development
INTRODUCTION
The Una National Park is situated in the west-northwest part of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The area of the Una National Park occupies 347, 7 km2. The stretching direction,
northwest-southeast, is yet the direction of the Una flow and its tributary Unac. This area is
dominated by Mesozoic limestone and dolomite formations with the presence of Cenozoic
mainly flysch rocks. Geomorphologic, climate and pedology characteristics of this area
influenced development of agriculture, which was inhabitants' basic activity. In fact, the
hill-ravine relief type, fluvial-denudation morphosculptural shapes, moderate thermal
regime with average annual temperatures from 4.0° C to 10° C, and annual isohyets
amounts from 1250 mm to 1750 mm, as well as dominant hydromorphic and automorphic
soil division, indicate, and statistical data from the year of 1991 confirm that, the greatest
number of households have been occupied with agriculture as the main or additional
activity. A small number of the employed in manufacturing, trade, handicrafts and
services. Agricultural land belongs to 10,510.72 ha or 30.2%, and the forests and forest
land 22,451.48 ha or 64.6% of the total area of Una National Park.In the regional-
geographical regarding the National Park "Una" belongs to the region North Bosnia, and
the Una-Sana subregion and smaller part region of the High karst.
1
Assistant professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo,
2
Assistant professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo,
149
Administratively, the National Park of
Una encompasses an area municipality
of Bihac, Drvar and Bosanski Petrovac,
and within them 26 populated rural
areas, in the whole or part of the
territory. This area has been
continuously settled since prehistoric
times, over antique period and Middle
Ages all until nowadays, what in a great
measure contributed to the fact that in
the vicinity of the Park, numerous
archaeological findings are situated, as
well as fortress remains, hill fort
remains, and preserved medieval towns.
The Una National Park has been
proclaimed as the protected one, above
all, on the base of natural values this
area is rich with. Specific tuff barriers
have given distinct and unique picture to
this space. The largest fractures in the
longitudinal profile of Una, appeared in
its upper course which falls at thalweg
amount to 0.23%.
Fig. 1. Position of the Una National Park
In this segment, the falls were created in the initial fault breaks, and later increased
accumulation of travertine, such as Martinbrodski waterfall and Strbacki buk. Natural
waterfalls and cascades on the upper longitudinal profile of the Una represent unique
natural value, according to which this flow carries hydronim – „The Una – the one and
only“.
The Una National Park represents, concerning its attractive attributes, a complex touristic
motive. In itself it joins attributes of recreation, curiosity, remarkableness, as well as
aesthetical attribute. Recreational attribute refers to the ability to conduct different types of
recreational sports, how at water of Una, so in the valley. Rafting, kayaking, canoeing,
hiking by educational paths and extreme sports and hiking on the slopes Osjeţenica affect
the physiological functions of man. The aesthetic attributes characterize the rarity and
value of certain phenomena, which national park as a natural landscape abounds. River
terraces in Martin Brod and Kulen Vakuf, in front of mountain stairs (Kliševiš, Tavan and
Ostrovica), slopes (Kalati-Klisa, Rajnovac, Doljani) and only the river bed in the area of
Bastasi, Martin Brod, Kulen Vakuf, Ostrovica and Lohovo where travertine barriers exist
which are the basis for the magnificent cascades and waterfalls, are areas of exceptional
landscaping experience.
Besides this, the park abounds the significant number of preserved and its terms of origin,
refugial unique habitats, as well as a large variety of fauna vertebrate with present endemic
species, and a large number of sensitive species. In this group of vulnerable, include
species of large predator, forest species of bats and specific types of bird fauna that are on
the lists of species in Appendices conventions such as the Habitats Directive, Bern
Convention, Bonn and Washington Convention. Beside natural values, the objects of
150
cultural heritage in a great measure contribute to attractiveness of this touristic destination,
and very often they are precondition for touristic selection. That would be the attribute of
remarkableness of the Una National Park, which is linked to objects of special historical
and cultural importance. Numerous cultural heritage monuments in this area are product of
long and tempest historical past. As the sustainable development of the Una National Park
would be completed, beside the natural heritage which dominates in this area, it is
necessary to include cultural heritage goods in all plans for tourism development.
When drafting this paper, a methodology has been used which, beside the analysis of
certain literature, included also processing of data collected on the terrain, as well as
analysis and processing of study documentation which has already been drafted for needs
of the Una National Park. Data collected by surveying the field, were supplemented and
verified using the cantonal, municipal and other official sources, thus ensuring greater
accuracy.
POPULATION AND SETTLEMENTS IN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE

NATIONAL PARK UNA
The area of the Una National Park covered parts of the municipalities of Bihaš, Drvar and
Bosanski Petrovac. Bihaš municipality belongs to the largest part of the National Park
297,6 km2 or 85,6%, then the municipality of Drvar 40,4 km2 or 11,6 % and the lowest part
of the 9,7 km2 or 2,8 % of the protected area is in the municipality of Bosanski Petrovac.
Within the National Park various settlements belong only partially. Of the 26 settlements
10 are part of the territory (8 from Bihaš and 2 from the municipality of Bosanski
Petrovac), while 16 settlements in its entirety belong to the National Park (14 from
Bihašand 2 from Drvar municipality).When structure size and surfaces participation are in
question, one can conclude that a big difference exists among them. The settlement of
Veliko Oţijevo with 36,9 km2 has the largest surface area inside the National Park, and the
smallest one, yet with part of its territory has Gorjevac settlement with 2,22 km2.
According to data gained from municipalities‟ services in 2008, when this area was
proclaimed as National Park, the number of inhabitants amounted 1526. That number is a
bit smaller today, and, on the base of preliminary results on census taken place last year, it
amounts 1269. Given that the largest area belongs to the municipality of Bihaš and number
of inhabitants is the largest in this municipality. During the last 5 years the population of
this municipality has been reduced from 1,306 to 1,103 residents in 14 settlements, which
accounts for about 87 % of the total population of the National Park. In the municipality of
Drvar in 2 settlements, according to estimates from 2008, lived 220 inhabitants, compared
with 166 in the last census, or 13%, while the 2 settlements from the municipality of
Bosanski Petrovac uninhabited. In general, 10 places in the National Park area are not
settled, than that in Bihaš municipality 8 settlements, of which 4 of the inhabitants in
general, and 4 villages are just part of the territory in the coverage of this protected area
uninhabited because on the these parts there is no households but are inhabited in part out
of it.
Concerning the number of inhabitants as well as the way of building, settlements are rural
type. The greatest number of inhabitants settles the town of Kulen Vakuf, and with only
487 inhabitants and the largest number of developed social activities, this settlement yet
dominates and makes the center of the National Park Una. In number of population
followed Klisa with 192, Bastasi 140 and Martin Brod with 125 inhabitants. In these four
settlements live 74,4 % of the total population of the observed area. During the analyzed
151
five-year period, only in 6 settlements there was a slight increase in population while in the
all other observable decline in the number of population. If consider dynamics of
inhabitants during the last 60 years, with note that total inhabitants of settlements which
today are partially belong to the Una NP have been processed, general decrease of the
inhabitants' number can be seen as well. The increase recorded in the period between the
census 1948. and 1961. as a result of increased birth rates and reduced mortality of the
population after World War II but also the beginning of economic development and living
standards in general. Industrial development and strengthening of the municipal center
caused migrations of population from rural to urban areas. Since 1971. there has been a
continuing decline in the population. It is evident in particular the reduction of the
population since 1991, i.e. after the recent war in Bosnia-Herzegovina, where a large
number of residents killed or migrated to other areas.
Tab.1. The Una NP inhabitants according to census years since 1948, and assessments for
2008.
The population of settlements in their entirety NP of Una
1948.g 1953.g 1961.g 1971.g 1981.g 1991.g 2008.g 2013.g 2008.g 2013.g
12 521 12 779 13 336 11 829 10 527 9 035 5 044 3299 1 526 1269
Source: Statistical Office of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo 2013.
Like the number of population, and population density in this area is very small and is only
3,65 inhabitants/km2. The aforementioned four sites with the largest population have a
higher population density, ranging from about 48 inhabitants/km2 in Kulen Vakuf to about
32 in Martin Brod and 29,4 inhabitants/km2 in Klisa. The lowest population density of
settlements have a Mali Cvjetniš with 0,4 and Kalati with 0,7 inhabitants/km2. The ratio of
male and female population is 55:45% in favor of women, and most of them are aged 16 to
65, except in Martin Brod, where the population is generally older than 45 years. Only
5.5% of the population have finished college or university, most (56%) have secondary
education. In economic point of view this area is characterized by poorly developed.
Number of employees in the total population ranges from 10 to 20%, and most of the
population lives on social benefits or pensions. The employees work mainly in the service
sector where it employs about 75% of the total number of employees, while a smaller
number of employed in the primary sector. The primary and secondary sectors are now
largely based on the work of the gypsum mines near Kulen Vakuf, fish ponds near Martin
Brod and wood processing plants in the Šukovi. Significant is and the Agricultural
Cooperative "Ostrovica" from Kulen Vakuf, which as the concessionaire has 436 ha of
agricultural land of which is structurally 134 hectares of orchards, 226 hectares of pasture
and 76 hectares of meadows, and stations for the purchase of raw milk in Kulen Vakuf,
Orašac and Šukovi. One of the preconditions for the development of the tourism industry
is development of the catering sector and road infrastructure. At the National Park Una,
several restaurants located in Kulen Vakuf, with a capacity of about 150 beds, Martin Brod
has 40, and the settlement Bastasi with 24 beds. In Kulen Vakuf is in function and an auto-
camp. With such accommodation facilities (hotels, motels and private houses), and the
capacity of accommodations neighboring municipal centers, it can be concluded that
currently can satisfy the needs of visitors and tourists who come to the National Park Una.
Area of Una National Park has a little inhabited places, so the network of local roads is
modest and underdeveloped. Length of local roads is about 36 km and all with the
152
macadam roadway. Local
roads Gorjevac - Doljani -
Štrbaţki Buk and Orašac
(PaŤeni) - Luke (Štrbaţki
Buk) have a tourist function
but quite a bad route and the
quality of the roadway. The
main roadway in the area of
Una National Park is a
regional road Dubovsko -
Orašac – Kulen Vakuf -
Martin Brod - Drvar, with a
length of 57 km. Parts of the
road Dubovsko - Kulen
Vakuf and Martin Brod -
Drvar are upgraded with
asphalt, while the part of the
road Kulen Vakuf - Martin
Brod by gravel roadway. The
only parts that are in the
narrow belt of the Una River
are Kulen Vakuf - Martin
Brod and part of the regional
road Orašac - Kulen Vakuf.
In the immediate vicinity of
the National Park is the main
road, M5 (Bihaš - Bosanski
Petrovac - Kljuţ) and the
M11 which connects Karlovac Fig.2. Settlements in the area of the Una National Park
via Bihaš with Split.
.
CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE NATIONAL PARK UNA INSEPARABLE
PART OF DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM
All motives which fulfill cultural need for moving are called cultural touristic motives. In
attractive view, attributes of aesthetic and remarkableness have been the most often linked
to cultural motives. Concerning that every concept or a thing which is considered to have
aesthetical, historical, scientific or spiritual importance, represents the cultural heritage, it
in fact represents the base of cultural ambience in which we live and understand our
continuity. By the monuments of cultural heritage we mean goods of general interest
which have special protection according to laws and international conventions.
The European convention on protection of architectonical (immovable) heritage refers to
the following permanent goods:
- Monuments: all buildings and structures of extraordinary historical, archaeological,
artistic, scientific, social or expert importance;
- Groups of buildings: homogenous groups of urban or rural buildings exceptional by its
importance, sufficiently unique to make topographically defined unit;
153
- Localities: the acts of man and nature, areas partially built and sufficiently characterized
and homogenous that can be topographically defined, and are of extraordinary
historical, archaeological, artistic, scientific, social or expert importance.
Movable cultural heritage are made of objects important from reasons of ethnology,
archaeology, history, art, science or technology, whether they are mined from the ground
or taken out from the water, objects which are acts of ethnographic art, army objects or
objects of technologic and scientific importance. The cultural heritage of the protected area
represents materialized expression of cultural, historical and social development of various
human communities and societies in total in this area. Characteristic natural heritage, as
well as the position on transit direction towards the sea, have brought to that various
cultures have left their traces on the space of the Una National Park, since prehistoric time,
over the Roma period and Middle Ages, to Turkish and Austro-Hungarian era, and the
newest history. Interpenetration of civilization influences have arisen from that reason, as
well as richness of cultural-historical localities, for which is considered that still it has not
been researched enough and with partially documentation.
Until now, some special worth cultural-historical contents have been put under the
protection in this area:
- in category of national, regional, and local cultural-historical values of the observed
area, those are fortresses along the Una River valley, urban heritage of Kulen Vakuf
and Martin Brod, and in wider area there are also archaeological localities from
prehistoric, antique and medieval periods around the Bihaš Town (Bihaš, Ripaţ,
Privilica) and the Drvar Town (Drvar, Bastasi).
However, the whole observed area yet stayed proportionally unexplored until nowadays,
and great part of its cultural-historical resources still have been unrecorded, so thus still
unprotected.
In the most important sites of prehistoric age, there are counted hill forts registered as
monuments of culture on the territory of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina:
1. Drenovaţa (Lohovo), situated on the top of bald stony hill, from west side it has
single, and from south and east double stony bulwark, elliptic shape and size about 170 x
70 m;
2. Gradina (MeŤugorje), originated from the Late Bronze until younger Iron Age. It is
accessible from the north side, and there is the plateau defended by transversally bulwark,
length 86 m and height 6 m;
3. Mali Ljutoţ (Raţiš), settlement which is considered to origin from the period of Iron
Age, recorded as cultural good. On the slope between elevations 941 and 708, on the north
hill-side of MeŤugorje, there are pieces of prehistoric ceramics;
4. Ţardak (Doljani) is prehistoric hill fort. It is very narrow and very long (about 370
m). In the middle of transversally bulwark there are the basis of „belvedere“ from Turkish
period;
5. Registered cultural monument, hill fort Luke (Kliševiš) is a settlement of the Late
Bronze and Iron Age. It is situated on the Stoparuša hill (length about 100 m, width about
80 m), along the very Una River right side above the Štrbaţki Buk;
6. Gradina (Small and Big) Kliševiš, is situated on the plateau, crescent shape above the
Una right side, divided by trench on the Small (165x95 m) and Big Gradina (260x245 m);
7. Ostrovac – Ostrovaţki grad, prehistoric hill fort, medieval and Ottoman‟s town, is
now on temporary list of the national monuments. From prehistoric hill fort, there have
been sporadically preserved remains of the protective bulwark;
154
8. Ljutica gradina (Ostrovica) probably belongs to the Late Bronze or Iron Age. Stony
bulwark protects the oval plateau, with the biggest width 118 m;
9. Gradina (Veliki Stijenjani), registered prehistoric hill fort, for which is considered to
originate from the Late Bronze and Iron Age. Very badly preserved stony bulwark
surrounds the plateau, size 80x40 m. On the most accessible side, that is NE, so called
limit tumulus, there is reinforcement of bulwark, and perhaps remains of tower or
observation post;
10. Kušerine (Veliki Stijenjani) is a necropolis with tumulus. In the space around the
orthodox cemetery, until slopes of the Misinovac hill, there are 200-300 stony tumulus of
approximate height 0.5-1 m, with diameter of 6-12 m.
11. Crkvina (Veliki Stijenjani) is an area with recorded remains of medieval tomb. The
remains were buried in prehistoric tumulus, basis 18x12 m.
12. Gradina (Malo Oţijevo) is fortified settlement of irregular oval shape (size about
200 x 120 m) in the north side it has double, and in the east single protective bulwark. In
this area there have been found the remains and parts of prehistoric ceramics;
13. Gradina in Martin Brod is prehistoric hill fort with traces of fortified settlement;
14. Gradina (Gornji Boboljušci), as well, is registered prehistoric hill fort. One bronze
sickle originates from this hill fort, and it probably belongs to the Late Bronze Age;
15. Gradina 1 (Bastasi-Podbrina), hill fort from prehistoric period and Roman fortress,
is situated above Berek on the right side of Unac, downstream from the mouth of
Bastašica. It was protected with three-side bank. In this area can be noticed the remains of
four-angled building built in plaster. Fortress is rich with hill fort ceramics, and one spear
has been found as well. There are many tumuli around from the Bronze, Iron and Roman
Age;
16. Gradina 2 (Bastasi-Podbrina), is prehistorichill fort situated on the right side of
Unac and was protected with stony-soil bank. Of surface findings, there dominate plenty of
hand-made ceramics, and is considered to originate from the Bronze and Iron Age;
17. Obljaj (Bastasi), hill fort is situated on the hill on the left side of Unac. The bank
(dry wall) is devastated, ruined and blown up. Plenty of ceramics can be found on the
slopes;
18. Crkvina Pod (Orašac), though there are no traces of building, it is about prehistoric
hill fort, situated on the hill plateau, where is oval stony bulwark as well, size 10x15 m.
Objects from the Antique period which have been registered as cultural monuments in the
area of Federation are as follows:
19. Crkvina (Doljani) is Late Antique church, mined in 1895, and is considered that it
originates from the V or VI century. The church ruin has square layout with relatively big
half-circle apse. In the ruin, there have been found fragments of Roma inscription and urn
of Japodes type, on which were mentioned names of Aurelius Clementinus and Aurelius
Maxsimus;
20. Gradina - (Bastasi-Podbrina), already mentioned as prehistoric hill fort and Roman
fortress.
Of registered cultural monuments as sites from the Middle Ages, the followings can be set
out:
155
21. Medieval town of Rmanj in Martin Brod with ruins situated on the mouth of Unac
into the Una. The town's bulwarks have been demolished to basis, and only 10 meters high
rounded tower has been preserved, with tenants separated by vaults. The town was built at
the end of XIV or beginning of XV century. In Martin Brod, there is also Serb orthodox
monastery Rmanj with
remains of original frescos,
which was announced as
the national monument of
Bosnia and Herzegovina. It
is considered that its origin
dates from the end of XV,
relatively beginning of XVI
century. In three papers
written in Glagolitic
alphabet from 1448, 1451
and 1478, there was
mentioned Rmanj, as a
capital of Lapac tribe;
Fig.3. Medieval town of Rmanj

Source: www.nationalpark-una.ba/
22. Ostroviţki (Ostrovica), medieval town, compound of rounded defend-tower, height

around 8-10 m and some of city walls. Close to the middle age part, there have been built,
in Turkish period, square city bulwarks and polygonal tower in the north. The old
Ostrovica fortress in Kulen Vakuf was found by Hungarians (Frankopani), at the end of
XIV and beginning of XV century. The town was situated on strategically important
position along the „Roman way“(trade way) from Lika towards Dalmatia, that is towards
Slavonia and Central Bosnia.
23. Greek (Ostroviţka) Crkvina, probably Late Middle Age church, west from the
Grad (Town). Under the bunch of rocks, irregular rectangular shape, size about 10x8m,
there are bases of a building made of broken stone and very hard plaster, probably church
remains.
24. Downstream from Kulen Vakuf on the way to Štrbaţki Buk, there is also situated
the old town of Orašac. Orašac is situated on emphasized hill above the Orašac brook. A
rounded tower of the town have been preserved, little damaged, with height about 12 m
and part of walls of the town's fold, oriented NW-SE and with length about 80 m. The
tower is medieval, while other objects belong to the Turkish age;
25. Crkvina (Careva Luka), in Oţigrije, is represented with remains from middle age
church and tombstones. On the place of the church building ruins, there are two bases of
Romanesque style columns, XII, XIII, century and several medieval tombstones (late XIII-
beginning of XVI century) in boards shape.
156
Fig. 3. Ostrovica Fig. 4. Orašac
Of objects that belong to traditional architecture, in the area of the Una National Park, one
can set out the followings: the mill on the Krka source (today only bases preserved), mills
in Martin Brod, wooden bridges on Unac (upstream from Šipke, Bastasi), and so called
ţatrnje(storage for water), collective rainwater along with rural housing units. Memorial
heritage is represented with old rural cemeteries with tombstones, and memorials from
NOB during the World War II that has the status of cultural good, (Oreškoviš tomb – Malo
Oţijevo, Tito's cave - Bastasi).
The bigger the number of
cultural heritage monuments,
bigger is the need for touristic
moving as well. Good tourism
management in the protected
area can also help to protection,
preserving or improvement of
cultural heritage objects, and on
the base of collected income
from tickets or certain amends.
Cultural heritage goods should
be renovated in accordance to
the scientific principles on
protection, respecting the
world's conventions and charter
on cultural goods' protection
with the same approach to all
historical layers and their equal
valorization. As the cultural
heritage goods' renovation is a
complex process, with which it
is wanted to return a part of
historical identity to the
ambience which grew together
with cultural heritage goods,
Fig.5. Registered objects of cultural-historical Good in
the frame of the Una NP
157
and a completeness to areas and ambiences which have been destroyed, so imperative of
all our interventions yet must be preservation of continuity of spatial relationships by
restitution of objects which once existed there. The new architecture must respect
principles of spatial, style and other relationships, keeping the most important objects for
restitution, by applying certain methodologies. Beside mentioned objects and sites
registered as cultural monuments in area of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in
spatial coverings of the Una National Park, one can set out also sequence localities in
which were found material remains from prehistoric, Roman and Middle Age period, and
according to the Archaeology lexicon
of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In the frame of prehistoric period
those are the next localities:
- Kulen Vakuf (Kulen Vakuf), site of
objects arisen from younger phase of
the Late Bronze Age. It is about
bronze sword of type Škocjan-Kulen
Vakuf, and bronze sickle.
- Gradina (Osredci), fortified smaller
settlement, protected with banks
width 3 m. Late Bronze and Iron
Age;
- Gradina (Veliki Cvjetniš), on the
place of hill fort there were found the
remains of protective wall of the
fortified settlement and parts of
ceramics;
- Martin Brod (Martin Brod), single
findings from prehistoric period.
Bronze blade for weapon, type „knife
on stick“;
- Oţigrije (Oţigrije), single findings,
is set out bronze hoist from the Late
Bronze Age. Fig. 6. Registered and objects of cultural and
historical heritage of according to
archaeological lexicon of BiH within Una NP
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL IN TOURISM SETTLEMENTS

WITHIN THE NATIONAL PARK UNA
Every change in area, which originates in certain time as a result of its usage, brings to
redistribution of richness and power in human society (Stojanoviš 2006). From this arises
that social attitudes and values are very important as well as education which have big role
in a development of conscious on natural environment protection and preservation need.
The area of the Una National Park until now has been mostly agriculture-oriented, and
with special purpose spatial plan it was projected as touristic-recreational zone.
Protected areas are established primarily to preserve the bio-physical processes who
participate in the overall landscape diversity, or in the framework of cultural and historical
158
values and tourist visits to these areas are manifested through positive and negative effects.
Plan development and incomes realized by sustainable tourism will contribute to
preserving and developing of this protected area but also to economic development of local
community as well as wider area. Managers of this protected area should target direct
touristic developmental possibilities supported by long-term economical development.
This strategic touristic development plan can exist under the condition of maximum
inclusion of the local community, educated for this purpose. With tourism development
increase the request for services, touristic objects and servicing with primarily products in
total touristic offer. In that fact lies the base of agriculture settlements‟ transformation into
touristic ones in the National Park area. By increasing the number of visitors also increases
the need for more accommodation facilities, restaurants, various attractions but also the
demand for basic services safety measures, health protection, various craft services and etc.
All this belongs to the field planned sustainable development which must contain a spatial
plan for special purposes. As a result of unplanned tourism development can occur
dissatisfaction to local residents and visitors themselves due to decline in the quality of the
tourist experience.
Therefore, the development of tourism in Una National Park should be approached
systematically and above all should:
1. educate and develop creative awareness in the local population about the necessity of
development of tourism, which does not endanger, but enhances the space, and accordingly
find appropriate types of tourism and catering facilities properly sized and located them;
2. determine the capacity of the space in terms of the maximum load and depending on the
condition of the natural geographical conditions;
3. establish capacity in all the parameters sustainable development.
Positive effect of tourism development is seen in the fact that local inhabitants can improve
their economic situation, beside through implementation of significant incomes from the
gastronomy services, so as souvenirs sales, traffic and craft services. Tourism development
offers employment possibilities not only in this sector but also in complementary activities,
and livestock and agricultural products can be directly included into touristic offer.
Agricultural in tourism is profitable primary activity and has an important role as an
additional employer and buyer of agricultural products. Additional income in tourism
preserves agricultural activities and farming, and thanks to the income from tourism can
survive a small farm. Tourism in this way helping agriculture, which is favorable because
it would otherwise setback agriculture brought certain consequences; less agriculture less
maintenance authentic natural environment, the loss of attractiveness of rural way of life,
the disappearance of old customs and cultural heritage.Local community can fulfill
benefits through local guides‟ jobs, where guides have comprehensive knowledge on local
flora and fauna, on soil or characteristic geomorphologic and hydrologic objects, and
especially on tradition and cultural-historical values of some region. Tourism and
construction sector offer better paid workplaces, and can increase problem of reduced
labour force in agriculture. Right to stated facts, management of the National park should
establish harmony between protection of natural and areal resources, and values and
development of economic activities and local communities. That implies inclusion and
coordination of relevant institutions on all governing levels, touristic and other economic
subjects, and especially local inhabitants. In order to achieve this, it was necessary to
incorporate European principles concerning defining routes and levels of protection natural
and environmental. The resultof such conductin Bosnia and Herzegovina had just occurred
during the definition and promulgation of the National Park"Una", the third of its kind in
159
Bosnia and Herzegovina. The sequence of actions that preceded the final result is not
sufficiently, and in some areasnotinvolvingthe local community,which according tothe
European Charter should be involved in public debates. Involvement of local communities
in public presentations, discussion and revision, among others, and raising environmental
awareness in the field of preservation of the basic indicated values on which is based the
proposal of designating the National Park "Una". One of the specific goals of spatial
planning is the education of the population, promotion of awareness and education in order
to protect nature and life in nature and with nature. The Preliminary Draft Area plan of
specific characteristics “The Una River watershed 2007-2027” was adopted in 2012.
However, in this preliminary draft, education of inhabitants is not emphasized in the
chapter which describes a programme of rules of area arrangement and activities for
implementation of this plan. In addition,this document has noguidelineson the
transitionandthe necessaryprofessionalorientationof the agricultural populationin the agro-
tourism sector. In purpose of managing, protecting, enhancing, using and developing of the
National park, the Government of FB&H established the Public firm “The National park
Una” in Bihaš, that manages the National park, according to the Plan of managing of the
National park “Una”. With this plan, business affairs were determined which the Public
firm should carry out, among other things, to cooperate with local communities for achieve
goals of protection and development of the National park, and to expertly help and give
advice to land owners and beneficiaries in the National park.
In accordance with Management Plan is necessary to increase awareness of the value of
karst areas and on the preservation of habitats, as well as to break the traditional view that
the protection of nature and environment indirectly entails sacrifice economic growth and
profit. It should be emphasized that local inhabitants are not satisfied with former amount
of information of activities on establish the Park and the Public firm, and also with
information about possibilities for local beneficiaries. It should attach a data that public
debate about the Preliminary draft area plan of specific characteristics “The Una river
watershed” was not announce on the way that local inhabitants and civil society could
participate, as the EuropeanConvention for the Protectionof environment would bebinding.
During 2014. year, the only activity which has been implemented on education has been
dedicated to employees in the National park “Una”, to representatives of special services,
organizations and touristic agencies, but not to local inhabitants.
CONCLUSION
Building heritage has inestimable value in modern civilization. It contributes to

strengthening of conscious on cultural identity of individual and community, it reflects
culture and way of life, and it testifies the value of tradition and memories. Identification
and valorization of goods, natural heritage as well as cultural one, represents significant
potential for their usage in the process of spatial planning. That is one of the main
conditions at development of the economy activities, cultural tourism, opening of new
working places and, in general, regional development. The term cultural tourism itself
refers to close connection between culture and cultural heritage from one side, and
attractiveness of certain touristic destination from the other side. Tourism development in
the Una National Park should bring several social-economic effects of state, regional, and
especially local importance, such are:
160
- Stimulation of domestic economy development, especially those branches which have
key role in realization of touristic traffic: gastronomy, traffic, trade, craft, touristic
agencies, guide service;
- Increasing of local employment, in touristic sector as well as in its complementary
activities;
- Development of cattle breeding and agriculture which are directly included into
touristic offer;
- Rising of the quality of various sorts of infrastructure, that has impact on life of local
inhabitants.
However, with tourism development and outrageous commercialization can be lost
autochthonous values, of which the most important ones are: traditional hospitality, local
habits and crafts. The biggest consequences could have various kinds of usurpation and
devastation of land for tourism purposes. Excessive construction of tourist-recreational,
accommodation, catering, and service capacity may undermine the carrying capacity of the
protected area. In order to protect existing cultural heritage objects and autochthonous
local tradition, it is necessary to take all measures in order to, among others: preserve
traditional settlements in their relatively preserved original environment, educate local
community on values of cultural-historical heritage, preserve and renovate traditional
architecture, but also other historical buildings with monumental characteristics, as bearer
of space recognition, perform research and cataloging of all archaeological sites,
valorization of total building heritage and registration of temporary protected localities.
Also, all elements of cultural heritage should be on a certain way managed and presented
in a frame of touristic offer (for example, establishing ethno village or museum on open for
presentation purpose). Management of the National park “Una” should go in for planned
development of tourism, not only to indulgence of legal outlines in point of view to
bringing legal documents. The same should be implemented in a whole, not partially. It
means one should reach the balance between infrastructural equipping, development of
local communities and protection of physical and social environment in accordance with
all decisions of areal-planned documents. Education of local inhabitants and their
involving into touristic offer are one of clevises of successful sustainable development. In
fact, local community inclusion into development and tourism functioning in protected
areas leads to improvement of visitors‟ experiences, what then leads to prolongation of
their stay and its cost enhancing.
Natural and cultural surroundings together with preserved area must make one entirety
which will be a base for usage and values and which will influence its development.
Inclusion of cultural heritage goods, beside the natural one, into programs of protected
area, represents obligation if we want and we tend to become a country member of the
European Union.
REFERENCES:
1. Alibabiš V. (2008): Ocjena stanja prostora Nacionalni Park Una kao preduslov
odrţivog razvoja, MeŤunarodna konferencija „Zaštišena podruţja u funkciji
odrţivog razvoja, Zbornik radova, Bihaš 2008.
2. Arheološki leksikon Bosne i Hercegovine (1988), Tom 2., Zemaljski muzej Bosne
i Hercegovine, Sarajevo.
3. Kicošev, S., Dunţiš, D.(1998): Geografske osnove prostornog planiranja, Institut
za geografiju PMF Novi Sad, Novi Sad.
161
4. Korjeniš A. (2009): Fiziţkogeografske determinante kao osnova za izradu
prostornog plana podruţja posebne namjene u Unsko – sanskom kantonu,
Magistarski rad, Odsjek za geografiju Prirodno-matematiţkog fakulteta u
Sarajevu, Sarajevo.
5. Müller, H. (2004): Turizam i ekologija, Masmedia, Zagreb.
6. Popis stanovništva 1948. godina, knj. IX, SZS FNRJ, Beograd 1954.
7. Popis stanovništva 1961. godina, knj. VI, SZS SFRJ, Beograd 1967.
8. Popis stanovništva, domašinstva i stanova 1981. godine, Statistiţki bilten 86,
Republiţki zavod za statistiku SR BiH, Sarajevo 1982.
9. Prostorni plan podruţja posebnih obiljeţja od znaţaja za Federaciju BiH ''Sliv
rijeke Une'' 2007. – 2027, Urbanistiţki zavod BiH, Sarajevo 2012.
10. Statistiţki godišnjak 1945. – 1953. godina, Zavod za statistiku i evidenciju NR
BiH, Sarajevo 1954.
11. Popis stanovništva, domašinstava/kušanstava i stanova u Bosni i Hercegovini
2013. godine; Preliminarni rezultati po opšinama i naseljenim mjestima u
Federaciji Bosne i Hercegovine; Statistiţki bilten 195, Statistiţki zavod FBiH,
Sarajevo 2013.
12. Stojanoviš, N., Stojanoviš, J. (2006): Turizam u zaštišenim podruţjima, Zbornik
radova, Nauţna konferencija “Gazdovanje šumskim ekosistemima nacionalnih
parkova i drugih zaštišenih podruţja“, Jahorina – NP. Sutjeska.
13. http://www.nationalpark-una.ba/ (12.06.2015.)
162
IS CONSERVATION OF CULTURAL PROPERTIES
A TOOL FOR TOURISM HOSPITALTY?
N. Gul ASATEKIN1
Abstract:The paper addresses to the perennial question "Is tourism a tool for the conservation of
cultural properties?" or, vice versa: "Is conservation of cultural properties a tool for tourism?"
Author, for being a conservation architect, asks the question according to the main theme of the
conference as "Should architectural conservation activities mainly aim at fulfilling the requirements
and expectations of the tourism for sake of touristic hospitality?"Thus, approach to the Congress
theme “tourism hospitality” will be from the viewpoint of conservation theories, conservation
practice and conservation politics. The paper aims to address the interrelation and/or contradiction
between tourism and conservation of cultural and natural heritage. It will use an amalgam of
theoretical approaches and basic international documents in relation to the management of tourism
and cultural heritage. Interaction and/or contradiction between the tourist and the inhabitant will
create the basis to question the term “hospitality”.Arguments and discussions will be exemplified by
cases from Turkey and some other European countries. The clues of basic principles pertaining to a
balanced interrelation between the two main concepts given above will be given in conclusion.
Keywords: Tourism, Hospitality, cultural property, conservation
Prologue
As a conservation architect, and I will not discuss concepts related to tourism hospitality,
tourism planning, types of tourism and the like in this paper. With a 42 year long
experience of the conservation of cultural properties and natural values behind me, I will
make an exposé of that experience (or a series of experiences) and comment on the
interrelations and contradictions between tourism and architectural conservation. I will
only give basic definitions of some concepts so that I can make my comments from the
viewpoint of architectural conservation.
As a beginning, Tourism has a connotation of leisure travel and tends to be synonymous
with holidays (vacations). In dictionaries as well, tourism refers to travel for pleasure.From
the viewpoint of hospitality, tourism is generally related to the products to sell and the
markets to serve. (Medlik, 2003, p.vii). I learned that „hospitality‟ is used in different
meanings. Dictionary definition is ‟the act orpractice of being hospitable; the reception and
entertainment of guests or strangers with liberality and goodwill‟ (The Shorter Oxford
English Dictionary).Recently, the term refers to „commercial‟ or „professional‟ hospitality:
the provision of accommodation, food and drink for people away from home for reward”.
(Medlik, 2003, p. vii). The word „hospitality‟ can be defined as the provision of
food,beverages and accommodation.I am well aware of the importance of the satisfaction
of tourists, that is the customers of the tourism industry. Actually, this importance is the
factor that sets the aim and scope of the type of tourism and hospitality industry in any
country. It is a known fact that usage rate, or, "vacancy rate" is the primary variable of
hospitality industry. Minimization of this rate is the fundamental factor behind the
competition between the countries of interest for which the benefits gained through
tourism is of vital importance. My limited observation shows that tourism income becomes
even more important for countries during periods of financial crisis. In such instances
1
Kemerburgaz University, Istanbul, Turkey.
163
customers' satisfaction get extra priority and hospitality industry takes extra measures to
minimize the vacancies.
Fig. 1. Sight-seeing activities: a) Athens, b) İstanbul
Not only the qualities (or the luxury) of hotels, restaurants, entertainment facilities but also
the loci of touristic activity becomes crucially important. This is where the problem, my
problem, begins.
164
Fig. 2. New architecture emerged to attract tourists (Side) note the electricity cainets
It is obvious that seeing and experiencing new places is the fundamental factor in choosing
a "place to go" for any tourist. Discovering new, exotic places, being part of a new
environment that may be exciting or relaxing or even adventurous are primary attractions
for tourists. Going to safari tours, staying at spartan conditions are such pseudo adventures
that are to be lived, documented by photographs or videos and shared as life experiences.
Less adventurous but more "culturally satisfying" for many people is visiting historic and
traditional places. Today, tourism is far beyond the 3S concept of "sea-sun-sand" formula
and especially upper cultural/socioeconomic group prefers to learn the cultural background
of countries that they visit.Hard or soft, tourism used natural and historical values
throughout centuries. Even archeology as a science began with the curiosities of travelers,
especially from 18th century onwards. Going to Italy or Greece was very fashionable.
People who wanted not only to see but also to learn from what they saw opened the gates
of a new science, archaeology. And a natural follow-up for it were the concepts of
restoration and conservation.
Once the priority becomes cultural tourism, implementations of restoration and
conservation start accelerate. Tourists start to expect more and more "luxurious" cultural
experiences that match the luxury of the establishments they live in. And this is the point
where contradictory requirements emerge.
165
Fig. 3. A repaired house of native inhabitant (a) and (b) a “restored” house on the
very same street, İstanbul
At this point it seems that the implementations of restoration and conservation have no
limits. Yet, the fact is that the limit is set by qualities, characteristics, problems and the
potentials of the cultural/natural values. 1964 Venice Charter formulates the dilemma:
"Restoration stops where conjecture begins". Scientific circles accept and apply this to its
widened context even today. Now, not only single buildings but also natural environmental
characteristics as well as inhabitants living in these environments are important. All these
aspects are not to be elaborate and sophisticated. Modest products of a culture, mobile or
not, are valuable for humanity as long as they provide information about the community
which created them.
166
“Cultural Turism” comes into international platforms at this stage: One of the most
important documents in the field is The Charter of Cultural Tourism prepared by ICOMOS
in 1976. This paper discusses the positive and negative sides of tourism. Contribution of
different specialists is taken as a positive point ( Article 3) whereas “...massive and
uncontrolled use of monuments.”( Article 4) by visitors is taken as the negative side. In the
section of Basis of Action, the document “... expresses the wish that from school age
onwards children and adolescents be educated to understand and respect to
monuments,sites...”. This criterion should still be an aim that Turkey tries to reach at.
In 1997, Charter on the Use of Ancient Places for Performance was declared by the
Council of Europe. This document allows some special performances by taking necessary
precautionsreducing the risk of damage to ancient sites.
12th General Assembly of ICOMOS, held in Verona in 1999 declared “International
Cultural Tourism Charter”. This may show that the problems could not be solved and get
even more complicated in 10 years. This Charter stated that “... the natural and cultural
values belong to all people. We each have a right and responsibility to understand,
appreciate and conserve its universal values” (The Charter Ethos). Due to the increasing
globalization in recent times, “... the conservation, interpretation and presentation of
heritage and cultural diversity of any particular place or region is...” accepted as an
important factor which requires constitution of a correct management plans for such areas.
This scope is related to the dynamic and critical interrelation of heritage places and tourism
(Principle 1). Principle 3 requires the necessity of assuring the visitors experiences to be
worthwhile, satisfying and enjoyable while conserving and planning of heritage for
touristic purposes. Involvement of host communities in this planning process is adviced in
Principle 4. Conservation theories also bring very similar statements (Jokhilehto,1993).
For years, conservation circles tried to tell other sectors that scientific conservation is not a
hindrance for the development of these sectors. On the contrary, creating a balanced
development is one of the aims of conservation.
But, while securing that balance, it should not be overlooked that conservation requires
honesty. Conservationist's aim is to convey information to coming generations without any
deformation of the original messages. This is done through the material witnesses of the
past, that is, the cultural properties. These express the signs and symbols in material form.
That is why we cannot separate tangible values, values that we can touch, smell and taste,
from intangible values which we can only detect through the properties that are conserved.
This is the process that has to be evaluated from the viewpoint of tourism hospitality and
the limits of the consumer's, that is the tourist's, satisfaction and pleasure.
The concept has changed quite a lot in time.
The Icomos "Charter for the Interpretation and Presentation of Cultural Heritage Sites"
states the below-mentioned decisions in 2008:
"Tangible and intangible values of cultural heritage sites must be safeguarded in their
natural and cultural settings and social contexts. Respect The authenticity of cultural
heritage sites, and the significance of historic fabric and cultural values must be protected
from the adverse impact of infrastructure, visitor pressure, inaccurate or inappropriate
interpretation.
167
"Conservation of cultural heritage sites must ensure their long-term maintenance and
promote public understanding and participation. Involvement of stakeholders and
associated communities is very important."
The Paris Declaration On heritageas a Driver of Development,adopted at UNESCO
Paris in 2011, aims “to measure the effects of globalisation on communities and heritage.
It will then identify the actions needed not only to protect heritage, but also to ensure that
its use, its promotion and enhancement, and its economic, social and cultural value are
harnessed to the benefit of local communities and visitors. “ The Florence Declaration on
Heritage and Landscape as Human Values (2014) states that “All individuals and
communities have the right to benefit from cultural heritage and landscape to the same
extent that they have a duty to preserve its authenticity and cultural diversity as a human
right”. Protecting the spirit of “place” and people‟s identity must aim the improvement of
their quality of life.
* * *
I have schematized the scientific theoretical approach above. The real-life situations come
out very different.
Real-life realities put the attraction of the tourist at the top of the scale. And this instantly
transforms the cultural property to "a tool, an object, a theater stage" of an un-real world.
All architectural characteristics are changed, altered and even destroyed. Natural elements
are modified, elaborated through non-native flora. Colors become more cheerful, LED-
lighting schemes create theatrical, orientalist outlooks.
Fig 4. Touristic role playing, Vienna
168
Many of the architectural characteristics are destroyed and reconstructed according to the
needs (!) of touristic functions. Facades gain a pseudo-priority, but they become mostly
imitated elements, ending up as beautiful but hybrid surfaces which have never-ever
existed throughout history. - - - I will show a few examples to make my point.
Fig 5. a) Color change in Ayvalık; b) Reconstruction in İstanbul: Both aiming

beautification
It is inevitable to accept the cultural values of a country as an important factor attracting
tourism. European countries also follow the same tendencies especially in these days.
There are lots of cleaned white facades and touristic restorations. But in the case of
Turkey, especially in the conservation of archaeological sites, the aim and the tools has
changed their roles.
169
Conservation aims at the continuation of the cultural properties to the younger generations
in a sound state by giving correct information. Tourism, by definition is a tool for this aim
and should be very carefully defined. Gaining more income through tourism is a policy of
Turkey similar to other countries. But 5* hotels and 3S understanding which had failed
decades ago in the case of Spain. The result of this policy affected the profile of tourists
coming: Only 9% of them are now coming to Turkey for cultural purposes. So, the quality
of visitors are lower and many of the cultural values are spent for the sake of this result.
The destruction caused by the use of antique theater for several concerts cannot be
compansated by the income of ticket sales. This experience was lived in Italy in 1970s and
failed. The results are obvious: Vibration, air pollution, extra load of the motor traffic ...
Introduction of thousands of people to the site without control, effects of electronic
equipments for high-volume performances are known. So, this choice is not correct way of
representing our cultural past to the visitors.
Fig. 6. Aspendos: Thousands of visitors in an antique theater

Only 2-3% of the national budget is being used for the sector of culture in Turkey.
Compensation of the shortage of budget should not mean privatization of conservation
activities. This is not totally rejected if necessary measures to control the implementations
are set. But, the risk of further damage cannot be underestimated. This will mean
squandering our cultural identity which will cause a break in the continuity of culture of a
nation.
That is why these cultural properties are not called as “heritage”. They are the values to be
preserved for the coming generations and not for spending them in advance. (Asatekin
1998)
170
Fig. 7. a) Original traditional dwelling in Ormana, b) Interpretation of the very same
architecture in Milas
171
Fig 8. a) and b) Tourism hospitality: Social and architectural impact
Besides the damage given to the physical environment, we should not overlook the social
side of the impact. Once changes start to take place, native inhabitants become forced to
leave their homes. There are several reasons behind this gentrification. Land prices and
rents increase rapidly, many of the original owners are not wealthy enough to restore their
buildings, residential neighborhood transforms to a touristic district and life patterns start
to change. Domestic functions decline, recreation activities that continue throughout night
time disturb people, interaction between neighbors erodes and disappears. Traditional
values disappear one by one.
172
This is a total socio-economic change. . . . Yet, this is not final.
Because of the declining historical - traditional values of a settlement, profile of the
visitors start to change. Cultural tourism gives way to a mass tourism which is dominated
by lower cultural groups. Kitsch products begin to spread, taste of the users as well as the
serving group decline. This is a vicious circle and neither tourism nor cultural properties
can benefit from this uncontrolled change.
This process always makes me ask this question: "For whom we try to conserve historic -
traditional environments?" The aims of scientific conservation totally fail in many cases.
Neither architectural conservation is a tool for conservation proper, nor tourism is the only
tool of realization of conservation.
Fig. 9. Tradition is lost….
I know that there is not a general rule that can be accepted internationally. It is always a
caso per caso situation. And it leads to a scope that each influencing factor should be
analyzed and evaluated in detail.
Our aim should be to convey the cultural properties honestly and as valuable assets of
every community's identity. To this end, I feel that I need to note that expected satisfaction
of the visitors from the tourism-hospitality industry should be based upon:
Experiencing the native and original characteristics of the environment that they visit,
New functions for the cultural properties must be given according to their historical-
architectural spatial organizations-qualities. Only in this way people can learn the
cultural values expressed by the physical environment they are experiencing. Fake
spaces and buildings means lying to people and giving wrong messages pertaining to
their value. This is totally against the aims of both conservation and specializations of
tourism hospitality.
173
Fig 11. Kitsch spreads….
The local inhabitants are to be part of the whole project so that they continue to live in
the environment they belong to. This will give the correct message about the socio-
cultural and tangible characteristics of the visited site. Yet, there is a very delicate
balance which all contributing parties must take into consideration: Local inhabitants
are not actors performing on a theater stage to satisfy tourists. They are to be a part of
the planning activity as real owners of the area.
Fig. 12.Kitsch architecture trying to copy “traditional”, Side
New buildings to fulfill the needs and requirements of the touristic spatial
organization should not be pseudo-historic buildings, presenting themselves as
beautified hybrid restorations. They should be designed as contemporary
interpretations in harmony with the historic environment and buildings.
Nature and flora should be respected. Using alien trees and flowers may look exotic
and interesting to tourists but they completely ruin the character of the site.
174
All in all, if the aim is the maximization of the user satisfaction in hospitality industry, we
should not overlook the fact that user satisfaction is possible only by conveying the correct
information from the past and making clear the characteristics of the specific cultures the
target group is experiencing.
Fig. 13. Native flora of Mediterrenean: Baugainvilla.
Epilogue
All countries must find the answer Ricoeur‟s famous paradox “becoming modern and to
return to sources..” (Ricoeur,1993:271). As long as universal civilization requires
scientific sprit in the spread of techniques, native solutions (Ricoeur,1993: 279-281)
without eliminating the rooted culture flourished in this country should be found.
REFERENCES
1. ASATEKİN, N. Gül (2007) “Antalya Kent Kimliği: Estetik Kurul Gerekli mi?”,
Batı Akdeniz Mimarlık, No.6,s.70-75.
2. ASATEKİN, N. Gül (2005) “ Understanding Traditional Residential Architecture
in Anatolia”, Journal Of Architecture, C. 10, No. 4, s.389- 414.
175
3. ASATEKİN, N. Gül (2005) Neyi, Niçin, Nasıl Korumalıyız? (Editör: Koray Olşen,
Yayınlar Şubesi Müdürü, Kültürve Turizm Bakanlığı),.Kültürve Turizm Bakanlığı
Yayını, Milli Kütüphane Basımevi, Ankara.
4. RICOEUR, P. (1965 ). “Universal Civilization and National Culture”, History and
Truth, Northwestern University Press, Illinois.
5. Feilden B.M., Jokhilhto, J. ( 1993). Management Guidelines for Cultural Heritage ,
ICCROM.
6. Recommendation of International Principles Applicable to Archaeological
Excavations ( 1956 ).New Delhi,5 December 1956.
7. The ICOMOS Charter on Cultural Tourism, Brussels, 1976.
8. International Charter for Archaeological Heritage Management, 1990, ICOMOS.
9. Document of Nara, 5 November 1995, ICOMOS, ICCROM.
10. International Cultural Tourism Charter, Mexico, 1999.
11. “Tarih Özelleşiyor”, Tourism Today, No.15, s.22-23, 2004.
12. “ Concept of Tourism and Hospitality”, http://www.adam-
europe.eu/prj/10485/prj/Definition%20of%20Tourism.pdf)
13. http://www.arkitera.com/haberler/2002/09/14/efes.htm
14. http://www.neetepc.com/shop.asp
15. http://www.focusdergisi.com.tr/arkeoloji/00367/+efes+
16. http://www.efespilsen.com.tr/e_arkeoloji2.asp
17. http://www.unesco.org
18. http://www.ıcomos.org
176
A RESEARCH ABOUT REVENUE MANAGEMENT AWARENESS AND
APPLICATIONS IN TURKISH HOTEL INDUSTRY
Raif Parlakkaya1
Halil Akmeşe2
Ersin Arıkan3
Abstract: Fierce competition and changing business context are leading the business enterprises to
develop and apply new tools and methods in order to survive or attain growth targets. In this regard
revenue management and its application methods are gaining more importance each day. Revenue
management, which might be defined as the art of maximizing revenue and profit indirectly by
means of selling a service which is subject to time and capacity restrictions in the short run. Major
aim of this study is to reveal the awareness level and applications of hotels which might be
considered as the major and most institutional players of tourism industry. Relevant headlines such
as a short history of revenue management, its components, advantages and disadvantages of revenue
management applications, barriers in front of the revenue management process are mentioned
within the context of study. In order to state the current situation in Turkey, a reliable sample of
hotels (30 hotels of five and four stars) from Ankara, capital city of Turkey, was chosen and these
hotels were subjected to a short questionnaire which is designed on previous studies about revenue
management. Based on the findings of research it might be claimed that the majority of participants
are aware of revenue management and are using various tools with differentiating degrees in order
to maximize their revenue or attain their revenue targets.
Keywords: Revenue management, hotel revenue management, revenue management applications,

revenue maximization
INTRODUCTION
Revenue management efforts might be based on demand and supply concepts within the
context of free market economy. Every kind of market might be segmented and all the
segments react in differentiating levels to any price change. As part of the service industry
hotels and other accommodation facilities intensely use revenue management in order to
maximize their revenue. Due to the perishable nature of services, because they are limited
with time, revenue management gains its highest value within the managerial tools of
service enterprises. However, revenue management as a tool needs to be treated delicately.
Otherwise the results might be unexpected due to the parameters which need to be
incorporated into the models developed for attaining revenue targets. Additionally these
parameters should be measured and monitored continuously and consistently for better
results. It might be claimed that previous studies on revenue management are on the focus
of researchers and are evaluated as instructions by managers. Literature review constitutes
the first part of this study.
1
Professor, Departmant of Business Management, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences,
Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey.
2
Assistant Professor, Departmant of Tourism Management, Faculty of Tourism, Necmettin Erbakan
University, Konya, Turkey.
3
Phd Student, Departmant of Tourism Management, Institute of Social Sciences, Necmettin
Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey.
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LITERATURE
Revenue management is described as the price strategies and information systems

applications that assign the right capacity to right customer at the right location on the right
time (Kimes, 2000: 121). (Donaghy, 1995) described revenue management as a technical
approach that aims to increase net revenue of estimated usable room capacity that has been
determined based on the best rate and assigned to varying market segments.
In other words, revenue management is the adjustment of prices based on estimated
demand levels and this is applied so that price-sensitive customers can decide to buy
during off peak times and non-sensitive customers to price can decide to buy during on
peak times (Kimes, 2000: 121).
Revenue management applications focus on three fundamental demand-management
decisions that include structural decisions, price decisions and quantity decisions.
Primarily structural decisions focus on which sales format is going to be utilized, which
market segmentation or differentiation mechanism will be adopted and how products will
be grouped. Price decisions include; how prices are going to be set, how different product
categories are going to be priced, and how prices will change within a time frame. Finally,
quantity decisions focus on how much of a capacity to allocate to different market
segments in regards to accepting or rejecting a demand for a purchase, when the product
will be withdrawn from market, and when it will be back on the market (Tan, 2012: 1).
History of Revenue Management
Revenue management concept first appeared in airline industry of United States in late
1970s with liberalization movement. Peoples Express (an airline company) was established
with this liberalization aiming to fly passengers with less cost than other airline companies
(Unurlu, 2010: 56). Big firms like American Airlines and United Airlines decided to
compete with Peoples Express and started selling a low amount of seats for a cheaper price
and other seats with high price tags. In this way they were expecting to carry price-
sensitive passengers of Peoples Express along with other high-cost paying customers. At
the end, customers of Peoples Express decided to use big airlines and after certain period
of time Peoples Express filed for bankruptcy (Jerenz, 2008: 8). President of Peoples
Express Donald Burr then admitted that most of problems they have faced were due to lack
of revenue management (Hacıoglu, 2011: 7).
Hotel businesses started using revenue management applications in midst of 1980s. Orkin
focused on revenue statistics in his work about revenue management in 1988. Revenue
statistics were calculated by dividing average room price by maximum room price and
multiplying the result with occupancy rate. Most important point of this study is that
instead of focusing on high occupancy rate or high average room rate managers should
focus on maximum revenue (Kimes, 1989: 15).
Revenue management is vastly used in the airline and hotel industry. Other than these
industries, railway transportation, cruise tourism, health services, electricity distribution,
car rental, radio-tv commercials, entertainment, publishing and telecommunication
businesses also practice revenue management applications successfully (Harris andPinder,
1995: 299). Along with fundamental principles that can be applied in different sectors
easily, appropriate revenue management systems should be formed for each sector that
embraces these sectors‟ characteristics and dynamics. For instance, a strategy used for
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airlines industry may not provide solutions for hotel and restaurant industry (Ivanov, 2014:
8).
Elements of Revenue Management
In order to develop a better understanding and a complete knowledge of revenue

management constituents and important aspects of revenue management might be
addressed. Following sub sections are of great importance regarding to revenue
management and its expected results when applied.
Demand and reservation features
Revenue management helps for future estimations in times of high and low demands (Lee-
Ross and Johns, 1997: 67). Alongside with reservation status, being able to do demand
forecasts efficiently helps businesses in decisions regarding getting reservations. Within
this context, there are three different demand forecasting methods utilized by
accommodation enterprises. These are occupancy rate forecasts, revenue based forecasts,
and demand based forecasts (Buckhiester, 2011: 99-103):
Occupancy Rate Focused Forecasts: This forecasting method used in accommodation
firms which generally have an operational structure. This forecasting model provides
limited information and it is used for short terms. It provides information to the
accommodation firm within a time frame regarding to how many rooms will be occupied,
how many customers will accommodate along with groups and touristic tours information.
Based on an analysis focusing on its structure; it helps other branches of the hotel on task-
planning but it is not very useful in the planning of revenues.
Revenue Based Forecasts: Another demand forecasting model utilized by accommodation
firms is revenue based forecast model with its financial structure. This forecasting type
focuses on occupancy rate, average rate and revenue for the upcoming months and
provides knowledge to the management. In other words, it leads management in the areas
of renting, purchasing, and cash flow necessities in a monthly manner.
Demand Based Forecasts:As a strategic demand forecasting approach, demand based
forecast is a method that brings together information about previous information,
reservation speed, marketing efforts and current room capacity of the market and then
decisions are made based on this knowledge. Revenue managers with a
developedknowledge about revenue management often apply this method while
determining sales policies.
Pricing
Revenue management has two parts. First one is rooms management, capacity
management in other words, and the other one is pricing. Resource usage as part of
revenue management is the reserved room status based on current and future demands.
Pricing is the best price that can be applied in different situations (Kimes, 1989: 15). Many
people who do not have enough knowledge about revenue management think it is a
method used by businesses which enables them to change prices constantly throughout the
day. Actually revenue management is a type of price diversification (Kara, 2008: 20). In
revenue management, the important point is to diversify price sensitive people with other
groups that are willing to pay high prices (Wirtzve Kimes, 2007: 229). Airline firms
179
change fare prices before the flight and throughout the day many times. Accommodation
businesses should also adjust prices with a competitive understanding based on current
demand and price effects on demand (Kimes, 1989: 18).
It is evident that most of approaches used by businesses to increase revenues are related to
pricing applications. It can be said that decisions that will be made regarding pricing are
important in regards to increasing and decreasing revenues. Based on his work about
revenue management (Ivanov, 2014) specifies that “price diversification, dynamic pricing,
low price guarantee” practices are directly related with pricing, and capacity management,
excess reservation, room suitability guarantee and length of stay control practices are non-
pricing practices.
Information Systems
Revenue management system can attain success based on the level it benefits from other
information technology systems efficiently. If the system does not have integration, same
information might have been entered into system more than once. Preventing this problem
or resolving such matters reveals the importance of people in the area of revenue
management. Although some firms are able to resolve this problem, many revenue
management systems are not integrated with other information systems (Hacıoğlu, 2011:
11). As computer-based information technology gets integrated with revenue management,
revenue management is going to be able to be helpful to hotel managers in regards to
selling varying customer groups rooms with diversified pricing and maximizing income
(Choi and Cho, 2000: 18). In other words, information technologies and systems help ease
the process of utilizing revenue management in the sector of accommodation (Jauncey,
Mitchell and Slamet, 1995: 24).
Overbooking Policy
Efficiently using capacity is important in revenue management. Overbooking policy is

practiced in the service sector in order to prevent non-usage of capacity due to
cancellations and no-shows. As a result, reservation cancellations and no-shows cause
revenue losses (Sfodera, 2006: 69). Overbooking is determined carefully by analyzing
capacity and demand. It might be said that overbooking is practiced between 5 and 10 % of
total capacity within airline and accommodation businesses (Harris and Pinder, 1995: 303).
Barriers in front of Revenue Management
Revenue management is a strategic system especially for service sector in maximizing

revenues and increasing profits. For this reason more firms start adopting it every day. It is
important to use revenue management applications successfully for every business but
there can be barriers in successfully applying revenue management. Based on his research
about hotels in China, (Li, 2011) describes barriers in front of revenue management as
follows:
● Limited knowledge about revenue management: Most of hotel managers do not

possess knowledge about revenue management. They perceive revenue
management as price wars between competitors and price dumping policy instead
of a strategy formed by the balance between supply and demand.
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● Limited information system:Information system within state owned hotels are not
used efficiently. Instead of operating multi-function systems in an integrated
format, each of them are operated in a single way. That‟s why state owned hotels
possess information systems that lack rich technical knowledge and skills. And
this causes the inability of accessing needed information for revenue management.
● Neglecting past information (knowledge):In order to have an efficient revenue
management, there is a need to have demand forecasts based on historical data.
Not recording historical data or not keeping them in the database cause problems
in demand forecasting. And this causes the revenue management to be
unsuccessful.
● Unreliability of the revenue management system:Revenue management system
depends on forecasting and information technologies. Although revenue
management system in some hotels have reached an advanced level by utilizing
these tools, a lot of hotels still hasn‟t been able to form a reliable revenue
management system.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Revenue Management
Capacity increase is not possible in the short-term due to limited capacity in hotel
businesses and high costs of investments. For this reason it is not possible to sell rooms to
more customers and increase revenue even if there is an increase in demand. At this point,
revenue management system enables the business to increase prices in the case of
increased demand and provides advantage to the firm by maximizing revenue and profit
(Harris andPinder, 1995: 302). Another benefit of revenue management is to provide
precaution against cancellations and no-shows by allowing overbooking.
Although revenue management system brings important benefits to firms that practice, it
also has disadvantages. Businesses stay alive with customers. Customers may not have
knowledge about the structure of this system. For this reason, they may prefer to stay away
from firms that practice revenue management system thinking there can be problems with
the process. And the business may lose customers. Another negativity can be faced on the
employees of the business. This system brings workload and it bears risks associated with
possible mistakes. And this has huge cost. That‟s why employees are skeptical about the
system. Employees should be educated about the structure of the system and appropriate
staff should be selected for the related tasks (Hacıoğlu, 2011: 90).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND QUESTIONNAIRE
A short questionnaire is designed based on the literature review and previous

studies(Yousef, 2007) in order to come up with current status about revenue management
among Turkish hotel enterprises. Research questionnaire is sent to 56 hotels ranked as four
and five star hotels as listed on the Ankara branch official web site of Republic of Turkey
Ministry of Tourism and Culture. Hotel managers are contacted by telephone and informed
about the research in order to increase the participation rate and reliability of responses.
Within the research context 30 responses out of 56 questionnaires are gathered by means
of online applications.
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FINDINGS
Exploratory status of this study required gathering information about the demographic
features of participating enterprises. Question 1 is designed in order to reveal the star
ranking profiles of participating hotels. As it is summarized in Tab. 1, 57% of the hotels
are 4 star hotels and 43% are 5 star hotels. Additionally all the responses gathered belong
to city hotels which might be considered within the group of business hotels instead of
leisure hotels or resorts.
Tab. 1: Hotel status regarding to their star rankings

Star Rankings of Participants Frequency (n) Percentage (%)
4 star hotels 17 57
5 star hotels 13 43
As it is a known fact that the most important basis for revenue management has been the
capacity, capacity usage in other words. Tab. 2 depicts the capacities of participating hotels
based on a 50 room capacity interval. Nearly half of the hotels (except two hotels with total
rooms up to 50 which represent 2% of respondents), approximately 43% of the
respondents, reported that they have rooms between 51-100. 30% of the other half
represents the hotels with a room capacity of more than 150 rooms and 20% with a
capacity of rooms between 101 and 150. It might be said that the general capacity status of
participating hotels are eligible for revenue management applications.
Tab. 2: Total number of rooms

Number of rooms Frequency (n) Percentage (%)
1-50 2 7
51-100 13 43
101-150 6 20
150 and more 9 30
Tab. 3 summarizes the type of proprietorship status of participating hotels. Two third of
the participating hotels, 67% - 20 hotels, seem to be independent hotels while the rest of
participants, 33% - 10 hotels, belong to a hotel chain proprietorship. Findings regarding to
the proprietorship status of participating hotels revealed that regardless of their
proprietorships, majority of the hotels are interested in revenue management and its
applications.
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Tab. 3: Type of proprietorship
Frequency (n) Percentage (%)
Chain hotel 10 33
Independent hotel 20 67
Tab. 4 depicts the findings about awareness levels of participants. Three fourth of the
participants,73% - 22 hotels, reported that they are aware of the revenue management on a
scale of moderately and extremely. Eight of the participants, 27% of the total, reported that
they are slightly aware of the concept and two participants reported that they are unaware
of revenue management. Findings reveled that majority of the participants are aware of
revenue management and its applications.
Tab. 4: Degree of awareness about revenue management and its applications

Not at all 2 7
Slightly 6 20
Moderately 2 7
More than moderately 15 50
Extremely 5 16
Tab. 5 provides data about information sources of hotel managers regarding to revenue
management. Findings revealed that the most important source of information for one third
of the respondents, representing 33% of the total, about revenue management and its
applications is educational programs arranged by different sources such as non-
governmental organizations. Copycat applications gathered by industrial relations
constitute one fourth of general information resources representing 27%. Books, journals
and articles – other resources and courses constitute nearly the half of information
resources respectively ranging from 17% to 13% and 10%.
Tab. 5: Information resources about revenue management

Courses 3 10
Educational programs 10 33
Books, journals and articles 5 17
Applications 8 27
Other 4 13
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As it is shown in Tab. 6, responses revealed that more than half of the participants, 57% -
17 hotels, are willing to learn revenue management and its applications while the rest
seems to be unwilling. It was found that one fourth of the respondents was unaware or
insufficiently aware of revenue management and its applications, 27% - 8 hotels, and was
shown in Tab. 4. This might be interpreted that participants who are unaware of revenue
management or have little knowledge about its applications are indifferent or unwilling
regarding to the implementation of revenue management.
Tab. 6: Willingness to learn revenue management

Yes 17 57
No 13 43
Tab. 7 summarizes the application status of revenue management by participating hotels.

As it is apparent, responses shown below and responses shown in Tab. 4 are overlapping
and findings of the research prove that higher degree of awareness about revenue
management result in higher degree of applications about revenue management. It might
be said that majority of the hotels are aware of the revenue management concept and they
are applying variety of methods within the scope of their knowledge and interest.
Tab. 7: Revenue management applications within the organization

Yes 20 67
No 10 33
Regarding to the duration of revenue management applications within the organization

responses summarized in Tab. 8 revealed that a small majority, nearly 40 percent, is aware
of the issue and apply in their hotels at most for 5 years. This might be due to the emerging
nature of revenue management issue in Turkey, especially in hotel industry. 13% of the
participants responded that they are using revenue management applications between 5-10
years and 17% responded that they are using revenue management applications more than
10 years. It is apparent that revenue management and its applications are emerging issues
within Turkish hotel industry when it is compared to the origination of this issue in 1980s.
Tab. 8: Timeframe for revenue management applications within the organization

Less than 5 years 11 37
5 to 10 years 4 13
More than 10 years 5 17
No idea 10 33
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Tab. 9 summarizes the frequency of revenue management applications referred within the
organization. Half of the participants reported that revenue management and its
applications are used frequently within their organization. Approximately 15% reported
that they used revenue management rarely or moderately. On the other hand one third of
the participants did not respond to this question. This might be due to the involvement
degrees of participants to the revenue management applications.
Tab. 9: Level of revenue management applications within the organization

Rare 2 7
Moderate 2 7
Frequent 10 33
Frequent as a routine 6 20
No idea 10 33
Regarding to the software assistance a small majority of participants responded that they
are using software in order to obtain better results about revenue management. Nearly one
fourth of the respondents (27%) responded that they are managing the revenue
management process on manual basis, meaning that they are using managerial information
in order to make decisions about revenue management. Tab. 10 summarizes the results of
question eleven regarding to the software assistance for revenue management.
Tab. 10: Software assistance for revenue management

Yes 12 40
No 8 27
No idea 10 33
Question 12 in the research questionnaire is designed to determine the commonly used

revenue management tools by hotel enterprises subject to the research. Generally accepted
in literature or commonly used techniques industrially are listed and respondents are
expected to choose among these. As shown in Tab. 10 most widespread method used by
hotels is stay length control. Following one is capacity management and overbooking or
over contracting seems to be the third commonly used method. Research question is built
on two dimensions; price and capacity. As it is listed in Tab. 11 dynamic pricing represents
the price dimension of revenue management and might be considered as the essence of
revenue management process and might be considered as the primary tool for revenue
management (Talluri and Ryzin, 2004). The rest of revenue management tools listed in
185
research question is related to the capacity dimension (Ivanov,2014). Findings revealed
that capacity related revenue management tools are commonly used by participating hotels.
Surprisingly dynamic pricing or other price related tools are not used in order to
manipulate revenue. This might be due to the general economic conditions or competitive
conditions.
Tab. 11: Commonly used revenue management tools

1. Dynamic pricing 0 0
2. Capacity management 8 26
3. Overbooking or over contracting 6 20
4. Stay length control 12 40
5. Upselling 4 13
6. Optimal room allocation 5 16
Question 13 aims to determine the perceived effects of revenue management on the

concluding evaluation information of enterprises such as efficiency as a whole,
profitability, total costs and capacity usage. Tab. 12 demonstrates the findings below.
Responses summarized below belong to the participants who are aware of revenue
management and use revenue management tools and represent the two thirds of total
respondents (20 out of 30 respondents). All respondents reported that they believed
revenue management contributed to the efficiency of organization more than moderately or
strongly by 60% and 40% respectively. Profitability is evaluated as to be affected by
revenue management more than moderately or strongly by 45% and 55% respectively.
Regarding to the cost reduction and capacity usage issues findings revealed that a small
minority of the respondents, 15% and 5% respectively, believed that revenue management
is slightly effective.
Tab. 12: Effects of revenue management on various efficiency dimensions of organization

More than
Not Slightly Moderately Strongly
moderately
effective effective effective Effective
effective
n % n % n % n % n %
Increases efficiency 12 60 8 40
Increases profitability 9 45 11 55
Decreases costs 3 15 4 20 6 30 7 35
Enhances capacity usage 1 5 3 15 8 40 8 40
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CONCLUSIONS
It is apparent from the findings that a big majority of the hotels subject to this research are
aware of revenue management and its applications. Regardless of their star rankings or
ownership status most of them are seeking increased revenue by means of revenue
management applications. Findings revealed that three fourth of the participant are aware
of revenue management issues and its applications on an accepTab. level of moderate or
more. Amongst various types of information sources regarding to revenue management
and its applications educational programs and printed materials such as books, journals and
articles might be stated as the most referred ones followed by industrial applications
gathered by industrial relations within the hotel business. With respect to willingness to
learn and usage frequency level of revenue management applications it might be said that
research results are overlapping and it is apparent that findings summarized in Tab. 4, 6
and 7 are proving each other. Approximately two thirds of the participants responded that
they are utilizing revenue management tools with varying durations but the majority of this
group falls into the “less than five years” group meaning that the revenue management is
an emerging issue within Turkish hotel industry. With respect to the revenue management
tools it is apparent that managers are using the tolls related to capacity management instead
of the tolls related to pricing. Upselling might seem a tool related to pricing but instead it is
the act of increasing the revenue with additional goods or services meaning that this is
related to capacity or room allocation rather than pricing. Finally responses revealed that
40% of the participants who are aware of and utilize revenue management applications are
employing software in order to enhance the revenue management process and attain better
results. All the participants agreed that revenue management applications are effective on
the indicators or outcomes such as efficiency, profitability, costs and capacity usage with
varying degrees but it might be stated that affirmative results are generally on the levels of
more than moderately or strongly.
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CLIMATE IMPACT ON ORIGIN AND TOURISM VALORISATION OF
TRADITIONAL URBAN ARCHITECTURE IN BOSNIA&HERZEGOVINA
AND CROATIA
Belmar Begić1
Abstract: Climate stands for one of the important factors of tourism valorisation in a certain area.
For the purpose of this paper Köppen climatic classification has been used. In a given area
distinguished types of climate include: temperate climate C, continental climate D and alpine
climate E. Considering the fact that climate can indirectly impact the geologic structure of certain
areas on the Earth's surface by means of insolation and precipitation, building materials for
architecture can be various. For example, as main or dominant building material in areas with warm
climate types a stone is the most commonly used material, but wood and timber are commonly used
in areas with cooler climate types. This research is based on selected urban areas for the each
belonging climate type. By using Köppen climatic classification for the GIS mapping of climate
subtypes, which are based on long-term climate data, selected urban areas have been chosen. Cities
that belong to Csa climate subtype are: Mostar, Split and Dubrovnik, cities under Csb climate
subtype include: Livno, Konjic and Rijeka, cities that belong to Cfa subtype include: Bijeljina,
Osijek and Vukovar, cities under Cfb subtype include: Sarajevo, Banja Luka and Zagreb, towns that
belong to Cfc climate include: Delnice and Slunj, and towns under Dfb climate subtype are: Kupres
and Nevesinje. Areas with Dfc and ET climate subtypes include rural settlements and unpopulated
wild areas. Research focuses on architecture from the six most significant historical periods:
Antique, Byzantine, Medieval, Venetian, Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian. Based on all the
characteristics described before, the conclusion implicates that climate factors have significant
impact on the architectural styles, and generally on the urban environment which is the tourism
valorisation object.
Key words: climate types, architecture, GIS, tourism, valorisation, Bosnia&Herzegovina, Croatia
GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION OF BOSNIA&HERZEGOVINA AND CROATIA
Territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republic of Croatia in terms of regional

geography are situated mostly in South-East Europe, and partly in Central Europe. By the
contemporary political and geographical terms this area covers parts of the Western
Balkans. Geospace of these two countries is located inside the next geographic
coordinates: 42°24' N, 46°33' N and 13°30' E, 19°37' E.
This area's main tectonic feature is situation at Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, that
includes Dinaric Alps. Dinaric Alps mountain range is a natural zone that separates
Pannonian and Adriatic basin. Those mountains were formed by orogenic folding
movements. In terms of climate geography, this area is a transitional zone between
subtropic and temperate climatic zones. Particular impact on the climate condition has the
nearness of Mediterranean, that includes Adriatic sea as well. On the other hand,
Pannoanian basin openness allows stronger penetration of cold air masses from the north.
In this area main climate types by Koppen classification include: Cs type (Mediterranean
climate), Cf types (temperate warm and maritime climates), Df types (hemiboreal climate)
and ET type (alpine tundra climate). Natural barrier between Cs and Cf climate types is Df
1
Master of Geography in the field of Tourism and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Science,
University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
189
climate type, that covers the area of Dinaric Alps, hence their southern parts have Cs, but
northern parts have Cf climate type. Hydrographic objects drain their waters into two
drainage basins: Black sea basin (through rivers Sava and Danube) and Adriatic sea basin.
The most important rivers that discharge into the Adriatic sea are: Raša, Zrmanja, Krka,
Cetina, Neretva and Trebišnjica, while the Black sea basin backbone includes river Danube
and it's large tributary rivers Drava and Sava which is the flow endpoint of these rivers:
Kupa, Una, Vrbas, Bosna, Ukrina and Drina. This area's vegetation belongs to Palearctic
biomes of Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrub and Temperate broadleaf.
In terms of administrative structure, Republic of Croatia consists of lower taxonomic units

– counties (Croatia has total 21 counties), while Bosnia&Herzegovina consists of entities
(Federation of BiH, Serb Republic and Brţko District), and it's entity Federation of BiH is
divided into 10 cantons. Last censuses provide data for total Croatian population of
4,284,889 residents2, and total population of Bosnia&Herzegovina is 3,791,622 residents3.
Settlements in this area are formed in river valleys, as well as in coastal areas, so the most
significant among them are settlements with population over 100,000 and those settlements
are dominant macroregional centers. In Croatia the most significant cities are Zagreb
(790,001), Split (178,102), Rijeka (128,624) and Osijek (108,048), while in
Bosnia&Herzegovina those cities are Sarajevo (391.130) and Banja Luka (150.997).
Economy of Bosnia&Herzegovina is based on different industries and services, so the most
important export products include metals, machines, furniture, mineral products, footwear,
chemical products, wood products and textile. The most important export trade
destinations are Croatia, Germany, Italy, Austria and Slovenia, while the import
destinations are Croatia, Germany, Serbia, Italy, Russia and Slovenia. In 2012 total country
export trade was valued at 5.22 billion USD, and total import trade was valued at 9.93
billion USD.4 Economy of Croatia is based on different industries and services, especially
on tourism. Croatian main export products include machines, mineral products, chemical
products, vehicles and transportation parts, metal products, food products and textile. The
most important Croatian export trade destinations are Italy, Bosnia&Herzegovina,
Germany, Slovenia and Austria, while the most important import trade destinations are
Italy, Germany, China, Slovenia and Russia. In 2012 total country export trade was valued
at 12.8 billion USD, and total import trade was valued at 20.3 billion USD.5
Bosnia&Herzegovina is a member state of CEFTA group and NATO program Partnership
for Peace, while Croatia is full member state of European Union and NATO alliance. Both
countries are member states of Council of Europe and United Nations.
In terms of culture, both countries have various cultural and historical heritage.
Bosnia&Herzegovina has 2 UNESCO world heritage sites: Old Bridge area of the Old city
of Mostar and Mehmed Paša Sokoloviš Bridge in Višegrad, while Croatia has 7 UNESCO
sites: Historical complex of Split with the Palace of Diocletian, Old City of Dubrovnik,
Plitvice lakes National Park, Euphrasian Basilica in the Historic center of Poreţ, Historic
city of Trogir, The Cathedral of St. James in Šibenik and Stari Grad plain on the Hvar
island.6
2
Statistic bureau of Croatia
3
Statistic bureau of Federation of BiH
4
https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/bih/(19.08.2015.)
5
https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/hrv/ (19.08.2015.)
6
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/ (21.08.2015.)
190
URBAN ARCHITECTURE OBJECTS INVENTORY ACCORDING TO CLIMATE
TYPES AND HISTORICAL PERIODS
Urban architecture objects inventory is based on the six main historical periods and climate
types by Koppen classification. According to Koppen the most significant climates include
Mediterranean climate (Cs) with it's two subtypes Csa and Csb, temperate warm and
maritime climate with it's two subtypes Cfa and Cfb and hemiboreal climate with it's Dfb
subtype. The most significant historical periods where these objects belong include:
Antique, Byzantine, Medieval, Venetian, Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian.
Label Cs stands for Mediterranean climate in terms of Koppen climate classification.

Letter „s“ denotes summer period with dry weather conditions. The main Cs climate type
can be differentiated due to the quantitative and spatial dinamics of average annual and
monthly (July) isotherm lines. Therefore in this climate type two climate subtypes can be
distinguished: Csa – Mediterranean climate with hot and dry summers and Csb –
Mediterranean climate with warm summers.
Label Cf stands for temperate warm i humid climate according to Koppen classfication.
Letter „f“ denotes conditions with almost even distribution of precipitation, which means
there are no extremly dry periods in areas with Cf climates. Climate subtype Cfa has hot
and dry summer conditions with mean air temperatures of the warmest month above 22°C
(usually in July or August), while Cfb subtype has warm, but slightly cooler summer
conditions, when the mean air temperatures is higher than 10°C in 4 months period nad the
mean air temperature of the warmest month is below 22°C.
Climate type Df in the area can be distinguished into two climate subtypes, according to
average annual, January and July isotherm lines: subtype Dfb corresponds to hemiboreal
climate with temperate humidity and warm summers, while subtype Dfc corresponds to
hemiboreal climate with humid and cool summers. Climate subtype Dfc covers non-urban
areas in Bosnia&Herzegovina and Croatia, so it's not the subject of study in this paper.
Architecture in the areas of Cs climate type
In the areas of Cs climate type the main characteristics of traditional urban architecture
depend mainly on geologic structure and climate impacts in certain area. This area's
geologic structure consists dominantly of limestones, so the most objects have been built
by that material, whereas dry conditions and sparse vegetation have caused very limited
usage of wood material. Throughout history the expansions of past empires have
deteriorated natural environment, especially in terms of deforstation with visible
aftereffects even today.
The most significant monuments in cities with Csa climate subtype include:
Split:Diocletian's Palace (Antique period), Cathedral of Saint Domnius (Medieval period),

Prokurative square (Austro-Hungarian period)7
Mostar: Basilica Cim (Antique period), The Old Bridge area, KaraŤoz-begmosque
(Ottoman period), High school building (Austro-Hungarian period)
7
http://www.visitsplit.com/en/446/attractions (24.08.2015.)
191
Zadar: Church of Saint Donatus (Byzantine period), Cathedral of Saint Anastasia
(Venetian period)
Šibenik:Cathedral of Saint James (Venetian period)
Dubrovnik:City walls with forts (Medieval perod), Sponza Palace, Church of Saint Blaise
(Venetian period), Hilton Imperial Hotel8 (Austro-Hungarian)
The most significant monuments in cities with Csb climate subtype include:
Livno:early Christian basilica (Antique period), Hajji Ahmet Dukatar mosque,Bali-aga

Ljubunţiš mosque, Lala-pasha mosque, Monastery church of Saints Peter and Paul in
Gorica, Orthodox church, Duman old bridge (Ottoman period), High School building,
Municipality old building, Water supply station Duman9 (Austro-Hungarian period)
Knin: Knin Fortress (Medieval period)
Konjic: Ţaršija mosque, Old bridge (Ottoman period)
Poreč: Euphrasian basilica (Byzantine period)
Opatija: Kvarner Hotel (Austro-Hungarian)
Pula: Pula Arena, Arch of the Sergii (Antique period), Castle or Kaštel10 (Venetian period)
Architecture in the areas of Cf climate type
The conditions of Cfa and Cfb climate subtypes have allowed various building styles,
wherein the main construction materials include stone (limestone), sand, lime plaster,
wood material etc. The most numerous monuments originate from the Medieval, Ottoman
and Austro-Hungarian period, while there are no representative monuments from Antique,
Byzantine or Venetian periods.
The most significant monuments in cities with Cfa climate subtype include:
Osijek: Korogyvar Fortress (Medieval period), Fortified town of Osjeţka TvrŤa, Pejaţeviš
family's krypt, Counts Pejaţeviš Palace (Austro-Hungarian period)
Vukovar: Historical Baroque City center, The Coach Post building, City Magistrate
building, Central Pharmacy Kirchbaum-Švarc, Grand Hotel, Castle Eltz, Church of Saints
Filip and Jakov and the Franciscan Monastery, Palace of the Syrmia County, Birth house
of Lavoslav Ruţiţka, Saint Rok's Chapel, Orthodox Church of Saint Nikolaj11 (Austro-
Hungarian period)
Bijeljina: Atik mosque, Saint Georgije's church (Ottoman period), Building of the
Assembly of the City, Old High School building (Austro-Hungarian period)
The most significant monuments in cities with Cfb climate subtype include:
Zagreb: The Lotršţak Tower, The Stone gate, Medvedgrad Fortress, Saint Mark's Church,
Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Church of Saint Francis of Assisi
8
Dubrovnik Tourist Board (2013) Dubrovnik Riviera Info, Alfa-2. Dubrovnik
9
Burek, A. (2007) Kameno Hlivno, Livno u turskom vaktu (Stone Hlivno, Livno in the Ottoman
time), Planjax. Tešanj
10
Istria Tourist Board (2015) Enjoy Istra summer 2015, Radin Print. Sveta Nedelja
11
http://www.turizamvukovar.hr/vukovar_eng.php?stranica=171(23.08.2015.)
192
(Medieval period), Saint Blaise's church, Croatian State archives, Croatian National
theater, Palace Hotel, Ilica street12 (Austro-Hungarian period)
Sarajevo: Ghazi Husrev-Bey's mosque, The Emperor's mosque, Bašţaršija old town, The
old orthodox church, Cathedral church of the Nativity of the Theotokos (also known as
Serbian orthodox cathedral), The old Synagogue, Svrzo's house (Ottoman period),
Ferhadija street, Ban Kulin alley, Bosnia&Herzegovina Presidency building, Sarajevo
Academy of fine arts, City Hall, City market (also known as Markthalle), Cathedral of
Jesus' Heart, The National museum of Bosnia&Herzegovina, Marijin Dvor city area,
Europe Hotel (Austro-Hungarian period)
Banja Luka: Kastel or Castle fortress (Medieval period), Ferhadija mosque (Ottoman
period), Mariastern Abbey, Bosna Hotel, City promenade Gospodska street, Museum of
modern art of Republika Srpska (also known as The old railway station building) (Austro-
Hungarian period)
Architecture in the areas of Df climate type
In the areas of Df climate type there are few urban zones, which are characterized by
mixed types of urban-rural settlements. In the areas of Dfc climate subtype, there are only
rural settlements, while in the areas of Dfb climate subtype exist urban zones with
traditional architecture. Characteristics of Df climate subtype are very similar to the
characteristics of Cf climate types on the northern slopes of Dinaric Alps, but also they are
similar to Cs climate types of the southern slopes of Dinaric Alps. Higher areas of Dfb
climate subtype due to the larger volume of snowfall anually, have objects with the high
roof constructions and small windows.
The most significant monuments in cities with Dfb climate subtype include:
Glamoč:Basilica in Radaslije (Antique period), Old fortified town Glamoţ (Ottoman

period)
Kupres: Basilica in Otinovci (Antique period), Ruins of the Medieval church in Otinovci
(Medieval period)
TOURIST EVALUATION OF URBAN ARCHITECTURE OBJECTS BY

HISTORICAL PERIODS
Tourist evaluation (sometimes tourism valorisation) determines valuation, estimation or

assessment for tourist attractions values, or assessment for tourist attractiveness all of the
phenomena, objects or spaces which have attractive features interesting to tourists or
visitors who can fulfill their recreational and/or cultural needs by visiting them. The most
important method for tourism evaluation is combined qualitative and quantitative method
of comparison. For tourist evaluation of cultural and historical monuments essential
elements are: travel or tourist-geographic location, artistic value, surroundings value,
tourist attractiveness and recognizability, fit-out of the visiting place, incorporation into
tourist resources. Assessment is marked by numbers from 1 to 5, where mark 1 means
unsatisfying quality and such objects should not be presented, mark 2 means satisfying
quality so the objects have local tourism significance, mark 3 means good quality so the
objects have regional tourism significance, mark 4 is for very good quality which means
12
Zagreb Tourist Board (2015) Step by step Zagreb: A walk through Zagreb, Kerschoffset. Zagreb
193
the objects have wider regional or national tourism significance, and mark 5 means
excellent quality so the objects have international tourism significance.13
Fig.1 Distribution of Köppen Climate types in Bosnia&Herzegovina and Croatia
Antique period
In the Antique period Diocletian's Palace has higher mark for the general tourist value than
Basilica Cim because of better preservation and greater tourism importance. The
preservation of those objects was influenced by wartime devastation and climatic factors,
of which the most important are temperature fluctuations in deep inland.
13
Košiš, K. (2011) Tourist Evalutation [online], Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Pages
3, 7, 11-13, 21
194
Tab. 1. Tourist evaluation of the significant monuments of Antique origin
Travel location
Attractiveness
Incorporation
Artistic value
Surroundings
tourist value
General
subtype
Fit-out
value
type
City/Town Monument
Diocletian's 5 5 5 5 4 5 4,8
Split
Csa Palace
Cs
Mostar Basilica Cim 4 3 4 2 4 4 3,5
Csb Pula Pula Arena 5 4 5 5 4 5 4,7
Byzantine period
Although the monuments are situated in areas with different climate types, these objects in
Zadar and Poreţ have the high mark for general tourist value, mostly due to their artistic
and surroundings values. Inter alia, their attractiveness is in fact that they were built in
specific way, by using traditional building materials.
Tab. 2. Tourist evaluation of the significant Byzantine monuments

Travel location
Attractiveness
Incorporation
Artistic value
Surroundings
tourist value
General
subtype
Fit-out
value
type
City/Town Monument
Church of Saint 4 5 5 5 4 5 4,7

Csa Zadar
Donatus
Cs
Euphrasian 4 5 5 5 3 5 4,5
Csb Poreţ
basilica
Medieval period
Banja Luka in Cfb climate type and Knin in the areas with Csb climate type have
representative monuments of the national tourism significance, and those monuments
include medieval fortresses which were built due to strategic importance. Those
monuments still have the lower marks of general tourist value than the monuments in
Zagreb and Dubrovnik, mainly because of their poor travel location and fit-outs.
195
Tab. 3. Tourist evaluation of the significant Medieval monuments
Attractiveness
Incorporation
Artistic value
Surroundings
tourist value
General
location
subtype
Fit-out
Travel
value
type
City/Town Monument
Banja Kastel Fortress 4 4 5 3 4 5 4,2

Luka
Medvedgrad 4 5 5 4 5 4 4,5
Cf Cfb
Fortress
Zagreb
Saint Mark's 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0
Church
City walls with 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0
Csa Dubrovnik
Cs forts
Csb Knin Knin Fortress 4 4 5 4 3 5 4,2
Venetian period
The most numerous monuments of the Venetian origin are located in the areas with Csa
climate type and sometimes in the areas with Csb climate type. Those monuments are best
evaluated (international tourism significance) especially due to their preservance and
specific architecture style. Because of climatic conditions those monuments were built
mostly of local stone.
Tab. 4. Tourist evaluation of the significant monuments of Venetian origin

Travel location
Attractiveness
Incorporation
Artistic value
Surroundings
tourist value
General
subtype
Fit-out
value
type
City/Town Monument
Cathedral of 4 5 5 5 4 5 4,7
Šibenik
Saint James
Csa Dubrovnik Sponza Palace 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0
Cs
Cathedral of 4 5 5 5 4 5 4,7
Zadar
Saint Anastasia
Csb Pula Castle or Kaštel 5 4 5 4 4 5 4,5
196
Ottoman period
Monuments of the Ottoman origin are widespread in the areas of all climate types, where
the cities with Ottoman cultural features are located. The least preserved monuments are in
the areas with Dfb climate type due to more significant influence of continental landmass
(greater temperature fluctuations and significant impacts of precipitation – mostly snow
and ice). In the areas with Csb climate type monuments of national tourism significance
exist and their preservance depends on the more significant influence of continental
landmass as well as on the travel location and fit-outs. National tourism significance have
monuments in Bijeljina, which marks are slightly lower due to a weaker surroundings and
fit-out values. The best evaluated monuments of Ottoman origin are located in the areas
with Csa and Csb climate types (Mostar and Sarajevo).
Tab. 5. Tourist evaluation of the significant monuments of Ottoman origin
General tourist
Travel location
Attractiveness
Incorporation
Artistic value
Surroundings
subtype
Fit-out
value
value
type
City/Town Monument
Atik mosque 4 4 3 4 3 4 3,7

Cfa Bijeljina Saint Georgije's 4 5 3 4 3 4 3,8
church
Bašţaršija old 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0
town
Cf
Sarajevo Ghazi Husrev- 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0
Cfb Bey's mosque
Svrzo's house 5 5 4 5 5 5 4,8
Banja Ferhadija 4 4 5 5 4 5 4,5
Luka mosque
The Old Bridge 4 5 5 5 4 5 4,7
Csa Mostar
area
Hajji Ahmet 3 5 5 5 3 4 4,2
Dukatar mosque
Bali-aga 3 4 4 5 3 4 3,8
Cs
Livno Ljubunţiš
Csb
mosque
Monastery 3 5 5 5 3 5 4,3
church in Gorica
Konjic Old bridge 3 5 5 5 3 4 4,2
Old fortified 2 3 5 3 1 2 2,7
Df Dfb Glamoţ
town Glamoţ
197
Austro-Hungarian period
Tab. 6. Tourist evaluation of the significant monuments of Austro-Hungarian origin
Travel location
Attractiveness
Incorporation
Artistic value
Surroundings
tourist value
General
subtype
Fit-out
value
type
City/Town Monument
Mostar High School building 4 5 4 5 4 4 4,3

Csa
Cs Dubrovnik Hilton Imperial Hotel 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0
Csb Opatija Kvarner Hotel 4 5 4 5 4 5 4,5
Fortified town of 5 4 4 5 4 5 4,5
Osjeţka TvrŤa
Osijek
Counts Pejaţeviš 5 4 4 4 4 5 4,3
Palace
Historical Baroque 5 5 5 5 3 5 4,7
City center
Castle Eltz 5 5 5 4 3 5 4,5
Cfa Vukovar
Church of Saints Filip 5 5 5 4 3 5 4,5
and Jakov and the
Monastery
Old High School 4 3 4 3 4 5 3,8
building
Bijeljina
Building of the 4 5 4 4 4 5 4,3
Cf Assembly of the City
City Hall 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0
Sarajevo Academy of 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0
Sarajevo fine arts
National museum of 5 5 4 5 5 5 4,8
Bosnia&Herzegovina
Mariastern Abbey 4 5 4 4 4 5 4,3
Cfb Banja Museum of modern 4 5 5 4 4 5 4,5
Luka art of Republika
Srpska
Ilica street 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0
Croatian National 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0
Zagreb
theater
Palace Hotel 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0
The numerous monuments in the areas with Cf and Cs climates have been built in Austro-
Hungarian period. Those monuments were mainly built of local materials, respecting their
surroundings and natural environment. Monuments' marks of the general tourist value are
ranging from national (Osijek, Banja Luka, Bijeljina and Mostar) to international
(Sarajevo, Zagreb, Dubrovnik, Opatija and Vukovar) tourism significance. The most
198
numerous among them are monuments in the areas with Cfb climate type (Sarajevo, Banja
Luka and Zagreb) where the climatic conditions have been optimal for their construction.
CONCLUSION
In the areas of Bosnia&Herzegovina and Croatia several climate types can be

distinguished, and these types have specific natural and geographic features which have
influenced different architecture styles. The largest area coverage has Cfb climate type,
which also has the most diverse architecture styles. Temperate climate elements have
caused that, most of all the air temperature and precipitation. Contrary to Cfa and Cfb
climate types there are Csa and Csb climate types with much more extreme conditions,
where the precipitation is unevenly distributed, while the average air temperatures are
much higher than those temperatures in the areas with Cf climate. The natural barrier
between these types is Dinaric Alps mountain range, with the most dominant D and E
climates. This paper's object of study include urban architecture objects which, depending
on the evaluation of the general tourist value, are considered as tourist attractions or
resources. Generally if climate types were only observed regardless of the historical period
of the monuments' origin, it can be said that monuments in the areas with Csa and Csb
climate types have the greatest tourism significance. The reason for this also lies in the fact
that most of the cities are located there, because of the optimal climatic conditions.
Monuments were categorised according to the most important historical periods: Antique,
Byzantine, Medieval, Venetian, Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian. On average, the highest
evaluation marks have monuments of Venetian origin (4,5 to 5,0), followed by Byzantine
monuments (4,5 to 4,7), Medieval monuments (4,2 to 5,0), monuments of Antique origin
(3,5 to 4,8), monuments of Austro-Hungarian origin (3,8 to 5,0) and Ottoman monuments
(2,7 to 5,0). It can be said that usage of the building materials depends on the climatic
conditions, especially the dominant usage of certain materials which depends on the
average air temperatures,the type and amount of precipitation, the frequency of winds and
geologic structure of certain area. For example, in the areas with Cs climates due to higher
air temperatures and stronger winds, the most dominant building material is the stone,
while in the areas with Dfb climate type the wood is mostly used as building material.
However, in addition to climatic factors historical events in the past should not been
excluded, because of their significant impact on the look and preservance of certain
monuments. For example, the border zones between Venetian Republic and Ottoman
Empire influence, or between Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, were often war
zones in the past, so monuments in these zones are less preserved than in the areas that had
been safer like the areas in deeper inland or on the Adriatic coast which were guarded well,
hence there are located the most important historical monuments which have national or
international tourism significance.
REFERENCES
1. https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/bih/ (19.08.2015.)
2. https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/hrv/ (19.08.2015.)
3. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/ (21.08.2015.)
4. http://www.visitsplit.com/en/446/attractions (24.08.2015.)
5. Dubrovnik Tourist Board (2013) Dubrovnik Riviera Info, Alfa-2. Dubrovnik
199
6. Burek, A. (2007) Kameno Hlivno, Livno u turskom vaktu (Stone Hlivno, Livno in
the Ottoman time), Planjax. Tešanj
7. Istria Tourist Board (2015) Enjoy Istra summer 2015, Radin Print. Sveta Nedelja
8. http://www.turizamvukovar.hr/vukovar_eng.php?stranica=171 (23.08.2015.)
9. Zagreb Tourist Board (2015) Step by step Zagreb: A walk through Zagreb,
Kerschoffset. Zagreb
10. Košiš, K. (2011, April). Tourist Evaluation – Definition, Purpose and Elements,
Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Retrieved from
http://www.dgt.uns.ac.rs/download/otv1.pdf (25.08.2015.)
200
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFIC FORMS OF TOURISM IN MOSTAR
AND WEST HERZEGOVINIAN TOURIST-GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS
Aida Bidžan1
Haris Gekić2
Abstract: Mostar and West Herzegovinian tourist-geographical regions are rich in natural and
anthropogenic tourist potentials, where specific forms of tourism can be developed, such as:
mountain, hunting, rural, excursion-recreational, adventure, recreational/sports, fishing,
speleological, ecotourism, religious, cultural manifestation, business, convention and transit
tourism. This paper will present the main natural and geographical and socio-geographical
characteristics of tourist-geographical regions, as well as the possibility of their valorisation for the
development of tourism in them. Moreover, it will present the tourist trade and accommodation
capacities of these tourist and geographic regions. In this paper, the following methods will be
applied: statistical, valorisation, descriptive, cartographic, etc.
Key words: Mostar, West Herzegovina, tourist-geographical region, tourism development
INTRODUCTION
In preparing the plan for tourist-geographical regionalization, the method of tourist

valorization was used, in which the following criteria was used: natural and anthropogenic
tourist attractions, transport infrastructure, tourism traffic, catering and accommodation
capacity, scope and quality of the tourism offer, tradition and recognition in the tourism
market, human resources, complementarity and competition with the environment, and as
parameters: the average value of tourist arrivals and ratings of tourist products of Bosnia
and Herzegovina municipalities. After analyzing all of the criteria and parameters, using
data from the Statistical Offices of Bosnia and Herzegovina, units set aside with common
tourism products, and those units we called tourist-geographical regions of Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
According to the common tourist characteristics there has been set aside 13 tourist-
geographical regions: Sarajevo, Tuzla, Posavina, Podrinje, Bihaš, Banja Luka, Mostar, east
Herzegovinian, west Herzegovinian, southwest Bosnian, Coastal, Travnik and Doboj.
According to its functionality, they are divided into three groups: metropolitan, leisure area
and the areas - cognitive, educational and religious (Bidţan, 2011). In this paper we will
present the third group of regions - cognitive, educational and religious, and according to
their tourist potentials, they include the following tourist-geographical regions: Mostar and
West Herzegovinian, and we will show more specific forms of tourism that can be
developed in these tourist potentials.
1
Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, e-mail:aidabidzan@gmail.com.
2
Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, e-mail: hgekic@gmail.com.
201
MOSTAR TOURIST-GEOGRAPHICAL REGION
Mostar tourist-geographical region covers an area of 3,225 km2, from Makljen and Ivan-
sedlo in the north to Mostar field in the south. Tourist-geographical position of this region
is very favorable because the significant Bosnian and Herzegovinian road M-17 passes
through it, which connects the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the tourist center of
the region to the Adriatic coast. Its position will further improve once the highway Vc is
built, and tourists who are to come to the capital will come easier and visit also this area.
Mostar tourist-geographical area consists of 5 municipalities: Jablanica, Konjic, Mostar,

East Mostar and Prozor. This region according to preliminary data from the census of 2013
has 166,987 inhabitants, and the population density is 51.7 persons per km2.
The tourist center of this region is Mostar who is also a political, economic, financial and
cultural center of Herzegovina. The unique beauty of the region is contained in that it is at
the same time mountainous and lowland, and coastal and continental. In the areas around
Jablanica, Konjic and Prozor are rich bio-geographic and hydrographic tourist potentials,
which are preserved from anthropogenic pollution. In Table 1 we will show the most
important natural and anthropogenic tourist potentials and specific forms of tourism which
can grow on them in this tourist-geographical area.
The natural characteristics of this region are very diverse with colorful richness of
landscapes, especially its forest areas that represent the geo-ecologically preserved area
with natural attractions of the region, such as the endemic Bosnian pine, various species of
mushrooms and herbs, various karst formations, numerous springs, waterfalls, attractive
localities of the Neretva canyon, Rakitnica and Dreţanka, etc.
Special attention that it deserves was given to the mountain river Neretva which provides a
unique experience in one its parts with adrenaline-filled rafters in the canyon upstream
from Konjic. Track length for rafting on the Neretva from Glavatiţevo to Konjic is about
23 km with the beautiful canyons and waterfalls which can be seen on the descent. In the
upper course, from Glavatiţevo to Bjelimiši, there is a kind of air spa which is very well
visited throughout the year. The opening of the fishing season on the Neretva river takes
place on the first of April and closes on the first of November. Being rich in fish, it is quite
visited by anglers from all over the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the lower flow
of the river Neretva where rafting ends in the village Dţajiši, 4 km from Konjic, there is a
beach which is visited during the summer season. This river provides the following
development of specific forms of tourism: bathing, fishing, sports and recreational,
adventure and excursion tourism.
Moreover, noteworthy is the Nature Park Blidinje whose live sceneries are Blidinje lake,
the high mountain depression Dugo polje, mountains Ţvrsnica and Vran, occupies 358 km2
and is located in the northwestern part of macroregion. Blidinje, a natural pearl with a lot
of diversity in a small area, offers excellent opportunities for the development of the
following specific types of tourism: winter-sports, rural, eco-tourism and mountain
tourism.
202
Tab. 1: Most important natural tourism potentials in Mostar tourist-geographical region
Natural tourism potentials Specific

Vran formsHT,
MT, of
Ljubuša tourism
TR
MT, HT,
Raduša MT,TRHT,
Prenj MT,TRHT,
Mountains Ţvrsnica TR,
MT,SRT
HT,
Bjelašnica TR
MT, HT,
Bitovnja TR,
MT,SRT
HT,
Geomorphological Veleţ MT,TRHT,
Canyon of Neretva TR,
TR, SRT
FT,
Glens and canyons Canyon of Doljanka SRT
TR, FT,
Cave Ševrljica near Blagaj SRT
ST
Cave Vrpeš in Odţak – ST
Caves and pits Bjelimiši near Konjic
Green cave above Blagaj ST
Neretva TR, FT,
Dreţanjka SRT
TR, FT,
Rodobolja SRT
TR, FT,
Buna SRT
TR, FT,
Bunica SRT
TR, FT,
Rivers
Trebiţat SRT
TR, FT,
Bregava SRT
TR, FT,
Doljanka SRT
TR, FT,
Springs Buna Spring SRT
TR
Hidrographical Waterfall Šištice TR
Waterfalls and riffles Waterfall on Bregava river TR
Jablaniţko lake SRT, TR
Boraţko lake SRT, TR
Lakes Ramsko lake SRT, TR
Blidinje lake SRT, TR
Mountain climate Prenj, Veleţ MT, HT,
Modified SRT, TR
CT, BT,
Climatical meditererranean Konjic, Mostar RT,
Source: Bidţan, 2011 climate CGT,
TT,
Legend: MT- mountain tourism; HT – hunting tourism; RT – rural tourism; TRECOT – trip-
recreational tourism; ET – extreme tourism; SRT- sports-recreational tourism; FT –
fishing tourism; ST – speleological tourism; ECOT – ecotourism; CT – cultural tourism;
BT – business tourism; CGT - congress tourism; TT – transit tourism.
203
Tab. 2: Most important anthropoghenic tourism potentials in Mostar tourist-geographical
region
Specific forms
Anthropoghenic tourism potentials of tourism
Numerous necropolis Visoţica CT, TR

Archaeological with medieval
tombstones (stešak) Konjic CT, TR
Poţiteljska CT
Fortress Stjepan town - Blagaj CT
Lekina šuprija - Blagaj CT
Kriva šuprija - Mostar CT
Bridges Stara šuprija - Konjic CT
Old Bridge - Mostar CT
Ţesma on Musala - CT
Mostarţaršija -
Kujundţiluk CT
Mostar
Sahat tower – Prozor CT
(Rama)
Old town Poţitelj CT, TT
Buildings
Bishop castle - Mostar CT
Gymnasium - Mostar CT
Architectural
City hamam - Mostar CT
heritage
Kajtaz house CT
Franciscan monastery and CT
church Uznesenja Blaţene
Djevice Marije, Ššit
Old orthodox church, CT
Sacral objects Mostarmosque,
KaraŤoz-beg CT
Mostar
Koski Mehmed-paša CT
mosque, Mostar
Cathedral of Mother CT
Mary, Mostar
Memorial centres Jablanica CT
and objects Uzdoljani - Rama CT
Dreţnica - Mostar CT
Museums, galleries Museum of Herzegovina, Mostar CT
and collections Old Bridge Museum, Mostar CT
Collection of wood-carving products ¨Muliš CT
Manifestations record¨,Summer
Mostar Konjic CT
Buna Mevlud CT
International business fair, Mostar CT, BT
Jumps from Old Bridge, Mostar CT
Jump into Kazan, Konjic CT
Cultural heritage Monument of mitraistic cult - Konjic CT
204
Religious Cerniţki Sibjan mekteb CT
educational instit. Šejvan šehajin mekteb CT
Mostar CT, BT, RT,
CGT, TT,
ECOT, RGT,
Municipalities Konjic CT, SRT
RT, TT,
Jablanica CT,ECOT
TT, SRT
Prozor CT, ECOT,
RT, SRT, RGT
Source: Bidţan, 2011
Legend: RGT – religious tourism; RT – rural tourism; SRT- sports-recreational tourism;

ST – speleological tourism; ECOT – ecotourism; CT – cultural tourism; BT – business
tourism; CGT - congress tourism; TT – transit tourism.
We will single out one anthropogenic tourism potential and that is Dovište Buna, near
Mostar, where once upon a time gathered Bogomils, it is one of the major pilgrimage sites
in Bosnia and Herzegovina, whose number of visitors from all neighboring countries, as
well as remote Emirates often exceeds the figure of 40,000. Therefore, this is a big event
which is prepared and implemented by the organizers of this event, in which a central role
is played by Dani Mevluda (Days of Mawlid), where Bosniaks traditionally gather to
celebrate Mawlid, the birth of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). In
any case, it is one of the most beautiful customs of the traditional gathering of Bosniaks
(Table 2).
All pilgrimage sites in Bosnia and Herzegovina are considered to be a certain

phenomenon, unknown in other countries with a majority of Muslim population. It speaks
only of the uniqueness of Bosniaks as a nation. Traditional Mawlid (Mevlud) and Dhikr
(Zikr) are held on the second Saturday in May every year. Mawlid has been held in Blagaj
since 1975 with a four-year interruption during the war (1992-1995). According to tourism
workers, the most common foreign guests in Blagaj are tourists from Malaysia and Turkey.
The guests from Turkey are well informed and fascinated by the fact that the Tekke
(Tekija) was built by the order of the Ottoman sultan, who was left spellbound by the
beauty of this place. Tekke is open for visitors throughout the year, and in the garden
overlooking the spring of the river Buna, tourists can have the original Turkish coffee, tea
or a refreshing drink.
Konjic is situated on the Neretva river, 60 km from Sarajevo, just down Jablanica lake.
Konjic and surroundings are attractive for tourists in both summer and winter. There are
fishing on the Neretva, the Rakitnica, Boraţko and Jablanica lake, hunting on the mountain
Prenj, Visoţica and Bitovnja, and above all famous culinary specialties. Boraţko lake is
approximately 20 km far from the city center. It is a beautiful, natural lake, good for
swimming, rest and recreation, rich in a variety of fish, and is a paradise for anglers. On
the wealth of natural and anthropogenic tourist potentials, this municipality can develop
the following forms of tourism: cultural and manifestation, fishing, hunting, bathing,
mountain, adventure, eco-tourism, excursion tourism , transit, rural, and so on.
205
In the municipality of Prozor - Rama, in Ššit, there is one of the oldest Franciscan
monasteries in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is an attractive tourist destination due to its
turbulent history and artistic value, and there is also beautiful Ramsko lake which is rich in
fish, and is also a paradise for anglers. This municipality can develop the following
specific forms of tourism: bathing, fishing, eco-tourism, rural, cultural and manifestation.
Mostar, the political, financial and cultural center of this tourist-geographical region, is
located at the foot of the slopes of the mountains Veleţ, Hum and Ţabulja, in the valley of
the Neretva River, at an altitude of 60-80 m. It is a city of sun, greenery, blossom which is
characterized by pleasant Mediterranean climate with long hot summers. Mostar is 60 km
far from the sea, and in it and its vicinity there are many unique sites of cultural and
historical treasure and heritage witnessing the life in this area since the ancient times.
Mostar has a complete spatial infrastructure, road and rail traffic that goes from north to
south to the Adriatic Sea, and a modern airport. Mostar is first mentioned in 1452. Up until
the Ottoman conquest in 1468, Mostar was considered for the small and insignificant
place. The name of the city of Mostar was first mentioned in documents from 1469.
Among the explanations of the origin of name the most interesting are two: Mostar was
named after bridge keepers and after two towers which were called mostars. The city grew
and soon became the center of Herzegovina. Even before 1592, Mostar was the center of
the Mufti (muftije); in 1767 it became the center of the Herzegovinian Metropolit, and
since the half of the last century it has been the center of the Catholic bishop. The Old City
of Mostar is interesting for its lively narrow streets. It contains a multitude of restaurants
and traditional crafts. There is also a multitude of cultural and historical and religious sites
such as the Old Bridge, the Crooked Bridge (Kriva šuprija), Tabaţica, Koski Mehmed
Pasha Mosque, the Hammam, and so on. Moreover, it is important to mention sports and
tourist event - Dives from the old bridge, which is probably one of the most famous events
in the environment. Divers symbolize courage, boldness and a healthy lifestyle. The green
Neretva, the biggest river in Herzegovina symbolizes purity of nature, while the Old
Bridge tells the story about the history, architecture and people of this region. This event is
always accompanied by a large number of tourists from Bosnia and Herzegovina and the
region. This municipality can develop the following specific forms of tourism: cultural and
manifestation, bathing, sports and recreation, and religious and fishing tourism.
Mostar tourist-geographic area is connected over the main roads M-17 (E73) to Sarajevo
region and the Adriatic coast, over the main road M-16.2 to Travnik region and the
regional road R-419 (Jablanica-Posušje) or to west Hercegovinian region and with the
Republic of Croatia, which is in part still a gravel road. Through this area runs the modern
type railway Sarajevo-Mostar-Ploţe (the Republic of Croatia). The city of Mostar has an
international airport which is of great importance for the future development of tourism in
this region.
As for the tourist traffic, Mostar tourist-geographical area in 2014 had 800,000 tourist
arrivals, of which domestic tourists accounted for 32% and foreign tourists 68%. They had
140,292 nights of which domestic participated with 24%, and foreign tourists with 76%.
Most tourists come from Croatia, Turkey, Italy, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro, Germany,
Spain and France (http://www.fzs.ba/Podaci/07.pdf). As for accommodation capacities,
this region offers 16,372 beds in various types and categories of accommodation (hotels,
motels, small pensions, private houses, etc.) with the increasing tendency of tourist
206
capacities and a significant annual growth in revenue. There is a very well developed
cottage industry, and small inns, restaurants and cellars offer visitors the unforgettable
taste of the Orient and Mediterranean.
This tourist-geographical region is of great importance to define the tourist offer of Bosnia
and Herzegovina; of the total 626 national monuments in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the
area of Mostar region there are the 64 national monuments. Its unique natural and
anthropogenic tourist potentials enable the development of a number of specific forms of
tourism: bathing, sports and recreational, adventure, religious, educational, cultural and
manifestation, etc.
WEST HERZEGOVINIAN TOURIST-GEOGRAPHICAL REGION
West Herzegovinian tourist-geographical area, as its name suggests, is located in the

western part of Herzegovina. Tourist-geographic location is very convenient because it is
located only 30 km from the Adriatic coast and on the border between our country and the
Republic of Croatia, which also increases the importance of its position. Its municipalities
are the following: Ţitluk, Ljubuški, Grude, Široki Brijeg and Posušje with an area of 1,544
km2. The tourist center of this region is the municipality of Ţitluk. According to
preliminary data from the 2013 census, there is a population of 97,893 people and
population density is 63.4 persons per km2. The most important geomorphological
potentials are the mountains: Vran, Ţvrsnica and Ţabulja, the fields: Mostar Blato,
Posuško, Šuiško, Ljubuško and Grudsko, as well as numerous waterfalls and caves, and
the nature park Blidinje. Hydrographic tourist potentials are also very specific and among
them stand out the underground river Trebiţat and its waterfall Kravice.
Biogeographically, this area is characterized by the following ecosystems: Bosnian pine
forest (Pinus heldreichii) and thermophilic deciduous forests with Turkey oak (Table 3).
Tab. 3: Most important natural tourism potentials in West Herzegovina tourist-

geographical region
Natural tourism potentials Specific forms

of tourism
Geomorphological Mountains Ţvrsnica MT, HT, TR
Ţabulja MT, HT, TR
Hidrographical Rivers Vrljika-Matica-Tihaljina- TR, RT, SRT
Waterfalls and Mlade-Trebiţat
Buţine TR
riffles Koţuša TR
Kravica TR
Lakes Blidinje lake TR, SRT
Climatic Modified Široki Brijeg MT, HT,TR,
meditererranean SRT
climate
Meditererranean Ljubuški TR, SRT
climate
207
Legend: MT- mountain tourism; HT – hunting tourism; RT – rural tourism; TR – trip-
recreational tourism; ET – extreme tourism; SRT- sports-recreational tourism; FT –
fishing tourism; ST – speleological tourism; ECOT – ecotourism; CT – cultural tourism;
BT – business tourism; CGT - congress tourism; TT – transit tourism.
Wine and tobacco are the crops with which generations have grown up and lived off.
Nowadays in Brotnjo one can enjoy a splash of high quality wine from autochthonous
varieties of Ţilavka and Blatina and thus feel the union of nature, tradition and quality.
Their qualities are witnessed by the Charter of Ban Kulin from 1353, which in the famous
Ţitluk document speaks of quality wine from this region
(http://www.Hercegovina.ba/hrv/brotnjo.html).
In the municipality of Ţitluk today is registered 20 odd wineries, and each of them in its
own way distributes quality wine across Europe which has been proven by valuable prizes
in numerous exhibitions throughout Eastern Europe. One of the phenomena of viticulture
in Brotnjo are also stone vineyards that represent a real tourist attraction. Vineyards of
stone, with the help of sunlight and water from the Neretva, produce high quality stone
wine (Table 4).
Tab. 4: Most important anthropoghenic tourism potentials in West Herzegovina tourist-

geographical region
Anthropoghenic tourism potentials Specific forms of

tourism
Archaeological Numerous Blidinje CT, TR, ET
necropolis with Mramorje, Gornji CT, TR
medieval Studenci, Ljubuški
tombstones
(stešak)
Architectural Fortress Tower of Herceg CT
heritage Stjepan, Ljubuški
Mariša Gaj, Grude CT
Buildings Winery in Ljubuški CT, ET
Eco-ethno village CT
¨Herceg¨, MeŤugorje
Sacral objects Church Bezgrešno začeće CT, RGT
Blažene Djevice Marije,
Posušje
Church Uznesenja CT, RGT
Blažene Djevice Marije,
Posušje
Church St. Ivan CT, RGT
Nepomuka, Posušje
Church st. Mihovil, CT, RGT
Grude
Franciscan monastery CT, RGT
with church, Široki Brijeg
Nesuh-aga Vuţjakoviš CT, RGT
mosque, Ljubuški
208
Church st. Jakov, Ţitluk CT, RGT
Shrine of Queen of CT, RGT
Peace, MeŤugorje
Museums, galleries Museum Humac, Ljubuški CT
and collections Franciscan archaelogical colletion in Gorica, CT, ET
Grude Ljubuški
Gallery ¨Majka¨, CT
Manifestations Festival of folklore, Široki Brijeg CT
Festival of folklore, Grude CT
Peace march and prayer for peace in the CT, RGT
world, Grude-Ljubuški-MeŤugorje
West Hercegovina Fest, Široki Brijeg CT
International devotional meeting of young, CT
MeŤugorje
International cup of heavy men, Posušje CT
Wine Fest – Festival of wine, cheese and ham, CT, BT
Municipalities Ljubuški
Grude CT, BT, RT, TT,
ECOT, RGT
Ljubuški CT, RT, TT,
Ţitluk CT, ECOT
RGT, TT,
Posušje SRT RT,
CT, ECOT,
Source: Bidţan, 2011 SRT
Legend: RGT – religious tourism; RT – rural tourism; SRT- sports-recreational tourism;

ST – speleological tourism; ECOT – ecotourism; CT – cultural tourism; BT – business
tourism; CGT - congress tourism; TT – transit tourism; ET - educational tourism.
Stone wineyards are located in Blizanci and they were planted 26 years ago in an area of
100 hectares. The locality of Blizanci is unique in that the stone desert was turned into an
oasis of abundance and beauty. Assuming that the personality of the wine is largely
conditioned by the character of the ambience - the stone on which the grapes are produced,
the manufacturer of the wine called it "Stone" and, as such, it began to be produced in
1990. Brotnjo boasts of the fact that in Gradniši is the oldest wine cellar in Bosnia and
Herzegovina which was built in 1855 by the parish priest Fr. Petar Bakula.
Today, this cellar is a tourist attraction based on which we can show the time in which life
of the people of Brotnjo took place in the time of the Ottomans. With the aim of promoting
Brotnjo as a wine region, in 2006 started the project ¨Vinska cesta Hercegovine¨
(Herzegovinian wine route). Through this project, the image of Herzegovina was created,
which positively promote this area in Europe and the world. Each year, in honor of the
grape harvest, cultural economic and tourist event ¨Dani berbe groţŤa¨ (Vintage days) in
Ţitluk is held in September. No matter what, Brotnjo is a place that will treat every guest
with top quality wine and in which each guest will feel the combination of nature, tradition
and quality of this fertile region (www.vinskacesta.ba/index.php).
Moreover, it is important to note that by the arrival to this region, especially in MeŤugorje
(Medjugorje), you will feel peace and beauty of life, harmony of a man and nature.
MeŤugorje today is one of the most visited pilgrimage sites (shrines) in the whole Catholic
209
world. In the village of Bijakoviši in the area of MeŤugorje, according to the testimony of
six children, Our Lady has been appearing every day since 24 June 1981. Following the
interest of pilgrims from around the world for visit to MeŤugorje, there were built large
tourist facilities. Hence, MeŤugorje has about 10,000 beds in various categories of
accommodation with high-quality restaurants, shopping and other service facilities. Since
then, thousands and thousands of pilgrims come to MeŤugorje from all over the world and
so far it has been, according to general estimates, visited by more than 15 million pilgrims,
far more from abroad than from the country.
According to the tourist representatives and news correspondents around the world,
MeŤugorje has become the best known and most often mentioned place in this part of
Europe. By apparition of the Queen of Peace, MeŤugorje has developed tourism and has
become an inevitable destination with a rich religious prayer content for millions of
pilgrims from all over the world.
Throughout the year, numerous seminars and festivals are held in MeŤugorje, among them,
we must highlight the Youth Festival that has been held for the past 20 years in MeŤugorje.
The Youth Festival is held every year in the first days of August and during it MeŤugorje
becomes the world center of youth from which messages of peace, love and faith are sent
to the world. The most important events throughout the year are: Apparition, Youth
festival, Assumption of the Virgin Mary, Mass on Kriţevac, Easter, Christmas and New
Year. The pilgrims who come to MeŤugorje besides an inevitable visit to the Apparition
Hill and Kriţevac, in the sanctuary have an opportunity to visit several more interesting
destinations (http://www.hercegovina.ba/hrv/medjugorje.html) (Fig.1).
West Herzegovinian tourist-geographical region is linked to southwest Bosnia region by

highway M-15, and to the region of Mostar by highway M-6.1, while it is linked to the
Coastal region by the highway M-6. As for the tourist traffic, West Hecegovinian tourist-
geographical region in 2014 had the number of tourist arrivals of 3972, of which domestic
tourists accounted for 34.3%, and foreign tourists 65,7%. They had 5,916 nights of which
domestic tourists participated with 33%, and foreign tourists with 77%. Most tourists come
from the Croatia, Italy, Slovenia, Germany, Serbia and Montenegro
(http://www.fzs.ba/Podaci/08.pdf).
As for the accommodation, this area offers 205 beds in various types and categories of
accommodation (hotels, motels, small hotels, private houses and other) which is a very
small number and must be urgently increased if this tourist-geographical area wants to
seriously engage in tourism. It has a very modest importance for defining the tourist offer
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, out of the total of 626 national monuments in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, in its area are 19 national monuments. It can develop the following specific
forms of tourism: cultural and manifestation, mountain, eco tourism, rural, educational,
speleologic, sports and recreation and others.
CONCLUSION
Mostar and West Herzegovinian tourist-geographical regions have ideal natural and
anthropogenic tourist potentials for the development of many specific forms of tourism.
Religious tourism can be developed in MeŤugorje, Mostar, Blagaj, Prusac, Travnik and
Fojnica, where there are numerous religious buildings of various confessions which host
210
numerous religious events: Youth festival in MeŤugorje, Dani Ajvatovica in Prusac,
Mawlid in Buna, etc. Intact geomorphological and hydrographic tourist potentials such as:
Vlašiš, Rostov, Neretva, Vrbas, Nature Park Blidnje lake, and many others allow it to
develop different types of sports and recreational tourism: winter-sports, bathing, fishing,
hunting, rafting, cycling, paragliding, mountain climbing, etc. Moreover, these tourist-
geographical regions have numerous authentic villages in which rural tourism could be
developed by the engagement of tourist boards and local people, which would certainly
contribute to the revitalization of these villages once again and young people would remain
living in these regions and providing financial security on the doorstep. All listed specific
forms could more intensly begin developing in these tourist-geographical regions, only if
tourist boards and local governments would make an effort, and that would further
contribute to more balanced regional development of these regions.
Fig.1. Specific forms of tourism in Mostar and West Herzegovinian

tourist-geographical regions
211
REFERENCES:
1.Bidţan, A. (2011): Turistiţko-geografsko rejoniranje kao osnova geografske

regionalizacije Bosne i Hercegovine, Magistarski rad odbranjen na Prirodno-
matematiţkom fakultetu Univerziteta u Sarajevu, Sarajevo.
2.Odluke o proglašenju dobara nacionalnim spomenicima, i privremena lista nacionalnih
spomenika Bosne i Hercegovine, Komisija za oţuvanje nacionalnih spomenika Bosne i
Hercegovine.
3.Prostorni plan Bosne i Hercegovine, Faza ¨B¨ - valorizacija; Prirodne i kulturno-
historijske vrijednosti, Institut za arhitekturu, urbanizam i prostorno planiranje
Arhitektonskog fakulteta u Sarajevu, Sarajevo, 1980.
4.Strategija razvoja turizma Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine 2008 – 2018., Federalno
ministarstvo okoliša i turizma, Sarajevo, 2008.
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2007.
6.Turistiţki master plan opšine Ljubuški, Institut za turizam, Zagreb, 2010.
7.http://www.hercegovina.ba/index.php/bs/ (15.11.2014)
8.http://www.zeleni-neretva.ba/pdf/Zastita 20prirode_web.pdf (16.10.2014.)
9.http://www.bhtourism.ba/loc/hercegovina.wbsp (11.06.2015)
10.http://www.turizam.mostar.ba/index.php?lang=en (12.07.2015.)
11.http://www.tz-sirokibrijeg.com/Turizam.htm (11.03.2015)
12.http://www.visithercegovina.com/index.php/zupanija-zzh/ljubuski (22.08.2015.)
13.http://www.visithercegovina.com/index.php/zupanija-zzh/posusje (24.08.2015.)
14.http://www.fzs.ba/Podaci/07.pdf (10.09.2015.)
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16.http://www.fzs.ba/Podaci/08.pdf (10.09.2015.)
17.http://www.vinskacesta.ba/index.php (11.09.2014)
212
THE EFFECT OF HOTELS' TRAINING ON OVERNIGHTS, REGIONAL
GROWTH AND EMPLOYMENT
Maria Tugores44
Elisabeth Valle45
Abstract: The role of human capital and, more specifically, the role of on the job training, has been
widely analysed in the economic literature. Moreover, in the field of hospitality and tourism some
studies focus on the relationship between training and hotel performance. This paper goes beyond
this goal. It analyses the role of training on the hotel occupancy but, furthermore, it measures the
impact of this human capital investment on the growth of a region, measured in terms of production,
added value and employment. It combines both, microeconomic data from a database of two
hundred hotels and the macro perspective of the Balearic Input-Output table, allowing measurement
of the positive externalities that human capital investment in the hotel sector generates through the
rest of the economy. Results show a positive and significant impact on potential growth and
employment that goes beyond the strictly tourism-related sectors. In terms of policy
recommendations, this work gives meaning to the promotion of public policies encouraging training
practices at hotel level.
Key words: human capital, on-the-job training, hotel occupancy, tourism impact, regional growth
INTRODUCTION
There are several contributions which show the importance of human capital investment
and, in particular, the role of education and in-firm training investments as a competitive
strategy to generate sustainable growth and wealth (Becker, 1962; Mincer, 1974; Bishop,
1994). Human capital is expected to contribute to value added, either through higher direct
productivity of more educated workers or because of better decisions or work organisation
(Rosen, 1982). The importance of considering training decisions as a key element of
successful performance arises as a key element for increasing competitiveness in tourism
firms and tourism destinations.
In the general economic literature numerous studies have undertaken an empirical analysis
of the relationship between training and firm performance. For instance, Molina and
Ortega (2003), using a survey of senior executives in human resources, found that, overall,
higher training is associated with significant benefits that increase firm value. Also using a
dataset of American firms, Bartel (1989) obtained a significant rate of return on investment
in training. The same result is obtained by Carriou and Jegger (1997) and Sheehan (2013).
However, sometimes, as in the case of Black and Lynch (1996), the effect is not
significant.
In the context of tourism literature, the studies quantitatively assessing the impact of
human capital related variables on firm performance are fewer. Some studies have found
that training programs positively impact manager and customer satisfaction, without using
direct measures of productivity (Davies et al., 2001; Hocutt and Stone, 1998; Jameson,
44
Associate Professor, Departament d‟Economia Aplicada, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma,
Spain, e-mail: mtugores@uib.es.
45
Associate Professor, Departament d‟Economia Aplicada, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma,
Spain, e-mail: elisabeth.valle@uib.es.
213
2000) and some of them do not find clear evidence of significant effects on the
productivity of tourism establishments, as it is the case of Cho et al. (2006) for lodging and
restaurants. However, most of the papers focus their analysis strictly on the hotel industry.
In a number of papers studying the determining factors of productivity for firms in the
hospitality industry, evidence has been found of training activities having an impact on
hotel productivity. In Georgiadis and Pitelis (2012) small and medium-sized enterprises in
the UK Tourism Hospitality and Leisure sector were analysed to test the impact of human
resources (HR) on price minus cost margin. They discovered that a highly skilled
workforce result in more profitable firms. Such Devesa and Mendieta Peñalver (2013),
who developed a DEA study for a sample of representative Spanish hotels, found that,
among other characteristics, hotels with training in new technologies are more efficient.
Finally, in Garcia and Tugores (2015), the impact of different human capital characteristics
and human resource policies in analyses on three different performance indicators,
occupancy rates, GOP and customers‟ satisfaction. Their findings suggest that both
educational and training variables play a role when it comes to explaining hotel
performance, with training outperforming education, in broad terms.
At a regional or macroeconomic level, the role of human capital in determining the level
and growth of GDP has been analysed the last three decades. Aghion and Howitt (1988)
summarize much of the earlier works that are mainly theoretical and deals with different
growth model specifications. Despite the specific model that is used, there is strong
evidence that higher educational inputs increase productivity and so produce higher levels
of national growth. Temple (2000) distinguished two main groups of model specification,
the first group assume that the stock of human capital is the engine of economic growth
such as secondary school enrolment rates, whereas the second group attribute growth to the
accumulation of education and training in a given period. However, Koch and Reuling
(1998) pointed out some of the difficulties of measuring training investments.
The current paper should be contextualised within this body of empirical literature
addressing the role of training on the hotel occupancy in an important mature tourism
destination in the Mediterranean. Furthermore, how this growth in hotel occupancy, due to
training activities, increases directly and indirectly production, added value and
employment of other sectors of the economy is discussed. In a destination for which
tourism activity is the main driver of the economy, with over 41 per cent of the Balearic
Gross Value Added in the islands (Polo and Valle, 2008); the total impact on the Balearics
of training activities in the Balearic hotel industry is calculated.
Thus, the importance of training is assessed, in this paper, both combining microeconomic
and macroeconomic data. It is innovative in the analysis of on the job training impact both
at sectoral and regional levels. In doing so, it allows measuring the scope of the positive
externalities that training activities in the hospitality sector, has on other related sectors of
the economy.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. First, the theoretical framework that will be
used is explained and, at the same time, there is a description of the different data sources
used. Coming up next, the empirical work relating training and overnight stays at the firm
level is developed. The next section focuses on the relationship between training and
regional growth and employment creation, disaggregating the spill-over effects for the
214
different sectors of the economy. The main findings and their economic policy
implications are discussed in the concluding section.
DATA AND METHODOLOGY
In this paper, an empirical exercise is performed to analyse the importance of training

investments in explaining the performance of hotels and rest of the Balearic economy. In
doing so, two different datasets are used. The first one is a 200 hotels sample which is
representative of a population of 743 hotels in Majorca, the main island that represents the
80 per cent of the total number of hotels of the Balearics. It is representative with a
confidence interval of 95% and under the least favorable condition p=q=0.5, with a
sampling error slightly under 5%. Data were collected during summer and early autumn
2008, coinciding with the high season at the destination by means of personal interviews
with hotel managers.
Its strategic weight in the economy explains why any improvement in this sector has an
important impact on the rest of the economy that should be taken into consideration. In
order to study the relationship between the hotel industry and the rest of the Balearic
economy, and in particular in some related sectors, it is used a second database: the Input-
Output Table of the Balearic Islands for 2004 published by Conselleria d‟Economia,
Hisenda i Innovació del Govern de les Illes Balears (2007).
The connection between the two databases in order to analyze how an improvement in a
specific hotel can affect the other sectors as well as the regional economy as a whole has
been planned as follows.
From the first database, the variable overnight stays is created using the information of one
variable that directly observes at the hotel demand, the occupancy rate, but also taking into
account the number of rooms the hotel has and the number of moths that it remains open,
as well as the standard number of beds of a room. Coming up next, a regression analysis is
developed and the marginal effect of training activities on the number of overnights is
founded. Taking into account the number of hotels in the Balearics as well as the average
expenditure per overnight stay in the islands officially published by the Balearic
government (Conselleria de Turisme i Esports, 2007), the increase of tourism expenditure
due to training activities organised by hotels can be obtained. Finally, the Input-Output
Table allows us to estimate the impact on production, GDP and employment of the
Balearic economy if 100% of the hotels carry out training activities.
TRAINING AND OVERNIGHTS
In this section the focus is on the relationship between the hotels‟ training activities and the
number of overnights. The hotel database contains information about training organization
developed by hotels. It is found that the 47.50% of the hotels in the database develop and
organize this type of activity. In addition, there is also information about the number of
euros spent by hotels on training activities. However, this variable is less useful in the
analysis because of the lower response rate and also because the relationship between
hotels training workers and positive expenses is not perfect. Some hotels train workers say
that their expenses are 0 because they because they are supported by public funds, for
example.
215
Figure 1 presents the overnight stays (in thousands) and occupancy rates differentiating
between training and non-training hotels. Like in Cho et al, (2006) it is found that there is
only a slightly but non significant difference between the occupancy rates of training and
non-training hotels (77.98% vs 77.50%). However, the number of overnights appears
significantly higher for those hotels that organize training activities (63638.53 vs
44771.27). After performing mean difference tests, overnights are significantly better for
training hotels. In fact, overnight stays will be the dependent variable in the regression
analysis because it is the one that permit us to relate occupancy, tourism expenditure and
growth.
Fig. 1: Training and non-training hotels, overnights and occupancy rates
However, a simple descriptive analysis is not enough. Different variables, other than the
training decisions, are obviously strongly related to occupancy numbers. As an example,
Figure 2 shows the relationship overnight stays and the level of seasonality of the hotel,
measured with the number of months opened, revealing the need to take into consideration
these findings.
216
Fig. 2: Relationship between overnights and number of months opened
Thus, the higher level of overnights of hotels with training activities cannot lead to
conclude that the implementation of training courses in the previous year increase hotel
occupancy. In order to state that, other variables such as the number of months opened,
size, etc… that through the descriptive analyses it have been seen directly related with the
hotel occupancy or with training, should also be taken into account.
An econometric exercise is conducted to analyse the performance results achieved by
hotels in the Balearic hotel industry, specifically an ordinary least-squares regression
model (OLS) is applied to explaining the number of overnight stays.
The model includes the variable that organization and implementation of training activities
by hotels and other controls including education, some management variables as well as
the structural characteristics of the hotel.
Table 1 presents the results. The estimated coefficients and their degree of significance are
presented for the final specification of the model. Those variables with insignificant results
are dropt from the final specification. It is the case of hotel category, among others.
Tab. 1: OLS of the determinants of hotel occupancy

Variable dependence: Overnights
Training activities 2613,575*
University education -451,400***
Size 351,009***
Months opened 4962,955***
Owners management -5227,082**
Chain 4938,687**
Repitors 4320,262**
Beach near the main city 4047,152**
Pseudo R2 0.9248
Number of observations 165
Note: *** Significant to 1%, ** significant to 5%, * significant to 7%
217
Results show that the size of the hotel, measured with the number of rooms, and the
number of months opened contribute positively to the number of overnight stays of a given
hotel. The location near the beach but close to the main city is also a determinant factor for
the hotel performance. Some commercialization and marketing traits of hotels also
contribute to increase the number of overnights. It is the case of the hotels marketing
strategy directed to tourists that go to the same hotel more than just one time.
It can also be observed that belonging to a chain also increases overnights in a significant
way. However, the number of overnight stays is significantly lower in those hotels for
which the management is carried out by the owners themselves. Thus, it is evidenced that
the enthusiasm as well as the professional management are key aspects of the hotel
performance.
Education is also an important control for the occupancy regression. In coherence with
Ramos et al. (2004), it is found that those hotels that education is not so relevant to get
better results at the hotel level. In particular, hire people with high educational levels show
a lower level of occupancy stays than others with the same characteristics but only middle
education workers.
The major result is that this specification shows that those hotels that had trained their
workers in the previous year register on average 2613 overnight stays more than one that
does not train their workers, even when controlling for the other variables.
REGIONAL EMPLOYMENT AND GROWTH
After analysing microeconomic training impact of the workers in overnight stays in the
Balearic Islands hotels, we estimate the impact on production, GDP and employment of the
Balearic economy if 100% of the hotels carry out training activities.
If we have obtained that one hotel would increase its overnight stays in 2613 units through
training and we know the average spending per overnight stay in the Balearics and the
number of hotels, we can calculate that the increase in tourism expenditure which would
occur in the islands if all hotels undertake training activities would be 2.33 percent.
A 2.33% increase in tourism expenditure would cause a direct and indirect increase of the
total production in the Balearic Islands of 0.73%, direct and indirect GDP growth of 0.62%
and an increase in employment by 2,333 workers (0.51%) as shown in Table 2. If we
consider the induced effect, the figures increase to 0.93%, 0.85% and 0.76% (3,462
workers) respectively.
Tab. 2: Impact on production, GDP and employment in the Balearic economy of an

increase in tourism expenditure through training investment in the hotel industry
Absolute % Potential
Value growth
Direct and indirect impact 264,009 0.73% 0.38%
PRODUCTION
Direct, indirect and induced 335,553 0.93% 0.49%
GDP Direct
impact and indirect impact 108,459 0.62% 0.32%
Direct, indirect and induced 148.946 0.85% 0.45%
Direct
impact and indirect impact 2,333 0.51% 0.27%
EMPLOYMENT
Direct, indirect and induced 3,462 0.76% 0.40%
impact
218
These calculations are not considering business spending on training, only the increase in
tourism expenditures because of increasing overnight stays due to training. It is possible
that a hotel does not spend anything on training but its workers participate in training
courses funded, for example, by the government.
Table 2 also considers that there are a percentage of hotels that already conduct training,
specifically 47.5%, so if the other hotels began to perform training, potential direct,
indirect and induced growth in production would be 0.49%, 0.45% in GDP and 0.40% in
jobs.
We have estimated that the training in the hotel industry causes an economic impact on
other sectors due to the total increase in tourism demand. All sectors of the economy
increase production and therefore increase the hiring of workers. Table 3 show the ten
main sectors affected by this training impact on tourism demand. They are accommodation
services, restaurants, passenger support services, recreational and cultural activities, road
transport services, and also retail trade services and construction, among others. For
example, “Passenger support services” would hire 182 people, which mean 2.09 of the
total workforce, if we consider direct and indirect effects whereas“ Accommodation
services” would need 539 more workers (2.08 ) direct and indirectly. “Restaurants”
would hire 440 people (0.97%) if we analyse direct and indirect effects and 624 (1.37%) if
we include induced effects.46
Tab. 3: Sector breakdown of the impact on employment

Direct and indirect impact % Direct, indirect and induced impact %
employees)
Accommodation services 539 2.08 Restaurants 624 1.37
Restaurants 440 0.97 Accommodation services 547 2.11
Retail trade services 240 0.48 Retail trade services 481 0.96
Passenger support services Services provided by

182 2.09 households with domestic 258 0.80
service
Other business services 115 0.38 Passenger support services 183 2.11
Recreational, cultural and Other business services

sporting activities market 97 1.19 169 0.57
Renting (Non-real estate) 77 1.62 Recreational, cultural and 120 1.47

sporting activities market
Construction 68 0.10 Construction 113 0.17
Non-scheduled road transport Renting (Non-real estate)
services of passengers 65 1.58 81 1.70
Services provided by households Market health, veterinary and

with domestic service 41 0.13 social services 80 0.93
46
The authors made available to those concerned full sectoral disaggregation.
219
In this way we demonstrate that improvement in training of workers in this important
sector in the Balearic Islands, as the hospitality industry, increases the need for workers in
other economic sectors of the islands.
CONCLUSIONS
The importance of training workers in the hotel sector to improve the results of their
particular hotel and the whole economy in general has been shown in this article through a
micro-macro model.
From the microeconomic point of view, the exploitation of a survey of 200 hotels allows
us to calculate, through an ordinary least-squares regression model, that even controlling
for other variables the implementation of training activities is statistically significant and
have a positive impact on overnight stays hotel. Specifically, the number of overnight stays
increased 2613.
From a macroeconomic point of view, the increase in overnight stays in hotels due to the
training of workers in the sector will cause a total increase of 2.33% in tourism
expenditure, whose impact we have analyzed through an input-output model. GDP growth
will be between 0.62% and 0.85% as only consider direct and indirect effects, or induced
effects are also included. Given that 47.5% of hotels do training, potential GDP growth of
the Balearic economy would be between 0.32% and 0.45%. The total effects can be
disaggregated by sectors and we paid special attention to the creation of new jobs required
to satisfy the increase tourist demand.
Thus, it turns out that the investment in training activities appears an important competitive
element in the hospitality sector. Hotels should take it into consideration when comparing
with other hotel establishments offering a similar product in terms of location, manager
structure and services. However, the macroeconomic perspectives of the results permit us
to beyond the hotel industry. The scope of these effects goes far beyond the strictly
tourism-related sectors such as accommodation, restaurants or transport services. It also
affects retails trade services or construction, and cultural and sport services, among others.
The positive externalities of having trained workers in the hotel industry for the rest of the
economy justify continuous training policy making investment in the hotel sector.
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222
SESSION: HOSPITALITY, TOURISM MANAGEMENT AND
MARKETING
EVALUATION OF URBAN ESTHETICS FROM THE ASPECT OF TOURISM: THE

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA EXAMPLE .......................................................................... 225
INCLUSION OF LOCAL FOODS AT MENUS OF HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS
OPERATING IN ADANA AND MERSĠN ...................................................................... 240
CHANGING TOURĠSM MARKETĠNG STRATEGY OF TURKEY FOR THE LAST 10
YEARS .............................................................................................................................. 257
EVALUATION OF FACTOR OF HOSPITALITY IN SARAJEVO TOURISM
DESTINATION ................................................................................................................ 263
THE IMPACT OF TYPICAL RECOVERY PRACTICE USED IN OVERSOLD ROOM
ON TURKISH GUESTS ................................................................................................... 281
IS EMPLOYER BRANDING A CHALLENGE FOR HIGH-CONTACT SERVICE
INDUSTRIES? INSIGHTS FROM THE HOSPITALITY SECTOR IN POLAND ........ 293
EVALUATION OF MEDICAL TOURISM IN PUBLIC HOSPITAL SERVICES ........ 304
THE EFFECTS OF TEAM – AND CUSTOMER-MEMBER EXCHANGE ON
EMPLOYEE SERVCICE PERFORMANCE IN KOREAN HOTEL RESTAURANTS. 310
MANAGEMENT OF ON-LINE SALES CHANNELS AT HOTELS: CHANNEL
MANAGER SYSTEM ...................................................................................................... 319
PLANNING DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM IN TUZLA CANTON AS A FACTOR OF
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF NORTHEAST BOSNIA.......................................... 329
HEALTH TOURISM IN TURKEY: A STUDY ON PAPER NEWS .............................. 341
DESTINATION MANAGEMENT COMPANIES (DMCs) IN CROATIA AND THEIR
IMPACT ON THE REDUCTION OF SEASONALITY .................................................. 352
THE EFFECTS OF E-COMMERCE APPLICATION ON TRAVEL AGENCIES AND
EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE ....................................................................................... 360
CITY BREAK TOURISM IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA – CASE STUDY OF
SARAJEVO AND MOSTAR ........................................................................................... 370
AN APPROACH TO CULINARY TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN TURKEY ........... 377
REVITALISING COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM – CRITICAL SUCCESS
FACTORS ......................................................................................................................... 387
EVALUATION OF TOURISM POTENTIAL IN DOGANKENT DISTRICT IN
GIRESUN .......................................................................................................................... 400
ABSENCE OF RATE PARITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES IN HOTEL INDUSTRY
........................................................................................................................................... 410
THE TREATMENT IS WITHIN THE DISEASE: TOURISM PARADOX, TOURISM
EQUINOX AND TOURISM DETOX .............................................................................. 418
IMPACT OF ONLINE TRAVEL AGENCIES ON HOTEL BUSINESS IN BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA .............................................................................................................. 426
INVESTIGATION OF ALTRUISTIC VALUE PERCEPTION OF TOURISTS THAT
IMPACT ON THE PRO - ENVIRONMENT BEHAVIOR.............................................. 433
223
224
EVALUATION OF URBAN ESTHETICS FROM THE ASPECT OF
TOURISM: THE BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA EXAMPLE
Tülay Polat Üzümcü1

Aysun Çelik2
Emrah Özkul3
Ersin Uğurkan4
Summary: Cities are dynamic phenomena containing natural, cultural, historical, social and
artificial elements including people, and shaped by requirements of daily life. Such elements
comprising cities are elements also constituting source for tourism. From the point of tourism, the
main component of urban environment is view quality and areas with a high quality of view are also
areas which are attractive for touristic activities. Sustainable tourism which is an important industry
for economic development purposes is closely related to modernization of cities without impairing
their natural or cultural texture and prevention of impairment of urban esthetics which is one of the
fundamental attraction elements of tourism. In this study natural and cultural resources shaping the
environment and constituting resource for tourism in Bosnia-Herzegovina has been esthetically
evaluated and visual tastes have been identified and urban esthetics has been emphasized in terms of
tourism. For this purpose, various literature data has been analyzed in the study and experiences and
data obtained by direct observation have been evaluated to identify tourism facilities in Bosnia-
Herzegovina.
Keywords: Urban esthetics, Tourism, Bosnia-Herzegovina
INTRODUCTION
Cities are formed by combination of natural and cultural elements. Being a complement of
systems, cities are highly complex areas which are very difficult or impossible to control
and have cultural diversity and incorporate natural and artificial elements. Factors which
directly determine urban formation and urban macro form include social values, socio-
cultural structure, life form, technology, population structure, economy, transport textures
and urban policies (Erdoğan, 2006). Besides serving to a certain purpose, for cities to have
an urban image, they must incorporate feeling-arousing esthetic values. Therefore, human
beings have sought for esthetic qualities in urban environments during the history and tried
to bring an order to their environment.
Environment covers each, part or all of natural and artificial physical structure, climatic
and geographical assets, biological factors, and cultural, social, economic and artistic
formations (Ġzgi, 1999). Natural, cultural, historical, esthetical and visual elements and
properties comprising urban environment also constitute a resource for tourism. They have
a significant role historically for protection of beautiful views and places which are
considered to be a ―rare beauty‖ Fuante de Val et al., 2006; Daniel, 2001). Main
component of natural environment in tourism or recreational context is visual or view
quality. Important landscapes in terms of view are not only beneficial to individuals living
there but they also make a significant contribution to attractiveness of the area; therefore
1
Ass Prof. Dr., Kocaeli University, Turkey.
2
Asoc..Dr., Uludağ University, Turkey.
3
Asoc..Dr., Kocaeli University, Turkey.
4
Lecturer., Kocaeli University, Turkey.
225
they can be associated with economic benefits of the area. Because visual characteristics
affect the entire quality of a touristic/recreational experience (Clay and Daniel, 2000).
Unplanned urbanization resulting from rapid population growth and migration leads to
siege of cities, harm to core texture, impairment to urban esthetics, and destruction of
historical, cultural and natural assets which are core elements of tourism. Tourism which is
an effective tool to protect and improve environmental elements is an important industry
contributing to economic, social and cultural development processes of countries at
national and international level (Kuter, 2007). Being an important industry for economic
development, sustainable tourism is closely related to modernization of cities without
impairing their natural and cultural texture and impairment of urban esthetics which is one
of fundamental attraction elements for tourism.
Esthetical and environmental arrangements affect purchasing decisions of consumers (cars,
clothes, meal service in a restaurant, travel etc.) (Oral and Çelik, 2013, 173). Even though
there are sustainable tourism types protecting the environment today, tourism also has
certain aspects having negative effects on the environment, harming also itself and leading
to rapid/unplanned urbanization. Rapid and unplanned urbanization, irregular facilities
built with commercial considerations, deviation from natural and local texture, negative
effects caused by mass tourism, environmental pollution, damage to cultural heritage,
corruption of local culture and consequently impairment of urban esthetics have also
negative effects on sustainable tourism.
This study focuses on the tourism in Bosnia-Herzegovina which is defined as Jerusalem of
Europe by many famous writers. The study attempts to provide esthetical evaluation and
visual taste of natural and cultural resources forming the environment and constituting a
resource for tourism in Bosnia-Herzegovina. For this purpose, literature review has been
conducted on the field primarily to describe significance of urban esthetics in terms of
tourism. It has been then attempted to identify cultural, historical and natural assets of the
research area using data obtained from examination of studies showing historical and
spatial development process of the research area – photos, videos etc.), and thesis,
research, article, book and internet data etc. related to the research area. The theoretical
framework formed by data obtained is intended to demonstrate the effects of general
characteristics, urban esthetics and tourism potential of Sarajevo on improvement of
tourism. In this scope, some suggestions have been made to ensure sustainability of
tourism facilities and urban esthetics which the city has. Tourism in Bosnia-Herzegovina is
open to growth and it is a destination that will make contribution to economic development
of the local people with tourism investments and aids. Urban esthetics is very important for
tourism and sustainable tourism approach requires ensuring urban esthetics and creating
tourism economy.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The word ―esthetic‖ is rooted from the Greek words "aisthesis" or "aishanesthai". It has
various meanings such as sensation, senses, perception, and perceiving with feelings.
Esthetics is the science of information provided by feelings. As specified in the study by
Ergün (2005), the first philosopher who carried out a systematic research on what the
“beautiful” is from the view of existence and knowledge is Plato while Baumgarten is the
first philosopher who used the concept of esthetics rooting from the Greek word
"aesthesis" (perception, sensation) as an independent discipline. According to him, esthetic
is the ―science of thinking on beautiful‖. Esthetics is theories on how something arouses
226
the sense of beautiful in people (Çakcı, 2007). Esthetics does not only cover the beautiful
in art, i.e. the philosophy of art, but also the beautiful in nature. Thus, it is the discipline of
perceptions, the science of senses used for evaluation of both natural and artificial
elements (Bozkurt, 2000). Esthetical experience means symmetry, proportion, harmony of
objects, concordance or performance. In consumption, esthetics is evaluated based on the
ability of visual element or service performance to arouse feelings (Oral and Çelik, 2013,
173). If culture and art are the most significant comments representing and telling people
to people, esthetics is one of the main areas of interest which cities that that incorporate all
technical and poetical aspects of both art and culture and is a historical product of human
beings should have (Erzen, 2011).
Esthetics means sensation/the sensed/perceiving with feelings, and thus comprehending the
beautiful and achieving the sense of pleasure. According to another definition of esthetics,
it is the art of thinking on the beautiful and researching what the beautiful is. The branch of
philosophy focusing on the beauties which look nice or give pleasure to us and arouse
feelings or enthusiasm in us, in other words examining nature of the beautiful and fine arts
is called esthetics (www.egitim.aku.edu.tr). In this sense, tourism is intertwined with
esthetics. The reason for this is, unlike other industries, when we mention of tourism, it
reminds us of elements such as spatial beauty, historical structures or environmental
beauty, and their harmony, which awakes a sense of delightfulness, pleasure and grace in
people. Urban esthetics is a phenomenon which is primarily related to life of people in city
and their mental and social status (Erzen, 2011). The most important factor comprising
urban esthetics throughout the history has been natural environment. It is seen that
elements such as geomorphology, topography, vegetation, climate and availability of water
which are components of natural environment have a significant role in both selection of
places where cities are founded and formation of cities. Cities which are in harmony with
these elements have a greater level of esthetical values. Cities which are well integrated
with its surroundings in terms of materials as well as structuring and natural elements have
more qualified surroundings. As in urban structuring, urban esthetics is a phenomenon
directly related to social, cultural, technological and economic structure of the period when
it is produced (Elmas, 2006).
Urban environments consist of positive and negative elements. Defined relationships
between them, liquid space, well-designed spatial transitions and harmony determine the
quality of urban esthetics (Erdoğan, Elmas, 2006). Values of cities arise from multiple
properties and various cultural dimensions. Two important factors which gives the city
quality to a city are the feeling that we reach back and ahead over time, we can create
expectations in it, and we feel rooted by feeling past lives in a way. This property of cities
means that physical structure of a city makes us feel and perceive the past time and
historical process, and new constructions and practical applications direct us to the future
(Erzen, 2011). In this case, the greater the integrity of an urban environment is and the
more ordered it is, the greater its esthetical value is. Esthetically evaluating order and
regularity of tourism facilities, the extent to which historical places can be protected, socio-
psychological attitude towards tourists adopted by societies with tourism potential, and
pleasure felt by visitors, esthetical deficiency in them also creates a situation working
against tourism. Direct proportion between tourism and esthetics shows actual operability
of tourism and what is required. When Esthetics and Tourism are associated, it is seen that
tourism exists where there is esthetics.
227
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
a) Natural Properties
Bosnia-Herzegovina is seated at the southeast of the continental Europe and the northwest
corner of the Balkan Peninsula. It reaches to the Adriatic Sea with a 20 km piece of land
where River Neretva falls into the sea, but it does not have a port. It is surrounded by
Croatia in the north and the west, Serbia in the east, and Montenegro in the southeast.
Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina has a surface area of 51.129 km2 and a population
of 4.523.000 people and its official language is Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian and its
religion is Islam (http://www.cografya.gen.tr/siyasi/devletler/bosna-hersek.htm). Sarajevo
is the capital of the country and the city which is the center is the most important city of
Bosnia-Herzegovina. Big cities of the country which are local centers include Tuzla, Banja
Luka, Mostar, Bihac, Doboj, Bugjyno, Travnik, Zenica, Livno, Trebinje ve Gorajde,
Prijedor, Derventa, Brcko, Bijeljina, Zvornik, Jajce, Visoko, Visegrad, Foca and Konjic,
and its most important center is Mostar which looks like an Ottoman city (Kondo, 2003,
84).
The State of Bosnia-Herzegovina consists of two individual areas including Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Bosna is the north of the country containing the cities Srajevo, Travnik and
Tuzla etc. while Herzegovina is the area closer to Dalmatia and Adriatic, containing the
cities Mostar and Konjic etc. Bosnia is populated mostly by Bosnians and Serbians while it
is seen that Herzegovina is predominantly populated by Bosians and Croatians. The areas
Bosnia and Herzegovina have different physical properties. Bosnia is a terrestrial area with
a mountainous and forestland nature and a cold climate and summers are hot while winters
are snowy and cold. Herzegovina which is a smaller area in the south coasts of the country
has a Mediterranean climate. This area has a warm climatic environment and maquis-like
vegetation. Rivers Sava and Drina pass through Bosnia while River Neretva passes through
Herzegovina. Bosnia has dense and luxuriant forests while Herzegovina consists of deep
canyons comprised of white rocks due to existence of limestone (Özder, 2012, 219-221).
A small part of the Adriatic Sea belongs to Bosnia-Herzegovina and its coast consists of
Klek Peninsula of 24 km length and Neum Gulf. The city of Neum seated more
southwards from Neretva Delta is the only city with a coast on the sea in Bosnia-
Herzegovina. River Neum which is the only outlet in the sea in Bosnia-Herzegovina is the
most important touristic area of the country. All underground and surface waters in the
country have a big significance both for the industry and the economy of Bosnia-
Herzegovina. Most of the streams here have a great potential for hydroelectric power
generation. Besides importance of the waters for economy and industry of the country,
their importance for touristic purposes should also be noted. Especially the sea and hot
water resources in Fojnisa, Olovo and Teslic have great importance for tourism in the
country. Main streams of Bosnia-Herzegovina include Sava, Una, Vrbas, Bosnia, Drina,
Neretva and Trebisnjisa (Kondo, 40/46).
b) Historical and Cultural Properties

Population of Bosnia-Herzegovina is dense in the north and northeast parts of the country
while the west and the southeast parts are less populated. As the result of rapid increase in
urban population due to a major part of the population leaving the agricultural industry and
having job opportunities in other industries and acceleration of urbanization, it has resulted
in population growth in certain areas of the country (Kondo, 2003, 63). Bosnia-
Herzegovina lost its economic power by 90% during the civil war between the years 1992
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and 95 and over 2 million people living in the country were displaced. The country whose
economy is majorly dependent on foreign aids and loans has an unemployment rate of
about 40% and where 60% of the young population wants to move to another country,
implementation of Dayton Peace Agreement and problem-free maintenance of multi-
ethnical structured model is dependent on success to be achieved in economy. Bosnians
show that they have a good potential with their high education rate, hardworking and quick
adaptation to changes, being easily motivated and ambition to establish business (Kondo,
91).
It is seen that the Balkan Peninsula had been invaded by Romans, Avars and Slavic tribes
since the first age. Between 626 and 640, Serbian and Croatian tribes came to and settled
in the northwest of the area. Croatians chose the Catholic church while Serbians entered
into the Orthodox church. A community called Bosnians by the Ottoman, which stayed
away from the both churches and believed in a sect called ‗Bogomil‘ which rejected the
trinity belief in Christianity, emerged in the 12th century and had a monotheistic approach
could easily adopt Islam when they encountered the Ottoman. Therefore, Bosnians have
become a society with the same language as but a different religion from Serbians and
Croatians. Upon Bosnian King Tomasevic ceased the tax (tribute) paid to the Ottoman,
Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Bosnia in 1463 and Grand Vizier Mahmut Pasha
conquered the Duchy of Herzegovina in 1467. Mehmed the Conqueror gave a big freedom
to the local people, and even stated in a copy of an imperial order that they could fulfill the
requirements of their religions freely, conveniently visit their houses of prayer, conduct all
kind of religious ceremonies, live their customs and traditions freely, and their security of
life and property was completely assured. Following the conquer of Bosnia, Bosnians
collectively adopted Islam and protected the northwest border of the Ottoman on their own
for many years (Kondo, 2003, 4-5).
Upon invasion of Dalmatia which would open the doors to the Balkans and the
Mediterranean as the result of nationalist movements initiated by the French Revolution in
the 17th century, Christian minorities in Bosnia started revolts on the grounds that they
were being oppressed. The Ottoman Empire tried to quell those revolts for many years but
upon intervention by Russia, the Ottoman-Russian War 1877-78 broke out. As the result of
the Ottoman-Russian war, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro gained their independence
while Bulgaria announced its independency. The fight to clean the Balkans and Europe
from the Ottoman as called the Historical East Policy by the Europeans was registered in
the Berlin Conference 1878. Austria and Hungary invaded Bosnia-Herzegovina and made
the annexation order in 1908. This order created a crisis between Austria-Hungary and
Russia, Serbia and the Ottoman, and it was one of the reasons for breaking out of the
World War I later. Upon dissolution of the Kingdom of Austria-Hungary at the end of the
World War I, Bosnia-Herzegovina became a part of the Kingdom of Serbia-Croatia-
Slovenia in 1918. After the World War II, it constituted the sixth republic in 1946 in
addition to Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro, Macedonia and Slovenia comprising the Federal
People‘s Republic of Yugoslavia. Muslims constituting the majority of the population in
the said republic did not accept to be called as Serbians or Croatians and in 1971 Tito
granted the Slav society which was Islamized in Bosnia-Herzegovina the nation status and
the word Muslim written with ‗M‘ became the name of a nation (Kondo, 2003, 5-7).
In old Yugoslavia the ethnical and religious structure was kept together for a long time but
in upon death of Tito in 1980, ethnical movements started to be felt. While the office of
presidency was required to be transferred to Croatia which was one of the six republics in
1991 as per the Yugoslavian constitution, Serbia did not allow exercise of this right to own
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Yugoslavia which was dissolving, on its own. This crisis resulted in announcement of
independency by the other Federal Republic as well was also the reason for Serbians to
attack the said republics in pursuit of the dream of ―Great Serbia‖. Serbia attacked Croatia
and Slovenia first, however, those conflicts came to an end upon intervention of Germany
and the European Community. The general election held in the Republic of Bosnia-
Herzegovina in 1990 was won by the Democratic Action Party led by Alija Izetbegovic
and he was granted the presidency. Despite the boycott by the Serbians, the Republic of
Bosnia-Herzegovina announced its independency in March 1992 as the result of a
referendum. In this referendum, Muslims, Croatians and other minorities casted their vote
in favor of independency and Serbians attacked Bosnia-Herzegovina with the federal army
supporting Serbians and performed one of the biggest massacres of the 20th century.
Bosnians who fought against Serbians with Croatians in the beginning became alone upon
Croatians taking the side of Serbians as the result of negotiations between the Serbian and
Croatian presidents (Kondo, 2003, 7).
RESEARCH METHOD
Main material of the research is the natural and cultural resources of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Besides, main materials of the study include research and studies conducted on the subject
matter, literature data and visual sources. The research is based on analysis of literature
data and assessment of experiences and data obtained by direct observation. This study
which is a document review defines what environmental and urban esthetics are, the effect
of urban esthetics on tourism growth, and facilities of Bosnia-Herzegovina in terms of
environmental and urban esthetics, and is intended to make these findings applicable in
current use.
TOURISM AREAS AND ESTHETIC OF BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
For improvement of tourism in a country, it must have rich tourism resources. Availability
of natural, cultural and historical resources is the prerequisite for healthy growth of tourism
(Murphy et. al., 1999). There are four big touristic areas in Bosnia-Herzegovina. They
include the central area (Sarajevo, Travnik, Foca, Srebrenik and Konjic touristic areas),
Herseg area (Mostar, Trebinje, Capljina touristic areas), East Bosnia area (Tuzla and Doboj
touristic areas), and West Bosnia area (livanj, Bihac and Banja Luka touristic areas)
(Kondo, p. 133). Bosnia-Herzegovina is suitable for development of all kind of touristic
activities with its natural resources including its geographical location, climatic diversity,
rich flora and fauna, rich forests and thermal resources as well as its positive assets such as
its cultural diversity and distribution of all these assets throughout the country. These
activities can include Nature Tourism (Ecotourism), Sea Tourism, Mountain and Winter
Tourism, Culture Tourism, Religious Tourism, Health Tourism, Thermal Tourism, Grief
Tourism, Gastronomy Tourism, Educational Tourism and Congress Tourism etc.
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Fig. 1. Orlovacko lake
Nature Tourism (Ecotourism): Bosnia-Herzegovina has a significant ecotourism potential

with its unique natural beauties created by its diverse ecosystem and many well-protected
national and natural parks with intact natural beauties. Sutjeska National Park in the
country is one of the first parks in Europe and places used for ecotourism purposes include
Sutjeska National Park, Una National Park, Kozara National Park, HutovoBlato National
Park, Bardaca Nature Park and Blidinje Nature Park. Bosnia-Herzegovina has touristic
attractions for nature tourism with its climatic properties, superior landscape assets,
traditional life style which is predominated by rural elements, and areas suitable for nature
sports such as mountaineering, nature trips on horse, trekking, paragliding, flora/fauna
examinations and jeep safari. In addition, rivers in the country create a suitable
environment for rafting, canoeing and river skiing. In birdwatching, Mostar, Hutovo Blato,
Zvornik, Srebrenica, Bijeljina and Brcko are transition locations where bird migrations can
be observed especially in spring and autumn. The longest cave of Bosnia-Herzegovina
which has a large number of mountains and the region is the Cave Vjetrenica while other
important caves include caves of Bijambarska, Ledenica, Orlovaca, Djevojacka,
Hrustovacka and Hukavica (BĠH Tourism Sector, 2010, 6). These areas have a great level
of esthetic values which create positive emotions with its naturalness, integrity, unity,
order, harmony, mystery and landscape beauty as well as its high level of recreational
assets.
Sea Tourism: The city of Neum seated in the southwest of Bosnia-Herzegovina constitutes
the country‘s door to the sea. Bosnia-Herzegovina hosts a lot of tourists with its coast on
the Adriatic Sea of about 25 km length and 240 sunny days annually (BĠH Tourism Sector,
2010). This area has a great esthetic value with its naturalness, landscape beauty, openness,
perspective, order, and high recreational value.
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Fig. 2. Bjelašnica Fig. 3. Neum
Mountain and Winter Tourism: Winter tourism has been an important tourism field for
Bosnia-Herzegovina since old times. During winter months, high quality and continuous
snowing provides suitable climatic conditions for winter tourism in the mountains of
Bosnia-Herzegovina. Mountains Bjelasnika, Igman and Jahorina near Sarajevo which
hosted the Winter Olympic Games in 1984 in Bosnia-Herzegovina are important winter
sports centers and facilities which are about 30 km distant and have ski runs of 20 km
length for Alpinism host tourists from different parts of Europe (BĠH Tourism Sector,
2010). Mountains of Bosnia-Herzegovina which allow activities such as trips, research,
trekking, climbing, picnic and winter sports have potential for hunting tourism and nature
sports with its natural and wildlife diversity. These areas are tourism areas with high
esthetical value with naturalness, integrity, unity, order, harmony, mystery, landscape
beauty, high recreational value, diversity and landforms.
History and Culture Tourism: According to a study conducted by the World Tourism
Organization, about 40% of touristic trips all over the world is based on culture tourism
and its importance is increasing. Countries with a rich historical and cultural heritage can
be significant attraction centers for tourists in near future. In this context, Bosnia-
Herzegovina which hosted different cultures including Mediterranean, Roman, Ottoman
and European cultures has a wide range of unique historical artifacts from the said cultures.
Cultural heritage in Bosnia-Herzegovina has been protected from old monasteries and
churches to bridges and mosques reflecting the Ottoman architecture despite the war. Some
of the historical artifacts in Sarajevo include KurĢunlu Madrassa, Car Mosque, Bascarsia
and the historical Fountain, Gazi Hüsrev Bey Mosque, Ali Pasha Mosque, Latin Bridge,
SvriznaKuca, Orthodox Cathedral, Old Jewish Temple and Sarajevo Library and one of the
most significant cultural values that Bosnia-Herzegovina has is the city of Mostar and
Mostar Bridge. The bridge on River Neretva, which the city is named after was built by
Architect Hayreddin who was a student of Sinan the Architect in 1566. Mostar Bridge was
destroyed by artilleries shot during the war and rebuilt with support of Unesco and the
World Bank. New Mostar Bridge opened in 2004 has been included in the World’s
Cultural Heritage list by Unesco in 2005. In addition to these two cities, there are
countless historical artifacts and cultural values in the cities such as Banja Luka, Bihac,
Pocitelj, Blagaj, Stolac, Bajca, Focinica, Bobovac, Kraljeva, Sutjeska, Vranduk, Prusac,
Tesanj, Maglaj and Kradacac (BĠH Tourism Sector, 2010).
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Fig.4. Mostar Bridge Fig.5. Sebilj, Baščaršija Fig.6. Gazi Hüsrev Bey Mosque
In Islamic urban civilizations, public facilities such as fountain, mosque, school, market
place and covered bazaars are located in the center with being surrounded by houses. For
example, there is Bascarsia which has the fountain in its center (F10), mosque and covered
bazaar in the center of Sarajevo. It is possible to see marks of the Ottoman and
consequently the Turkish-Islamic culture in Bosnia-Herzegovina. There a wide range of
examples to those marks, from courses of meal and grave types to architectural structure
and handcrafts (F12, 13, 14 and 15). In addition, there is a great interest in celebrations and
memorial ceremonies held in certain periods of the year in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Ayvaz
Dede Festival which is held to pay immaterial debts to Ayvaz Dede on the last Sunday of
June every year, Mostar Bridge jumping contest and Srebrenica memorial ceremonies are
some of them. Esthetical properties of cities allowing History and Culture Tourism in
Bosnia-Herzegovina generally include uniqueness, textural esthetic, determinacy,
simplicity, availability of careful structural and decoration elements, organic order, use of
natural building materials, reliability and perceptibility.
Religious Tourism: Religious elements in Bosnia-Herzegovina which is the meeting point
of various civilizations and cultures play a significant role for religious tourism purposes.
Bosnia-Herzegovina where Catholic and Orthodox Christianity, Judaism and Islam have
co-existed throughout the history is called as Jerusalem of Europe. Serbians in the country
are Orthodox and Croatians are Catholic while Bosnians are Muslim. Existence of different
religions and ethnical origins in the country allow figures and sacred values belonging to
the said religions to be visited by members of that religion. In addition to many mosques in
different locations of the country remaining from the Ottoman period, there are Orthodox
and Catholic Churches and Synagogues. Places and artifacts in Bosnia-Herzegovina
considered holy by three different divine religions include Medjugorje (this small town
where it is believed that Saint Maria was seen is visited by hundred thousands of
Catholics), Sarajevo, Hüsrev Bey Mosque, Ali Pasha Mosque, Old Synagogue, Catholic
Cathedral, Orthodox Cathedral, Kladanj, Kızın Cave, Travnik, New Mosque (Hasan Aga
Mosque), Haji Ali Mosque, Banja Luka, Ferhadija Mosque (BĠH Tourism Sector, 2010)
etc.
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Fig. 7. Hünkar Mosque Fig. 8. Sarajevo Cathedral
Fig. 9. Serbian Orthodox Church Fig. 10. Blagaj Tekke
In Bosnia-Herzegovina basic characteristic of big settlements is religious buildings which

are the determinant element of the city silhouette. These buildings are structures with high
esthetical value with their uniqueness, textural esthetic, simplicity, careful structuring and
availability of decoration elements as well as use of natural building materials. The city
silhouette has determinacy and perceptibility properties.
Health Tourism – Thermal Tourism: Bosnia-Herzegovina is among the first three
countries in the Balkans and the top 10 in Europe with its geothermal resource diversity
and potential. Thermal waters of Bosnia-Herzegovina have superior qualities than thermal
waters in Europe with their flow rate and temperature as well as several physical and
chemical properties. Thermal waters have natural outlets and high water yield, and high
value of melt metals and are rich in sulfur, radon and salt. Cleanness and therapeutic
properties of these waters attract many tourists to the country. SPA applications occurring
as application of thermal waters using advanced physical therapy tools in body care and
treatment comprise a tourism area with an increasing importance today. In Bosnia-
Herzegovina highly advanced therapeutic spa centers have been established in recent years.
Thermal centers in Bosnia-Herzegovina and their locations are as follows: Ilıca,
VilinaVilas (Visegrad), Sanskallidza (SanskiMost), Dvorovi (Bijeljina), Slatina and
Laktasi (Banja Luka), Fojnica, BanjaVrucica (Teslic), Gata (Bihac), Guber (Srebrenica),
Kiseljak (Sarajevo), Gradacac ve Mljecanica (Dubica) (BĠH Tourism Sector, 2010). These
areas have high esthetical value awakening positive emotions with their naturalness,
integrity, unity, order, harmony, mystery, landscape beauty and high recreational value.
Grief Tourism: There are sad and painful happenings which even do not want to be
remembered in the past of every society. Tourism activities carried out to remember these
sad events, show respect to the casualties, or fulfill the haj duty is called grief tourism
(Yirik and Seyitoğlu). Grief tourism is a type of heritage tourism which is also called as
cultural heritage tourism. In this context, grief tourism is a type of tourism involving trip to
such places where death events such as torture or genocide happened, and to monuments
and museums built in the name of such events, and to places where painful events such as
234
natural disasters happened. These areas for grief tourism make visitors feel the past events
today with the grief they arouse and make them feel deep rooted and belonging to that
place. Examples of grief tourism destinations include places where the World Wars I and II
took place (Çanakkale etc.), Hiroshima, marks left by the war which took place in Bosnia-
Herzegovina in 1992-95, genoice locations, mass graves and museums, flood disaster
which took place in Soham Town of England (Kılıç and Akyurt, 2011). In this context, the
areas where the war took place in 1992 in Bosnia-Herzegovina, mass graves(F6),
Srebrenica genocide locations, the Hope Tunnel (F8), the war museum, houses and streets
where bullet marks can still be seen, Mostar Bridge, Pociteli and many other places can be
seen and painful stories can be unfortunately witnessed. Unfortunately, in Bosnia-
Herzegovina is one of the most important grief tourism centers which carries the marks of
the war which took place when the technology and the civilization was well developed in
the world.
Fig.11. Graveyard in Sarajevo Fig.12. Mostar street view Fig.13. Tunnel of Hope
Gastronomy Tourism: Geography and geographical conditions are significant factors

determining the food culture and products growing in a specific geography determine food
types and eating habits. Food diversity in Bosnia-Herzegovina has been shaped both by
geographical conditions and beliefs. In this context, in Bosnia which is highly rich in terms
of Gastronomy Tourism, there are restaurants, hotels and souvenir shops with a wide range
of options from Ottoman and Slavic cuisines to sheep and pork meat. Besides, Bosnia-
Herzegovina is one of the preferred countries for educational and congress tourism
purposes thanks to its natural and cultural diversity and being in the center of Europe.
3. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
Esthetics which is an element affecting the experiential value of tourism facilities has an
effect on customer perceptions. In esthetic experience, one is passively involved in a
situation or environment. Esthetic value is the experiential value occurring as the result of
consumption of products whose beauty is predominant, and is related to awareness of
beauty which can be felt by senses (Oral and Çelik, 2013). When tourism in Bosnia-
Herzegovina is considered from the perspective of esthetics, it has a strong tourism
potential due to its perceptible visual or spatial harmony as well as many positive aspects
in terms of spiritual esthetics and tourism in Bosnia-Herzegovina can grow with an
esthetical planning approach.
Since Bosnia-Herzegovina had been controlled by the Ottoman for many years, there are
also historical artifacts reflecting the Turkish-Islamic culture, and produced as the result of
Christian and Judaist beliefs of Serbian and Croatian societies. As a reflection of this
235
cultural and religious diversity, there is a rich cultural texture in handcrafts and
gastronomy etc. in Bosnia. It is required to maintain this rich urban texture, protect urban
esthetics and make urban planning being aware that it is a tourism city. Accordingly, this
study is intended to draw attention to urban esthetics and tourism city esthetics in
protection of natural and historical beauties and urban planning. When tourism in Bosnia-
Herzegovina is evaluated in terms of urban esthetics, despite the tragic periods it went
through, rapid restoration of damaged historical places, multi-cultural and multi-religious
structure and synthesis of many civilizations or constituting the core with this property can
attract tourists from many countries. Sad separations here in the past have turned into a
tourism potential for the future. In Bosnia-Herzegovina where cultural and religious
practices maintain their liveliness with all the dynamism, such practices can attract
hundred thousands to itself, such as Ayvaz Dede Festival which carries all elements of
spiritual esthetics as an extraordinary festival with its religious, cultural, identity, spatial
and visual aspects.
Today when Bosnia-Herzegovina is evaluated in terms of tourism potential, it can be said
that it relies on nature and culture tourism and has diversifiable tourism opportunities. The
country has a significant potential for especially winter sports, spa tourism, and hunting
and nature sports. Additionally, the country has a 25 km coast on the Adriatic Sea and
hosted Bosnia-Herzegovina Winter Olympics in 1984 and has several facilities there.
Thermal and mineral resources make great contributions to growth of tourism in the
country as well. Educational, congress and gastronomy tourism are also important types of
tourism. In the ecotourism field which is considered to be the fastest growing areas
particularly in recent years, Bosnia-Herzegovina has also a significant potential with
natural beauties it has (BĠH Tourism Sector, 2010). In the cities of Bosnia-Herzegovina,
characteristics and seasonal properties of its natural resources should be protected and
improved.
In tourism industry, spatial beauty, historical buildings, environmental beauty and elements
such as naturalness are intertwined with tourism, as well as esthetics involving their
harmony. Since esthetics has an effect on tourism marketing, the conclusions reached from
this study on Tourism in Bosnia-Herzegovina which emphasizes that natural and cultural
values of the city should be protected and improved are as follows:
During improvements and changes taking place and to take place in future in the cities
of Bosnia-Herzegovina, cultural and physical values must be protected and not
damaged or destroyed. Unique structure of these values must be protected as cultural
heritage. Here, contemporary protection approaches must be considered, the principle
of protection-use must be followed and ensuring sustainability must be the primary
requirement.
The greatest physical indicator of civilizations lies in cities. In the cities of Bosnia-
Herzegovina where many different civilizations lived in, protection of material and
immaterial values must be considered with urban dynamics.
Constructions being made and to be made in natural areas of Bosnia-Herzegovina must
be compatible with mass, position, density and structural properties as well as nature
and integrity of respective area. It is extremely important to make these constructions
in harmony with the nature in terms of their construction materials and structural
condition and number of floors.
In addition to tourism master plans to be individually prepared by the countries, a joint
master plan must be issued by developing a tourism strategy primarily following
international sustainable environmental protection policies for tourism master plans
236
which are the interest of the entire ecosystem exceeding national boundaries to avoid
any damage to natural ecosystems and basins. According to national ecological
policies, tourism places must be planned as a master plan covering proper location
selection decisions so as not to push the bearing capacity of the ecosystem or impair
the natural resource and use balance (Gündüz, 2004, 60-64).
In tourism planning to be made, professional disciplines including archeology, history,
architecture, sociology, tourism, economy, urban planning, landscape architecture and
forest engineering etc. must collaborate.
The subject of urban esthetics which also constitutes resource for tourism is perceived
at macro and micro level. Perception within the scope of urban appearance and city
silhouette is at macro level while perception while living in that environment is at
micro level. Micro perception is in color, form, measurement and textural details.
Harmonic coexistence and well-integration of these textures is highly important for
esthetics. In all kind of physical arrangements and urban design studies to be carried
out especially in historical and natural environments in Bosnia-Herzegovina, unique
properties should never be impaired. In urban planning of tourism destinations and
decoration of tourism facilities, esthetical value aimed at micro perception should be
featured in creation and presentation of products offered.
Cities should have a certain esthetical attractiveness to be important tourism centers. In
this context, esthetical feelings aroused by some structures in the cities of Bosnia-
Herzegovina should be evaluated within the scope of their mass, façade and form
properties as well as interior decorative properties.
To increase tourism income to Bosnia-Herzegovina from these cultural and religious
visits whose importance has been increasing, infrastructural and superstructure
deficiencies of significant centers of three divine religions including Islam,
Christianity and Judaism reaching to the present day (Sarajevo, Medjugorje, Prusac,
Travnik) must be removed and it is requiredto increase number of visitors through
publicity activities.
In conclusion, Bosnia-Herzegovina must be certainly considered in terms of culture
tourism with its centuries-old historical artifacts, gastronomy, maintained traditions, and
handcrafts, religious tourism with pieces from different religions, and grief tourism
potential with its locations which carry the marks of the war. In addition to these, its nature
tourism potential must also be considered with its emerald green rivers, the Alps where
Olympic ski centers are constructed, deep canyons and the Adriatic coast. However, during
the economic development needed to bind up the war wounds of the country, extreme
attention must be paid to keep this natural wonder city and its surroundings from industry
and it is required to plan tourism marketing of the city with sustainable tourism approach.
Instead of an esthetic based on consumption of nature in cities, an esthetical approach
which targets to regain the nature and esthetical values of the historical and cultural
background and seek to incorporate the said into life.
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239
INCLUSION OF LOCAL FOODS AT MENUS OF HOTELS AND
RESTAURANTS OPERATING IN ADANA AND MERSİN
Oya Yildirim1
Oya Berkay Karaca
A. Celil Çakici
Abstract: Cuisine culture of a destination has become to be an important element of attraction in

tourist travels, especially in recent years. Local foods provide significant advantages for the region
in destination marketing activities. Consequently, it is thought to be important for the companies to
include local foods in their menus. For this reason, in this research it is aimed to evaluate if hotels
and restaurants operating in Adana and Mersin has given local foods a place in their menus. As part
of this aim, we had conducted semi-structured interviews with the managers of 82 businesses in
total in March 2015. It is ascertained that a considerable number of businesses (%81,7) included
local foods in their menus, the mean was calculated as %50. Besides, it was found that the most
common meat dishes were; Adana kebab, grilled meatballs, liver kebab, steak tartar a-la-turca,
stuffed meatballs, the soups were: thimble, tarhana, analıkızlı, ekĢili köfte. Another outcome was
that indigenous drinks such as haĢlama and kaynar were rarely included in the menus. The research
ends with the suggestion that the ratio of local foods in menus should be increased.
Key words: Local foods, hotels, restaurants, Adana and Mersin.
INTRODUCTION
Traditional foods are defined as foods that represent societies' indigenous traditional food
culture which has developed for many years as a result of the mutual interaction between
ecological and sociocultural environment (Evren and f., 2010, p.818; Zorba and f., 2010,
p.851). Traditional foods constituting a part of traditions, history and cultural heritage are
distinct explicitly from other similar foods in that: they have unique composition and
features, traditional raw materials and components are used in their production, traditional
methods are used in their treatment (Kolukırık and ġener, 2010, p.754). Foods that are
attained through preparation of nutrients with different process and methods is a result
reached with one's specific experience and effort, a development, a lifestyle and is a
human-geography relationship (Köten and f., 2010, p.515). Food is one of the significant
factors reflecting the culture and identity of a society (Berik and Kahraman, 2009, p. 212)
and physical and cultural environment affects food culture greatly (Sitti and f., 2009,
p.208).
Turkish kitchen which has developed in the are we call Anatolia where numerous
civilisations emerged, settled and vanished, has a unique food tradition considered one of
the three major rich kitchens of the world after a period of thousands of years both due to
its ethnic and cultural heritage and its geographic features (Kan and Kaynakçı, 2009,
p.268). Turkish kitchen which embodies flavours varying from region to region, has many
components that can be a source for healthy nourishment with regard to its rich variety and
convenience for the palatal delight (Ulusoy and Karakaya, 2010, p.527). There are a
considerable number of our foods unknown in national and international platforms but
known and consumed with pleasure in some parts of Turkey (Yurt and f., 2010, p.358).
1
Instructor, School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Çukurova University, Bahçe-KarataĢ,
Adana, Turkey.
240
It was specified in research that foreign visitors want to know ―Turkish Kitchen‖,
(Sürücüoğlu and Akman 1998:52; Hassan and f., 2010b, p.971) our cuisine culture plays
an important role in tourists revisiting our country and choosing a specific region (Aslan
and f., 2014, f.5). However, it is seen that the importance given to the Turkish kitchen in
hotels is too low in our country, that there is either no Turkish food or only döner, kebab
and pide are offered in menus of these businesses (Güler, 2007, p. 25). However, rather
than being affected by foreign kitchens, featuring the unique and traditional kitchens of our
country/regions by hotel and restaurant staff in their workplaces will specially improve
gastronomy tourism in our country (Denizer, 2008, p. 2).
Food and beverage services are the most important branch of tourism industry. In recent
years, people participate actively in cultural touristic activities to taste local foods and see
how they are made. This situation increases the touristic attraction of local foods
(Serçeoğlu, 2014, p.37). Nowadays the importance of food and beverage culture in a
region's being an attraction center is increasing more and more. The contribution of
gastronomy tourism to a region helps form a sustainable tourism vision, preserve and hold
the inventory of the foods made of local nutrients or substances thus preserving and
developing the regional values (Deveci and f., 2013, f.33).
In our research it is aimed to evaluate hotels and restaurants operating in Adana and
Mersin with regards to their inclusion of local foods in the menus. Besides, it is aimed to
draw attention to the importance of local foods with regard to gastronomy tourism through
specifying the perspectives of the businesses related with the region's cuisine.
RESEARCH METHOD
Framework of the research is the hotels and qualitative restaurants in Adana and Mersin
cities. Although we applied to municipalities for the acquirement of the qualitative
restaurant list (having alacarte and alcohol service), we obtained limited information. This
situation caused uncertainty about the list and capacity of the region. We resorted to
sampling and the data was collected by means of convenience sampling.
Collection of the data took place in two stages. In the first stage semi-structured interview
was preferred from among qualitative data collection methods. The reason for the
qualitative approach is that the researcher has a participant role, the demand for the subject
to be researched in its own natural environment, ability to make an integrative approach,
presenting the perceptions, consent for the data to be collected from the senior
management and the flexibility of the research design (Yıldırım and ġimĢek, 2008: 40;
Karasar, 2011: 157). In this context, two separate forms was made about the research
subject by means of literature scanning. In the first form designed as ―Interview Form‖
there are 15 open-ended and closed-ended questions in total. Three of questions are for
specifying the features of participant and the businesses and the other twelve are for
specifying menus and local food inclusion situation in menus. In March 2015, the
interviews made face to face with the owners, managers and sometimes kitchen specialists
took place in dates and hours decided by them and in their working places. At the end of
the interview period, 82 interviews took place in total. Half of these interviews were made
in Adana and the other half were made in Mersin. The questions addressed to paricipants
in the interviews are as follows:
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1. Do people outside of Adana/Mersin visit your business for food and beverage
needs?
2. What is the rate of people visiting your business for food and beverage needs being
native or foreigner?
3. How do you decide on foods and beverages in the menus of your places?
4. How often do you update your menus on average?
5. Do you include traditional/local foods in your menu?
6. How much is the revenue you get from local foods in percentage out of your total
revenue?
7. Please remark how often people who visit from outside of Adana/Mersin prefer
traditional/local foods?
8. Please write the five local foods people visiting from outside of Adana/Mersin
prefer most.
9. Why do you include traditional/local foods in your menu?
10. Why don't you include traditional/local foods in your menu?
11. Do you think the traditional/local foods have a role in development of gastronomy
tourism in the region?
12. Do you think Adana/Mersin are rich in traditional/local foods.
In the second form prepared as ―Menu observation key‖ local foods list made up of eight
main categories was included. There are 23 meat foods, 14 olive oil foods, 14 pastries, 18
appetizers, 32 desserts, 12 breakfast food, 7 drinks and 20 soups in this key. In the second
stage of the research, menus of the interviewed businesses were collected and the local
foods included in these menus were marked over the menu observation key. All the data
collected was analysed after being transferred to computer environment.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Businesses attending in our research are half in Adana, and half in Mersin (Table 1). While
29 hotels attended in the research, we obtained information from 53 restaurants. It is
observed that one fourth of the businesses have 1-5 years of life, there are %30 percentage
of them between 11-20, and even one fourth of them survive more than 20 years. When we
take the ages of the businesses into account, we get the impression that they are pretty
experienced about foods and specially local foods. On the other hand, it also appears that
people from out of town visit related cities for food and beverage and a great part of these
people are local tourists. This finding confirms Serçeoğlu's (2014) statements.
242
Tab. 1. Data concerning businesses attending to research
Feature Frequency % Feature Frequenc %
y
City Situation of visiting from out of town
Adana 41 50,0 Yes 76 92,7
Mersin 41 50,0 No 6 7,3
Type Nationality of the visitors (n:80)

Hotel 29 35,4 Majority local 55 68,8
Restaurants 53 64,6 Local and foreigner rate is approximately

22 27,5
the same
Age of business Majority foreigner 3 3,8
Less than 1 year 8 9,8 Title of the interviewee (n:80)

Between 1-5 years 20 24,4 Business owner 10 12,5
Between 6-10
7 8,5 Food and beverage manager 9 11,3
years
Between 11-15
15 18,3 Sales manager 3 3,8
years
Between 16-20
9 11,0 Cuisine chief 42 52,5
years
More than 20 years 22 26,8 Restaurant-hotel manager 16 20,0
Menu specification format and update frequency in attending businesses are shown in
Table 2. According to this, almost half (%47,5) of the businesses take customer demands
into account when specifying the menu. While in %40 it is decided by the business,
customer profile is being assessed in nearly one third of them. Thus, while on the one hand
a customer oriented attitude is shown in businesses for specifying the menu, and on the
other hand it appears that methods that take manager-business experience and intuition into
account are referred to. When it comes to menu update frequency, businesses change their
menu components when they feel predominantly (%45) the need. While approximately one
fifth of them make updates once in 6 months, another one fifth of business group make one
update in a year.
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Tab. 2. Menu specification format and update frequency in attending businesses
Frequenc
Feature % Feature Frequency %
y
How the menu is specified? Menu update time (n:80)
Center is specifying 12 15,00 We don't make updates 7 8,8
Business is specifying 32 40,00 Once in 6 months 18 22,5

Customer profile is taken into
25 31,25 Once in a year 17 21,3
account
Customer demand is taken into

38 47,50 Once in several years 1 1,3
account
It is specified by trial and error 6 7,50 When necessary 36 45,0
General manager and business

29 36,25 As the competitors update 1 1,3
manager specifies it
It appears that a significant part of businesses (%81,7) include local foods in their menus.
Table 3 shows the rate of local foods in menus and in total income. There are businesses
that include local foods in a wide scale as much as there are those that include in a small
scale. In the data set, it is calculated that inclusion rate of local foods in menus is %50 on
average. Consequently, we can say that one in every two foods in the attending businesses'
menus is regional. On the other hand, the rate of income generated by local foods within
total income has a similar distribution as the inclusion rate. In other words, as there are
those that generate low income from local foods there are also others that generates high
income. Generated income from local foods on average compared to the total income is
confirmed as %43,27. This shows one in every two foods is regional but this is not
reflected in the generated income, contribution of the local foods to the total income is
lower. It can be inferred that this situation may be related with the costs of local foods and
competition.
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Tab. 3. Rate of local foods in menus and within total income
Rate of local foods in Rate of local foods income compared to
f % f %
menus total
Less than 10% 11 17,5 Less than 10% 13 20,6
11-20% 6 9,5 11-20% 6 9,5
21-30% 5 7,9 21-30% 9 14,3
31-40% 5 7,9 31-40% 5 7,9
41-50% 6 9,5 41-50% 6 9,5
51-60% 1 1,6 51-60% 2 3,2
61-70% 4 6,3 61-70% 4 6,3
71-80% 4 6,3 71-80% 3 4,8
81-90% 12 19,0 81-90% 8 12,7
91-100% 9 14,3 91-100% 7 11,1
100, 100,
Total 63 Total 63
0 0
Mean 50,26% Mean 43,27%
25 % of customers who visit from out of town for food and beverage prefer local foods
―pretty often‖, %35 of them prefer ―often‖. About %40 of them ―rarely‖ and ―sometimes‖
shows an interest in these local foods. %78 of business managers attending in research
think that local foods are important for the development of gastronomy tourism in the
region. Besides, %58,5 of the same managers think that cities of Adana and Mersin are
rich of local foods.
Most preferred foods by the customers who visit Adana and Mersin for food and beverage
are shown in Table 4. Accordingly, kebap, types of grills, saç kavurma and içli köfte are
the most preferred ones from among meat dishes. It is noteworthy that the restaurants in
Adana has a distinct superiority in these preferences. On the other hand, Mersin becomes a
little more prominent in appetizers and in local desserts.
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Tab. 4. Most prefered foods by the people visiting Adana and Mersin for food and
beverage
Local Food Adana Mersin Total Local Food Adana Mersin Total
Name
f (%) f (%) Name f (%) f (%)
Kebap 28 (71,8) 11 (28,2) 39 Haydari - 9 (100,0) 9
Beğendik 1 (100,0) - 1 ġakĢuka - 4 (100,0) 4
Saç kavurma 3 (30,0) 7 (70,0) 10 BabagannuĢ 1 (16,7) 5 (83,3) 6

Lahmacun 5 (100,0) - 5 Tepsi kebabı - 2 (100,0) 2
Pide 2 (100,0) - 2 Kağıt kebabı - 1 (100,0) 1
Ġçli köfte 8 (80,0) 2 10 Deniz börülcesi - 1 (100,0) 1

(%20,0)
Analıkızlı 1 (100,0) - 1 Izgara çeĢitleri 9 (64,3) 5 (35,7) 14
Sıkma 1 (100,0) - 1 Biber dolma 2 (100,0) - 2
Gözleme 1 (100,0) - 1 Ġmambayıldı 1(100,0) - 1
Çökertme 2 (100,0) - 2 Bumbar 1(100,0) - 1
Kuzu incik 4 (100,0) - 4 Fellah köftesi 1(100,0) - 1
Sigara böreği 2 (100,0) - 2 EkĢili köfte 1(100,0) - 1
Kahvaltı 1(100,0) - 1 Güveç - 2 (100,0) 2
Mantı 1 (50,0) 1 (50,0) 2 Kerebiç - 2 (100,0) 2

Yüksük soup 4 (%80) 1 (%20) 5 Tantuni - 3 (100,0) 3
Ciğer 5 (83,3) 1 (16,7) 6 Et haĢlama - 1 (100,0) 1
KuĢbaĢı 5 (%83,3) 1 (16,7) 6 Süzme yoghurt - 2 (100,0) 2

Etli tava 2 (100,0) - 2 Ezme 1 (50,0) 1 (50,0) 2
Çiğ köfte 5 (62,5) 3 (37,5) 8 Mercimek soup - 2 (100,0) 2
Külbastı 1 (100,0) - 1 Yayla soup - 1 (100,0) 1

Humus 3 (16,7) 15 (83,3) 18 Menemen - 2 (100,0) 2
Tarator - 5 (100,0) 5 Tava 2 (66,7) 1 (33,3) 3
Availability of the breakfast in menus of businesses is shown in Table 5. Accordingly, deri

tulum cheese, gözleme and sıkma are the ones most encountered. These are followed by;
bazlama, çökelek and turunç jam. It was seen that local breakfast components also existed
in businesses. Least found breakfast foods are Sürk and Yörük cheese. Sürk being
indigenous to Hatay province, it appears that it's not preferred by businesses.
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Tab. 5. Availability of breakfast foods in menus
Breakfast Food Adana Mersin Total Breakfast Food Name Adana Mersin Total
Name
f (%) f (%) f (%) f (%)
1. Sürk cheese - 1 (100,0) 1 7. Yörük cheese 6 (85,7) 1 (14,3) 7
2. Sıkma 12 (70,6) 5 (29,4) 17 8. Turunç jam 9 (75,0) 3 (25,0) 12

3. Bazlama 9 (69,2) 4 (30,8) 13 9. Sünme cheese 6 (85,7) 1 (14,3) 7
4. Çökelek 9 (75,0) 3 (25,0) 12 10. Carra cheese 4 (80,0) 1 (20,0) 5
5. Gözleme 11 (61,1) 7 (38,9) 18 11. LavaĢ cheese 6 (75,0) 2 (25,0) 8
6. Deri tulum cheese 15 (60,0) 10 (40,0) 25 12. Ezme-yaprak 5 (71,4) 2 (28,6) 7

cheese
Table 6 shows the availability of pastries in business menus. Accordingly spring rolls is the
most included one out of pastries. This is followed by mantı, water heurek and fındık
lahmacun. These pastries that we confirmed are the most included ones in menus appear to
be the most known pastries by local and foreigner tourists (Hassan and f., 2010a, p.949).
Less included pastries in the menus are kaytaz heurek and katıklı bread. The reason for this
is thought to be that these foods are indigenous to Hatay province.
Tab. 6. Availability of the pastries in menus
Pastries Name Adana Mersin Total Pastries Name Adana Mersin Total
f (%) f (%) f (%) f (%)
1.Kaytaz heurek - 1 (100,0) 1 8. Peynirli 8 (72,7) 3 (27,3) 11
dolama heurek
2. Peppered bread 4 (44,4) 5 (55,6) 9 9. Katmer 4 (80,0) 1 (20,0) 5

3.Katıklı bread - 2 (100,0) 2 10. Muska 5 (41,7) 7 (58,3) 12
heurek
4. Mantı 11 (57,8) 8 (42,1) 19 11. Spring rolls 17 (54,8) 14 (45,2) 31
5. Fındık lahmacun 8 (53,3) 7 (46,7) 15 12. Saç heurek 6 (75,0) 2 (25,0) 8

6. Kıymalı dolama 5 (55,6) 4 (44,4) 9 13. Susamlı 2 (50,0) 2 (50,0) 4
heurek heurek
7. Ispanaklı dolama 5 (55,6) 4 (44,4) 9 14. Water 12 (66,7) 6 (33,3) 18

heurek heurek
Table 7 shows the availability of soups in business menus. Accordingly; tarhana, düğün,
yüksük, analıkızlı, ekĢili köfte and eriĢteli green lentil soup with noodles are the most
encountered ones. It was observed that local soups are primarily included in menus and are
247
balanced mixes for healthy nourishment. Oğmaç, arabaĢı and tutmaç are less common
soups in menus of the region. Our traditional soups oğmaç, toyga and tutmaç are not
known by the youth (ġanlıer and f., 2010c, p.926), that is to say, sinks gradually into
oblivion. On the other hand batırık, eriĢka and zilif soups are never included in restaurant
menus.
Tab. 7. Availability of soups in menus
Soup Name Adana Mersin Total Soup Name Adana Mersin Total
f (%) f (%) f (%) f (%)
1.Dul avrat soup 3 (100,0) - 3 11. Batırık soup - - -
2.Toyga soup 1 (25,0) 3 (75,0) 4 12. EriĢka soup - - -
3.EkĢili köfte soup 8 (80,0) 2 (20,0) 10 13. Zilif soup - - -
4.Tarhana soup 12 (85,7) 2 (14,3) 14 14.Oğmaç soup 1 (100,0) - 1
5.Süt soup 2 (66,7) 1 (33,3) 4 15. Topalak soup 3 (60,0) 2 (40,0) 5
6.Tatar soup 3 (100,0) - 3 16.Yarma soup 1 (50,0) 1 (50,0) 2
7.Düğün soup 11 (84,6) 2 (15,4) 13 17. ArabaĢı soup - 1 (100,0) 1
8. EriĢteli green lentil soup 6 (60,4) 4 (40,0) 10 18.Tutmaç soup 2 (100,0) - 2
9.Yüksük soup 10 (71,4) 4 (28,6) 14 19. Analıkızlı 6 (60,4) 4 (40,0) 10

soup
10.Un soup 4 (66,7) 2 (33,3) 6 20. Sulu köfte 6 (66,7) 3 (33,3) 9
Table 8 shows the availability of appetizers in business menus. Accordingly, humus,

haydari, babagannuĢ and hot spicy tomato dip are found in menus. These are followed by
onion salad, aubergine yoghurt, cacık, tarator, ĢakĢuka with yoghurt, olive salad and
muhammara. Less found appetizers in menus are fresh sürk salad and çökelek salad.
Although there is no statistical evidence, Adana is superior in terms of meat dishes, Mersin
becomes prominent with regard to appetizers. This situation is thought to stem from
Mersin being a coastal city and there are more fish restaurants in the city.
248
Tab. 8. Availability of appetizers in menus
Appetizer Name Adana Mersin Total Appetizer Name Adana Mersin Total
f (%) f (%) f (%) f (%)
1.BabagannuĢ 22 (55,0) 18 (45,0) 40 10. Çökelek salad 5 (71,4) 2 (28,6) 7
2. Humus 24 (52,2) 22 (47,8) 46 11. Haydari 25 (55,6) 20 (44,4) 45

3. Hot spicy tomato 23 (57,5) 17 (42,5) 40 12. Muhammara 15 (65,2) 8 (34,8) 23
dip
4. Aubergine 17 (58,6) 12 (41,4) 29 13.ġakĢuka with 14 (56,0) 11 (44,0) 25

yoghurt yoghurt
5.Zahter salad 6 (46,2) 7 (53,8) 13 14. Onion salad 23 (74,2) 8 (25,8) 31
6.Olive salad 14 (63,6) 8 (36,4) 24 15. Baked onion salad 11 (64,7) 6 (35,3) 17
with pomegranate
molasses
7. Fresh sürk salad 2 (40,0) 3 (60,0) 5 16. Cacık 23 (62,2) 14 (37,8) 27
8.Tarator 13 (50,0) 13 (50,0) 26 17. Fava 10 (76,9) 3 (23,1) 13
9. Red pepper with 10 (76,9) 3 (23,1) 13 18. ġakĢuka 22 (64,7) 12 (35,3) 34

walnut
Table 9 shows the distribution of olive oil included in businesses menus. Accordingly,
mostly included foods in menus are dolma-sarma with olive oil and kidney beans with
olive oil. They are followed by green beans with olive oil, artichoke with olive oil and
imambayıldı with olive oil. These foods are observed to be the most included ones in the
menus and most preferred ones (dolma, imambayıldı and mücver) by the youth at the same
time (ġanlıer and f., 2010c, p.927). The promotion of traditional foods to the local and
foreigner tourists along with young generations for the sake of its maintainability. The
least included olive oil dishes are eggplant with green lentil and stuffed turnips.
249
Tab. 9. Availability of olive oil dishes in menus
Food Name Adana Mersin Total Food Name Adana Mersin Total
f (%) f (%) f (%) f (%)
1. Dolma-sarma with 17 (68,0) 8 (32,0) 25 8. Mercimek köfte 6 (60,0) 4 (40,0) 10
olive oil
2. Ġmam bayıldı 9 (60,0) 6 (40,0) 15 9. Green beans with 12 (70,6) 5 (29,4) 17
olive oil
3. Zucchini çintme 5 (50,0) 5 (50,0) 10 10. Artichoke with 12 (75,0) 4 (25,0) 16

olive oil
4. Stuffed turnips 4 (100,0) - 4 11. Celery with olive 10 (71,4) 4 (28,6) 14

oil
5. Kidney bean with 13 (56,5) 10 23 12. Leek with olive 11 (84,6) 2 (15,4) 13
olive oil (43,5) oil
6. Eggplant with green 1 (33,3) 2 (66,7) 3 13. Dry black-eyed 6 (66,7) 3 (33,3) 9
lentils peas with olive oil
7. Sarımsaklı köfte 7 (77,8) 2 (22,2) 9 14. Mücver 6 (66,7) 3 (33,3) 9
Table 10 shows the frequency distribution of meat dishes included in the menus of
attending businesses. Accordingly, while the most include food is Adana kebab, it is
followed by respectively grilled meatballs, liver kebab, steak tartar a la turca and stuffed
meatballs. In the research in which familiarness of meat and meat dishes by university
youth was reviewed as part of Turkish cuisine culture, the most preferred ones are
respectively; steak tartar a la turca (%98.5), stuffed meatballs (%96.5) and farci (%91.2)
and the least known ones are oruk and lamb casserole (ġanlıer and f., 2010a, p.375).
Moreover, as far as it is seen a local food based situation is prevalent. Some and less
known foods such as Ottoman maklube, oruk, bumbar and Ģırdan dolma were included
relatively less.
250
Tab. 10. Availability of meat dishes in menus
Yemek adı Adana Mersin Total Yemek adı Adana Mersin Total
f (%) f (%) f (%) f (%)
1. Adana kebab 27 (60,0) 18 (40,0) 45 12. Kağıt kebab 4 (30,8) 9 (69,2) 13
2. Tantuni 2 (20,0) 8 (80,0) 10 13. Tepsi (Sini) 4 (30,8) 9 (69,2) 13

kebab
3. Liver kebab 18 (62,1) 11 (37,9) 29 14. Oruk 1 (33,3) 2 (66,7) 3
4. Bumbar stuffed 2 (100,0) - 2 15. Grilled meatballs 24 (63,2) 14 (36,8) 40
5. ġırdan stuffed 1 (50,0) 1 (50,0) 2 16. Kadınbudu köfte 11 (68,8) 5 (31,3) 16
6. Stuffed green pepper- 7 (100,0) - 7 17. Kuru köfte 9 (64,3) 5 (35,7) 14

zucchini-eggplant with
chickpea
7. Ottoman maklube 1 (100,0) - 1 18. Hünkar beğendi 7 (53,8) 6 (46,2) 13
8. Seasoned rice 10 (58,8) 7 (41,7) 17 19. Karnıyarık 10 (66,7) 5 (33,3) 15
9. Stuffed meatballs 15 (57,7) 11 (42,3) 26 20. White bean stew 12 (66,7) 6 (33,3) 18
with meat
10. Steak tartar a la turca 14 (51,9) 13 (48,1) 27 21. Chick peas with 8 (57,1) 6 (42,9) 14
meat
11. Ġncik 9 (50,0) 9 (50,0) 18 22. Zucchini with 6 (54,5) 5 (45,5) 11

meat
23.Türlü 6 (54,5) 5 (45,5) 11
Turkish kitchen is considered as a very rich kitchen in terms of dessert variety

(Kemahlıoğlu and Yazar, 2010, p.505). The most common desserts in Turkish kitchen are
milk puddings such as baklava of which main ingredient is flour and can be made adding
pistachio, walnut and nuts, kadayıf and that can be made with diary products such as
crema, cheese (Dönmez and f., 2009, p.36). Table 11 show the availability of desserts in
menus. Accordingly, most included ones in the business menus are sütlaç, kazandibi and
tel kadayıf. These are followed by baklava and muhallebi. Desserts commonly consumed
countrywide and not local can be said to be included more in menus. It appears that local
desserts such as haytalı, bicibici and karsambaç reach costumers through smaller
businesses and peddlers, from among the desserts about to be forgotten, dilberdudağı,
zerde and vezirparmağı are not included in menus as required. It was specified n researches
of the familiarity with traditional desserts that; most popular desserts among university
students are semolina helva, flour helva, aĢure, künefe, güllaç, baklava and kazandibi
(ġanlıer and f., 2010b, p.935), most popular ones among local and foreigner tourists
primarily baklava and respectively aĢure, lokum, helva, lokma, piĢmaniye, sütlaç, güllaç,
hoĢaf and muhallebi (Hassan and f., 2010a, p.949). It was observed that primarily karakuĢ,
taĢ kadayıf, Ģam dessert and halka dessert are included from among the local desserts in
Adana and kerebiç dessert in Mersin.
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Tab. 11. Availability of desserts in menus
Dessert Adana Mersin Total Dessert Name Adana Mersin Total
Name
f (%) f (%) f (%) f (%)
1.Halka 3 (60,0) 2 (40,0) 5 17.Tel kadayıf 15 (75,0) 5 (25,0) 20
dessert
2.KarakuĢ 2 (66,7) 1 (33,3) 3 18.Bülbülyuvası 3 (75,0) 1 (25,0) 4
dessert
3.Ġrmik 9 (64,3) 5 (35,7) 14 19.Dilberdudağı 2 (100,0) - 2

helvası
4.Un helvası 5 (83,3) 1 (16,7) 6 20.Tulumba 4 (57,1) 3 (42,9) 7

dessert
5.AĢure 7 (63,6) 4 (36,4) 11 21.Ekmek 4 (80,0) 1 (20,0) 5

kadayıfı
6.Künefe 8 (61,5) 5 (38,5) 13 22.KeĢkül 8 (72,7) 3 (27,3) 11
7.Güllaç 8 (72,7) 3 (27,3) 11 23.Revani 5 (55,6) 4 (44,4) 9
8.Lokma 4 (100,0) - 4 24. Karsambaç 1 (100,0) - 1

tatlısı
9.Baklava 10 (58,8) 7 (41,2) 17 25. Sütlaç 16 (59,3) 11 (40,7) 27
10.Kazandibi 15 (75,0) 5 (25,0) 20 26. Muhallebi 7 (46,7) 8 (53,3) 15

11.Kerebiç 1 (11,1) 8 (88,9) 9 27. Tavukgöğsü 8 (57,1) 6 (42,9) 14
12.Haytalı 1 (100,0) - 1 28. Kalburabastı 3 (75,0) 1 (25,0) 4
13.ġam tatlısı 4 (80,0) 1 (20,0) 5 29. ġekerpare 7 (58,3) 5 (41,7) 12

14.Bicibici 1 (100,0) - 1 30. ġöbiyet 2 (66,7) 1 (33,3) 3
15.Kabak 8 (61,5) 5 (38,5) 13 31. Zerde 1 (50,0) 1 (50,0) 2

tatlısı
16.TaĢ 7 (70,0) 3 (30,0) 10 32.Vezirparmağı 2 (100,0) - 2

kadayıf
Table 12 shows the availability of drinks in menus. Accordingly, our traditional drink tea
is the most included one in our menus. This is followed by Turkish coffee and buttermilk.
This situation reflects the situation acoss the country. Drinks such as HaĢlama and kaynar
being available in menus though in small amounts is noteworthy.
252
Tab. 12. Availability of the drinks in menus
Drinks Name Adana Mersin Total Drinks Name Adana Mersin Total
f (%) f (%) f (%) f (%)
1. Salep 12 (44,4) 15 (55,6) 27 5. Buttermilk 33 (66,0) 17 (34,0) 50
2. HaĢlama/AĢlama (Licorice) 5 (100,0) - 5 6. Turkish 31 (54,4) 26 (45,6) 57

coffee
3. Kaynar 6 (100,0) - 6 7. Tea 35 (59,3) 24 (40,7) 59
4. Turnip juice 31 (60,8) 20 (39,2) 51
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

Due to the our present day, conditions and great changes, the chance of our culture being
persistent is decreasing day by day (ġanlıer and f., 2008, p.1123). Changing living
conditions and exposure to western culture, rapid industrialisation and urbanization,
women participating working life, and their educational level increasing cause the eating
habits and related appreciation habits to change (ġanlıer and f., 2010c, p.925). However
with the increase of local foods in menus, gastronomy tourism which is recently becoming
prominent both in our country and in the region will be supported and will help these foods
to survive without losing their essence and to pass on to new generations preventing them
to be forgotten. The ultimate way to increase the number of tourists in the region and
gastronomy tourism to accelerate across the country is the inclusion of our local foods
hotels and restaurants menus and the promotion of regional cuisine ideally.
When the acquired data in the reasearch is evaluated, it is possible to reach following
summary results:
1) In addition to breakfast foods popular across the country (tulum cheese, gözleme) local
breakfast foods (sıkma, bazlama, çökelek and turunç jam) are also included in business
menus.
2) Pastries of which familiarness by local and foreigner tourists is pretty high (mantı, water
heurek) (Hassan and f., 2010a, p.949) appear to be included in the menus.
3) Regional soups (such as yüksük, tarhana, analıkızlıi ekĢili köfte) are specified to be
often included in business menus.
4) Appetizers with high familiarness and commonly encountered in the southern kitchen
(such as humus, haydari, babagannuĢ, acılı ezme) are included in the menus.
5) It is specified that foods with olive oil (dolma-sarma with olive oil, kidney bean with
olive oil) with high familiarness (ġanlıer and f., 2010c, p.927) primarily by young people
are included in menus.
6) As for the meat dishes Adana kebab which has a special place in southern kitchen is the
first place. Along with that other meat dishes (grilled meatballs, liver kebap, steak tartar a
253
la turca, stuffed meatballs) with high familiarities (ġanlıer and f., 2010a, p.375) are
specified to be included in menus.
7) Desserts with high familiarness by local and foreigner tourists (Hassan and f., 2010a,
p.949) frequently consumed and not local traditional desserts (baklava, sütlaç, kazandibi,
tel kadayıf) are seen to be included in menus.
8) Traditional honouring drinks of Turks, tea and Turkish coffee are included in all
business menus. This situation not being a regional feature, is prevalent all across the
country.
It is reported that income level of tourists is an important variable in their attendance in
gastronomy tourism activities, tourists with high income prefer regional and premium
restaurants, take interest in local foods, buy various gastronomic products (Bekar and
Kılıç, 2014, p19). That is to say, local foods can play a role for the specification of the
profile of tourist mass visiting the region. Accordingly as the rate of inclusion of local
foods in menus will create attraction for tourists with high income, there will be benefits in
increasing this rate. Besides, promotion, advertisements, creating separate menus from
business menus can be a motivation for drawing attention to the foods and thus to region.
Gastronomy tourism is one of the developing types of tourism currently. Regions which
are tried to be developed by featuring local foods can increase their familiarity by creating
awareness. Gastronomic variety which is one of the cultural elements ensures cooking and
eating habits to be preserved and improve in regions where it turned into a touristic
attraction element (Deveci and f., 2013, p.29). In our country local foods of each region
differ and are varied. Tourism businesses play an important role regions drawing attention
with their own cuisine cultures. In planning of these businesses' menus, ensuring local
foods and drinks to certainly take place in the menu has a primary importance in making
the region a preferable attraction center as a gastronomy tourism destination. Replies
received to the question directed to business managers ―Why do you include
traditional/local foods in your menu?‖ are put in a good way for this argument. Because a
great number of managers replied this question as ―As it's our customers' demand‖ (40
managers) So there is a demand for local foods. For this reason, rich cuisine culture must
be used as a tool for maintaining region's destination image.
Increasing the inclusion rate of local foods will create long term benefits. Namely,
awareness and familiarness will turn into attention in time and this will turn into demand if
proper maintaining effort is made. Thus we will get a chance to prevent some troublesome
and long time-consuming local foods to be defeated by convenience food industry in a
wide scale. On the other hand, it can be said that ensuring national and international
familiarness will make it easy for these foods to be passed on to future generations and
thus will contribute to its maintenance. Expressions of business managers as ―we are
including local foods in our menus for making the new visitors taste local foods, promoting
our regional cuisine, protecting and maintaining our culture‖ support this argument.
Business managers saying they don't include local foods in their menus attribute its reason
to the difference in their concepts.
Prominance of some local foods in research can be interpreted as positive. However, the
awareness that regional cuisine is not made up of only Adana kebab or stuffed meatballs,
that there is a rich culture in the region, other local foods should also be cared about.
254
Moreover, the fact that research area is close to regions such as Gaziantep and Hatay where
regional cuisine is prominent must be considered an advantage, efforts for national and
international integrated marketing of the region in terms of gastronomy tourism must be
raised.
The fact that no class discrimination was made among businesses in the research area to
obtain as much data as possible in this research aiming at reviewing the inclusion rate of
local foods in menus of hotels and restaurants, is the most sigificant limitation of the
reasearch. The research performed with 82 businesses in total from two cities constitutes
another limitation in terms of sample size. On the other hand, struggle to sample
qualitative businesses as far as possible is another limitation. In other words, places that
can be defined as small or booth are not included in universe. So as for the researches to be
made, there is benefit in reviewing all the restaurants regardless of their size having
hygiene and cleanliness to get more generalisable results.
In sequential researches, factors affecting restaurants' traditional/local food and beverage
preferences can be specified. With regard to the detected factors, elaborate interviews can
be made with the ones that prefer the least or the most by mens of situation sampling.
Based on these interviews, it can be set forth in detail why local foods and drinks take
place less in menus and how they can be raised. Delphi studies can also be performed
concerning the problems and their solutions.
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CHANGING TOURISM MARKETING STRATEGY OF TURKEY FOR
THE LAST 10 YEARS
A. Nurdan Tümbek Tekeoglu1
Abstract: Tourism is one of the main income resources of Turkey and it increased to 34 billion 305
million 904 thousand USD in 2014 compared with 2013. It means 6,2 percent increase compared
with 2013's figures. The increasing number of luxurous and modern hotels, the restoration and
renovation of churchs and their opening to worship, increasing number of international conferences
and meetings, the export of Turkish serials to many countries all over the world,the developing
facilities of internet for booking, increasing numbers of tourism blogs and web sites, the special
interest and strong communication of the government and other institutions to other regions like
Middle East and Africa, increasing number of marinas, strong advertising and PR campaigns of
Turkish Airlines and the government, the promotion of new destinations in Turkey, many
marinas,attracting gastronomy possibilities are only few factors of the changing marketing strategy
of Turkey.This paper is explaining the new strategic approachs to tourism and its results in the last
10 years.
Key words: Tourism, Tourism in Turkey, marketing strategy
CHANGE OF THE MARKETING STRATEGIES OF TOURISM
The great interest of the human beings to see and learn new places is leading people to
travel from economic,cıltural or other reasons. Paralel to the economic and social
developments, the increasing income level, the developments of the communication and
information technology, less working hours and the increasing holiday periods effected the
tourism sector and it became international (Artun, 2013, s. 1).
In such an international atmosphere the tourism sector should satify the demands of the
tourists and also there should be an industrial structure. The industry side of tourism
doesn‘t include accommodation and travelling servicesa (Altan 2009, s. 34). There should
be also marketing of the products and services the tourists demand, the superstructure and
infrasturcture investments should be realized. All these prove the growing and industrial
dimensions of the tourism dimension. This dimension has more international characteristic
(Soyak, 2013, ss. 4-5).
The tourism sector plays an important role for the cultural and economical development of
related countries and owns a potential for the protection and development of the
social,cultural and economical heritage (Smith, 1995, s.46). Based on that fact the tourism
should be supported and it is the responsibility of the state and the other factors in the
industry to keep dynamism of the tourism sector (Duru 2008, s. 62). The support should be
continious, not periodic and the tourism sector should provide the profit that is expected by
the tourism actors by increasing earnings so that the obligations realted with tourism
industry are fulfilled.
The above mentioned developments and the increasing profit expectation warned people of
this industry for more planned communication and marketing efforts as the limited tourism
marketing mentality should be brought to a more developed level by using the technology
factors both in national and international arena (Beyazgül 2009, s. 44).
1
Assistant Professor, Beykent Üniversitesi, Ayazaga Maslak YerleĢkesi, Turkey.
257
Especially the international tourism industry is marketing all the goods and services as a
package after all the changes in the world. Thus, many sub factors of the tourism industry
as tour operators, transportation companies, travel agencies,rent a car companies, food and
beverage sector and hotels became international and a large-scale supply chain was built
(Soyak, 2013, s. 5).
The mass tourism spurs the international tourism sector and the tourism sector is
restructuring itself and looking for new marketing methods with the developments of
internet and the information technology in 1990‘s anda t the same time with the new
economical developments and the impulses of the tourism sector coming from itself
(Toureg, 2009, s.10).
The information technology is providing the information infrastructure of the tourism
sector and at the same time simplifies the purchasing of the new tourism destinations.
Technology and innovation in the tourism sector provides a competitive advantage with
the new marketing channels as promotion, distribution,regulation and providing of touristic
products to the consumers and usage of the resources rationally. (KarataĢ ve Babür 2013, s.
15).
With the developments of the economical structure based on the globalization increased
the importance of the customer oriented services(Bağdat, 2007, s. 39). Among them is
tourism, which is providing for the clients at the top level. Therefore tourism sector should
plan all the marketing activities not only during the tourism season but also before the
tourism season during the decision making period of the clients. (Çekiç 2007, s. 55).
Consumers in tourism sector are using all the possibilities given to them by the new
economy and give the decision fort he best product or service suitable fort hem. They learn
all about the product price, characteristics and how to reach. The tourism companies
always define their target groups, their consumption demands and create their product mix
(KarataĢ ve Babür 2013, s. 19). There are interactive and more effective promotional
activities in the electronical media. Especially the websites became very important
channels for the tourism stakeholders to promote themselves(Altan 2009, s. 49).
The information and communication technologies transform the activities of the tourism
corporations, their communication methods and also the purchasing ways of the
purchasing of the touristic goods and services(Bağdat, 2007: 40). The main reason is the
possibility to realize interactive marketing activities to more target groups in limited time
to provide time saving as the tourism is seasonal and provide limited time period for
marketing(Terzioğlu 2010, s. 81).
Therefore the tourism sector is trying to make use of all the technological changes and
developments. Informationa and detail is very important for the tourism sector and
everybody in the sector welcomes the usage of it for the marketing activities (Kilimci
2009, s. 34).
Touristic services are intangible, therefore there is o chance to try before buying it.
Therefore the marketing, communication and explanation of the touristic services have to
be made very clearly. The satisfaction of the consumer is only possible through very actual
and correct information exchange (KarataĢ ve Babür 2013, ss. 19-20). Therefore
interactive applications are very necessary.
Below are the trends effecting the marketing activities and it‘s development and change
(KarataĢ ve Babür 2013, s. 20):
- New emerging international competitors with the new global economy,
- With the increasing prosperity new competitors and actors in the supply chain of the
tourism industry and others sectors,
258
-New fast changing socio-economic structure and continious consumer demands,
- Tourism demand with the changing life styles ( hysterical travels, adventure trips or
education oriented tours),
- With increasing income level more satisfaction expectations and more looking for
harmony and value added services and expectation for more tailor made touristic solutions,
- More conscious consumers eager to learn more with the help o fthe developed
information Technologies (direct marketing is more convenient for these clients),
- More usage of the communication products by the tourism consumers because of the
increase of the interest and practice of the information Technologies.
Most of the tourism companies making their communication through the internet reach
more people in a limited time and they design their own web pages and have the advantage
of informing the consumers in a more detailed way and they also make it possible to make
one‘s own reservations with the help of the web sites (ġahin ve Akdoğdu, 2004: 4).
The technological channels give the tourism actors the chance to evaluate their activities
based on the information they collected from the consumers and give the necessary
background to decide the direction fort the new investments. All these motivate the
tourism industry players to realize sustainable activities and make their marketing activities
accordingly (Döner 2011, ss. 54).
The distribution channels of the tourism sector make more and more use of the
communication and information technologies Marketing success is only possible by
defining the right product or service at the right place and with the right distribution
channels. Ditsribution is getting easier evryday by the communication and information
Technologies and with this cost advantage is obtained and a mutual communication is
provided betwwen the ones buying the touristic products and the target markets (KarataĢ
ve Babür 2013, s. 20).
Advantages of the technology to the actors of the tourism industry are as the following
(Pırnar, 2005: 71):
- Easy access to thousands of database and documentation centre to investigate about the
data related with the tourism sector through the internet,
- Reaching the targetted information by specific shortening and concentration on specific
topics among unlimited information,
- Easiness for following and evaluation of statistics for special target groups with special
demographical characteristics,
- Fastness and easiness while sharing, building and distribution of the information,
- Interactive communication with the clients and other groups related with the sector,
- Actualization convenience of the existing data and information,
- Fastness,effectivtiy and productivity by e-mailing,
- Reduction of traditional marketing costs,
- Easiness for raeching national and international demographic markets,
- Fastness and effectivity at the application of the new campaigns,
- Cost saving by shortening the communication period,
- Easiness to measure the obtained results,
- Feedback possibility from the target groups,
- Development of the company image and impact effect,
- Possibility to prepare presentations,company catalogues and brochures at the internet,
- Easiness to reach international media during the communication activities
- 24 hour communication,
- Dissolution of the continental,regional and geographical obstacles
259
- To be able to be acquainted with the competitors following the new technologies.
Every stakeholder of the tourism sector has to use the technology. The development of the
tourism sector is more up to the steps mad efor marketing via the electronical media.
Communicating through the electronical media provides to the tourism sector with cost
saving and as the tourism sector is effected by the economical crises all over the world
heavily, all the actors of the sector take electronical media into account (Gürsey ve Parla
2012, s. 44).
As the technology supported the marketing activities of tourism new tourism activity fields
have been created. The new channels created by the socio-cultural developments, the
attractiveness of various organizations and spaces related with famous names are only a
few factors of the tourism marketing world. Every factor has a great effect to attract people
to a certain destination. (Döner 2011, ss. 54).
Television and internet create new tourism areas with their continious changing
content.Documentaries, sport organisations,meetings,fairs and exhibitions are all seen as a
marketing tool by the stakeholders of the tourism industry to attract the attention of the
consumers (Gürsey ve Parla 2012, s. 46).Each and every organisation organised for the
actors of the tourism and each emerging socio-cultural fact means broading of the market.
The stakeholders of the tourism sector sponsor the above mentioned organisations to create
new tourism channels and discovery of new ways for touism marketing. Sea,hotel and
historical monuments are not enough for tourism: all the factors except these created by the
popular culture are effective means for marketing and the tourism sector give big efforts to
use them(Mutlu 2010, ss. 73).
Beside the marketing advantages of the technolgy there is a differentiation of the tourism
products. This differentiation emerge from the different interest areas of the consumers.
More different promotions are needed in the name of tourism where there is a severe
competition among the increasing number of tourism companies and efforts have to be
given to create more earnings for more stakeholders of the tourism (Kilimci 2009, s. 84).
Finding of the research based on the evaluation of the interviews of 67 tourism actors that
are in tourism sector for more than 10 years support the subjects in this paper. The most
important finding of the research is that the Turkish serials effected the pomotion of
Turkey abroad.Some thematic serials effected people in and outside the country to prefer
Turkey for their holiday. The fact that the serials are also followed in electronical media
created a new tourism marketing channels for Turkey.
Another noteworthy finding is the increasing transportation possibilities to the historical
and tourism places. Accordingly the state and other tourism actors made the necessary
attempts to attract the tourists to different tourism destinations. The transportation to the
tourism destination is promoted by the stated.
Another finding which respondents supported strongly is that the promotional activities for
conferences, fairs and exhibitions, meetings, seminars, shopping, sports competitions,
environmental trips, edutacational possibilities increased remarkably. Each and every actor
in the tourism sector finds itself a new field in the above mentioned spectrum to promote
and diversify his activities.
And lastly the high agreeing to the increase of the luxurious hotels proves that
accommodation under good conditions is an important means to be able to attract tourists
to a country. Electronical media simplifies both information exchange and choosing
between different alternatives for the tourists
260
Another interesting point of the research is the increase of the tourists from the Middle
Eastern countries and the increasing interest level to the tourism products in Turkey. The
incentive organizations and the socio-economic developments had positive effect on the
Middle-eastern population.
CONCLUSION
The tourism sector is sensitive due to the changing purchasing power of people according
to the global economical developments . This interaction influenced each and every actor
in the tourism sector in the last 20 years. But the tourism sector is following the latest
developments all around the world and has taken measures by creating new spaces to itself.
Thus in today‘s world the tourism sector isn‘t effected much by every new development in
the world and it is surviving strongly.
This surviving was only possible through strong marketing structures. All the actors of
tourism has the chance to communicate and market its activities all around the world by
the technology.
Actors of tourism left the traditional advertising tactics as brochure or newspaper
advertising and used all the means of technology and internet is attracting everyone
because of its practical and profitable solutions for more earnings.
The marketing perception is being changed according to the solutions that the technology
provides and thus the tourism world is finding itself new marketing channels, new clients
and new business partners.Technology is also serving to tourism as it is serving to many
other sectors and makes it possible to reach people to be able to promote or market
different activities, products and services.
Beside the technology all the socio-economical developments and sport based
organisations and many others in the world are important for marketing the tourism sector.
All the steps made to make profit makes the several sports organizations or others
important to open new tourism channels..Every organisation during the year causes
travelling of clients to a destination and supports touristic activities. Thus actors in the
tourism sector create themselves new markets by investigating the possible tourism service
aspects at these organisations.
Finding of the research based on the evaluation of the interviews of 67 tourism actors that
are in tourism sector for more than 10 years support the subjects in this paper. The most
important finding of the research is that the Turkish serials effected the pomotion of
Turkey abroad.Some thematic serials effected people in and outside the country to prefer
Turkey for their holiday. The fact that the serials are also followed in electronical media
created a new tourism marketing channels for Turkey.
Another noteworthy finding is the increasing transportation possibilities to the historical
and tourism places. Accordingly the state and other tourism actors made the necessary
attempts to attract the tourists to different tourism destinations. The transportation to the
tourism destination is promoted by the stated.
Another finding which respondents supported strongly is that the promotional activities for
conferences, fairs and exhibitions, meetings, seminars, shopping, sports competitions,
environmental trips, edutacational possibilities increased remarkably. Each and every actor
in the tourism sector finds itself a new field in the above mentioned spectrum to promote
and diversify his activities.
And lastly the high agreeing to the increase of the luxurious hotels proves that
accommodation under good conditions is an important means to be able to attract tourists
261
to a country. Electronical media simplifies both information exchange and choosing
between different alternatives for the tourists
Another interesting point of the research is the increase of the tourists from the Middle
Eastern countries and the increasing interest level to the tourism products in Turkey. The
incentive organizations and the socio-economic developments had positive effect on the
Middle-eastern population.
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262
EVALUATION OF FACTOR OF HOSPITALITY IN SARAJEVO
TOURISM DESTINATION
Lejla Žunić1
Abstract: Hospitality, as a cultural receptional factor, has a great importance for a tourism planning
and tourism & geographical destination development. Research problem considers an analysis and
evaluation of hospitality in Sarajevo tourism destination. The aim of this article is to research the
basic parameters/ indicators of hospitality in order to understand their value. Parameters of
hospitality are: qualifications, affability and English language skills. The basic methodology will
include collecting data for statistical analysis and survey research that will be used to assess
opinions of tourists, tourism managers and tourism employees.
Key words: Sarajevo tourism destination, hospitality, tourism, qualifications, affability, English
language skills, tourism planning, tourism & geographical development.
1. Introduction
The factor of hospitality is a cultural receptional tourism factor. Hospitality can be defined
as a ''face to face'' interaction between consumer and a seller (Dobre, R., Rusković, P.,
Čivljak, M., 2004, p. 32). Brotherton (1999) defines hospitality as making the guest ''feel at
home'' (Smet, T., 2003, pp. 5, 8). Hospitality has a multiple influence at tourist arrivals, but
it's even more important at propaganda effects and increasing consumers. Hospitality
include qualifications of tourism staff and affability (Jovičić, Ţ., 1986). Qualifications
should consider the right diploma of workplace as well as an education degree. Affability
of destination means more then just a kindness of tourism staff, it's about kindness of local
people or sellers as well, etc. English language is the global language that connect people
and help them to understand each other. Same time, the understanding of tourist needs is
the priority thing for a successful tourism development. Therefore, it is very important to
research and to do evaluation of factor of hospitality in Sarajevo, that has a positive
tourism growth during the last decade. This study will explore the recent characteristics of
hospitality, as a key factor of welcoming destination for tourists.
2. Background
Sarajevo tourism destination has a positive tourism growth. There's a significant increase
in the number of tourists (1999: 55177, 2009: 156081, 2012: 256628) and the overnight
stays (1999: 138657, 2009: 290308, 2012: 504929). Foreign tourist participation is more
then 80% in total arrivals. The structure of arrivals is very different, the biggest share takes
tourists from Croatia 17,4%, Turkey 13,9%, Slovenia 8,1%, Serbia 4,9%, Germany 4,4%,
Italy, Kuwait, South Korea and USA. On the other hand, tourists from Croatia 14,9%,
Turkey 12,8% and Kuwait 9,7%, takes the biggest share in the overnight stays. (Tourism
Association of Sarajevo Canton, Sarajevo)
1
Senior teaching assistant & doctorant, Department of Geography, Faculty of Sciences, University
of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, e-mail: pmflejlazunic@yahoo.com.
263
Fig. 1. Integral Concept of Hospitality & Tourism – interactivity of services
(Khan, M., 2012)
According to the integral concept of a hospitality & tourism, all services are interactively
connected in a very compound system. This system consist different needs of tourists
(informations, lifting, accomodation, food & drink), but also an affability/ kindness of a
tourism staff, etc. Thus, hospitality & tourism industry includes:
Hotels, restaurants, air flights, surface transportation, attractions, museums,
schools, colledge, accomodation.
Impresion.
Services are intangible, heterogeneous, consumable.
Contact includes smile, cultural diversity and calmness. (Khan, M., 2012)
According to the official statistics for 2011 year, hospitality & tourism takes 4,5% in a
total employment of Sarajevo. (Institute for Statistics of Federation of Bosnia &
Herzegovina)
264
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Fig. 2. Growth of employees in Sarajevo hospitality & tourism 2000-2011 year

(Institute for Statistics of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina)
The graph above (fig.2) shows that Sarajevo tourism destination, generally, has a positive
growth of employees in a hospitality & tourism sector during the decade period (2000:
3637; 2011: 5649). This indicates profitable and sustainable development of hospitality
services. The results of terrain observations show a positive growth of accomodations and
restaurants (caffe, restaurants, etc.) on the southwest of Sarajevo (Ilidţa), near to health &
recreative motives (thermal baths, Spring of river Bosnia), as well as besides the main
traffic roads and in a downtown (Titova, Ferhadija st.), while their biggest concentration is
in the oldtown of a destination (Bascharshia), which is the top tourist attraction.
Tab. 1. Traffic growth in a hospitality & tourism of Sarajevo destination 2009-2013
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Hotels, etc. 47.928 51.912 48.789 54.778 60.567
Resorts, camps 1.021 1.181 788 682 626
Restaurants, etc. 7.033 6.781 5.755 11.937 15.701
Catering 1.353 1.405 1.516 1.396 1.204
Food & drink service 5.423 4.117 3.608 3.192 2.995
Total: 62.758 65.396 60.456 71.985 81.093
(Statistical Yearbook of Canton Sarajevo for 2013 year, 2014)
According to the table, Sarajevo tourism destination has a positive traffic growth in its
hospitality & tourism over the 2009-2013 year. Hotels has the biggest traffic participation,
as the overnight stays takes about 53% in a total services.
265
3. Materials and Methods
Research methodology includes the collecting data for statistical analysis of hospitality
parameters and the survey that will be used to assess opinions of tourists, tourism
managers and tourism employees. Statistical analysis explore the growth of hospitality and
the things that has changed considerably over the last decade. Evaluation of the survey
results will be measured at different scales (Likert, nominal, ordinal). The survey was
taken in Sarajevo tourism destination, mostly in the hotels and tourism agencies, during
2013-2014 year. There were 186 respondents to the survey: 20 tourism managers or
assistant managers, 59 employees- tourism staff, 107 tourists who visited Sarajevo in
2013-2014 year. They survey for tourism managers and assistant managers was taken at
the next hotels: Bristol, Europa, Art, Terme, Hercegovina, Crystal, Hollywood, and
tourism agencies: Relax Tours, Gaudi Lufthansa, Zoi '84, Bosnia Travel, Reyyan, Akdeniz,
Euroservices in 2013 year. The survey for tourism employees was taken at the next hotels:
Bristol, Europa, Art, Dardanija, Holiday, Hollywood, and tourism agencies: Relax Tours,
Kompas, Avio Ekspress, Zoi '84, Sol Azur, Gaudi Lufthansa, Bosnia Travel, Reyyan,
Euroservis in 2013 year. The survey for tourists, the visitors of Sarajevo destination, was
taken at different locations (mostly in the oldtown of Sarajevo) in 2013-2014 year, the
tourists stayed in next accommodations: hotels Europa, Hollywood, Bristol, Astra Garni,
Imzit, Dardanija, Lula, Old Town, Emona, Mostardayiz, ETN, Radon Plaza, City
Boutique, Terme, Michele, hostels Doctor's House, For Me, Guest House, Max, Kovači,
Franz Ferdinand, Vagabond, private accomodation, apartments. The survey results will
provide the evaluation of factor of hospitality that will be based on a single value of
defined parameters (qualifications, affability and English).
4. Results and Discussions
Services that tourists consume (accomodation, food, fun, travels) depends on the
competences and organisation skills of touroperators in a tourism destination. Tourism
employees in a hotels and tourism agencies, etc., are daily dealing with tourists. Besides,
tourists also make contact with local inhabitants of a tourism destination. Consequently,
the level of hospitality services can be measured by three important indicators/ parameters:
1) Qualifications (a profession and an education degree),
2) Affability (kindness and a cultural behavior toward tourist clients),
3) English language skills.
4)
4.1. Qualifications of tourism staff
Qualifications of a tourism staff can be measured by analysis and evaluation of defined
indicators such as: a profession and an education degree. Education degree can be next
levels: university degree (undergraduate or postgraduate), college degree, highschool and
secondary education, primary (elementary) education, high skilled, skilled, medium and
low skilled workers.
266
Tab. 2. Growth of a number of employees in Sarajevo hospitality & tourism
according to the education degree 2003-2011 year
Qualifications 2003 2007 2011
University degree 55 70 140
College Degree 38 47 500
Highschool Education 432 500 806
Primary Education 121 80 236
High Skilled Worker 59 109 103
Skilled Worker 295 276 429
Medium Skilled Worker 38 25 3
Low Skilled Worker 56 65 183
(Institute for Statistics of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina)
The table above shows the growth of a number of employees in a hospitality & tourism of
Sarajevo Tourism Destination. There can be defined three different development trends:
a) progressive growth - increasing number of employees with university and college
degree, then highschool education, as well as a low skilled workers,
b) regressive growth - decreasing number of employees that have a medium skilled
qualifications,
c) uneven growth- oscillating number of employees with primary education, as well
as high skilled and skilled workers.
Highschool & secondary educational take the largest share of Sarajevo hospitality structure
(2003: 39,5%; 2011: 41%), then skilled workers (2003: 27%; 2011: 22%), primary
education (2003: 11,7%, 2011: 12%) and university degree (2003: 5%, 2011: 9%). It's
important to emphasize the progressive growth of employees with university degree
because it can be a good indicator of improving tourism in Sarajevo destination. Better
qaulified provides the better hospitality service as a key of tourism success.
267
Fig. 3. An educational structure of employees at some hotels and tourism agencies
in Sarajevo Tourism Destination 2013 year
(The Survey of Tourism Employees Results, 2013)
The graph above shows that the highschool education take the largest share of an
educational structure of employees at some hotels and tourism agencies (54%). This is
because most of jobs at hotels and tourism agencies can be done well even without
university qualifications. Same time, some highschools have a hospitaliy & tourism
programmes, so they can produce a good qualified tourism workers.
Tab. 3. Evaluation of an educational structure of employees at some hotels and
tourism agencies in Sarajevo Tourism Destination in 2013 year on the ordinal scale:
1- low, 2- medium, 3- higher, 4- high value
VALUE MARK RESPONDENT
Low 1 0
Medium 2 32
Higher 3 7
High 4 20
Average: 2,8 59
The table above shows the average mark of an educational structure of employees at some
hotels and tourism agencies in Sarajevo tourism destination (2,8). Evaluation of this
parametre from the ordinal scale (1-4) reflects the higher value of tourism staff education.
268
Fig.4.Professional diversity of employees at some hotels and
tourism agencies in Sarajevo tourism destination in 2013 year
The graph above shows the huge diversity of an employees professions at some hotels and
tourism agencies in Sarajevo tourism destination. Hotel & tourism technicians 14%,
theologists 10% and economy technicians 8% take the largest share of a professional
structure of employees. Economist, trade technician and educator/teacher participate with
7%, while tourismologist 5%. There's an equal share of a tourism technician, journalist,
maturant- highschools 3%, etc. The higher theologist participation is because of successful
implementing the project ''Tourism in an islamic way (Halal Tourism in Bosnia &
Herzegovina)'' under two tourism agencies: ''Bosnia Travel'' and ''Reyyan''. This project
provided the increase in the number of tourists, visitors of Sarajevo tourism destination,
especially muslim tourists from arabic countries (Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, United
Arabic Emirates, Egypt, etc.). The problem is that the professional structure at the hotels
and tourism agencies is not really an adequate, as there should be more workers with
hospitality & tourism qualifications. That's why it's advicable to make the revision of
professional qualiffications at hotels and tourism agencies and to do an open competition.
To improve hospitality and tourism of Sarajevo destination, there should be done a rational
exploitation of houman resourses hospitality and tourism profiles. Hospitality and tourism
diploma can be achieved in some secondary schools in Sarajevo (for example, the
Secondary Hospitality & Tourism Vocational School) or faculties of hospitality & tourism
269
(Economy Faculty – Department of Tourism Management, Faculty of Natural Sciences
and Mathematics- Department of Geography, Study Course of Tourism & Environmental
Protection, etc.). This schools and faculties producing very important professions, such as:
tourist guide, cook, waiter, hotel recepcionist, tourism and marketing manager,
geographer- tourismologist, etc. Tourism and hospitality industry need this type of
professional qualifications! The possible reasons for somehow inadequate professional
structure (occupation) at some hotels and tourism agencies in Sarajevo, could be actualy
found at inadequate employment system sometimes:
Fig. 5. Employment system at hospitality & tourism of Sarajevo destination

(The Survey of Tourism Employees, 2013)
According to the graph, there's evident that more then a half of employees in a hospitality
& tourism of Sarajevo got the job thanks to the recommendations 51%. Recommendation
doesn't necessarily means the right qualifications for some job, but it's about a nepotism.
''Nepotism is a favoritism directed exclusively or mainly toward friends or relatives,
regardless of merit. Today many employers are lending a hand to struggling family
members or friends by offering them employment opportunities.‘‘ (Wilson, B., 2011) The
main motive is that ‗‘the job can be learned and trained with the working practice apart
from a right education.‘‘ Such nepotism shouldn‘t be a daily practice because knowledge
and competences usually comes with an adequate qualifications (education & experience).
However, there‘s a pleasant fact that more then 1/3 of employees basically have the right
qualifications for their job that they were given via Institute of Labor Exchange or at the
Open Competition 37%.
270
4.2. Affability (kindness and cultural behave towards a tourist clients)
Affability can be defined as a cultural behavior, specific behavior toward tourist clients
(guest care) and an educational level. ''Hospitality is a completed attitude toward a guest.
Different professional profiles must learn a specific tourism education. Therefore, workers
of hospitality, transport, trading and other services linked to a tourism, they must to
achieve a special tourism education which is very important element of their cultural
behavior.'' (Jovičić, Ţ., 1986, p. 104) Guest care can be defined as a high service quality
and a professionalism toward a guest. Service quality must accomplish the guest needs and
expectations. (Tomašević, A., 2009, p. 3) Tourists have many different needs
(accomodation, food & drink, attractions, transport, fun, recreation, safety, sleep, etc.), but
affable treatments is their basic expectation. Kindness, hosting and welcoming is expected
from a tourism staff, sellers, bankers, drivers, locals. Cultural level and affability are
indeed very important elements of any tourism destination. Services harmony, well
organisation, English language skills, affability and guest care, they can indicate the
hospitality level of a tourism destination. ''Guest care includes:
Knowing the guest culture & tradition
Understanding the personality of a guest
Identification of guest needs and expectations
Good knowledge about available services of hotel and tourism product of
destination as well
Communication skills, English language skills
Responsibility
Ability to identify & solve the problems
Optimism and welcoming for a culture differences
Candour and a pleasant mood
A smile. (Tomašević, A., 2009, p. 3)
We could say that the cultural behavior toward a tourist clients is linked with few
important factors: a profession (occupation), educational degree, general cultural behavior,
character and type of a personality, a psyhological, physical and health condition,
communication skills, empathy, understanding the guest needs, a hospitality & tourism
qualifications and orientation, attitude, support and manager treatment and monitoring.
Cultural behavior is a constitutive element of interaction between hosts and tourists.
''Tourists are to be served, whereas hosts are the servers; tourists are at leisure, whereas
hosts are at work; tourists are motivated by leisure, whereas hosts are motivated by
financial gains. As a result, they develop different attitudes and behavior toward each
other. Tourists and hosts have also different access to wealth and information, commitment
and responsibilities, and socio-economic position and cultural identity. Tourist–host
interaction takes place in the (1) spatial (e.g., physical space shared by the tourist and host
or physical distance, social status of interactants, rules of behavior they have to conform
to), (2) temporal (e.g., length of time tourists stay in the destination, the time of the contact
itself, different roles played by interactants), and whether (3) tourists buy goods
communicative (e.g., the ability to speak each other‘s language and understand non-verbal
behavior), and (4) cultural (e.g., different cultural values, perceptions, attitudes,
willingness of both to share their values and experiences) contexts.'' (Reisinger, Y., 2009,
271
p. 205) In order to make a cultural behavior toward a tourists ethically acceptable, and to
across the communication difficulties influenced by cultural differences of tourist and a
host of a tourism destination, there was implemented universal code of tourism. The World
Tourism Organisation introduced universal code of ethical behavior in a tourism and a
tourism destinations called ''Global Code of Ethics for Tourism''. (United Nations The
World Tourism Organisation, UNWTO, GCET 1999)
Fig. 6. Evaluation of a tourism staff affability at some hotels and tourism agencies
in Sarajevo tourism destination on the Likert scale:
1- bad, 2- good, 3- excellent,
according to opinion of a tourism managers or assistant managers
(The Survey of Tourism Managers Results, 2013)
The survey of a tourism managers or assistant managers results shows that the tourism
staff affability in Sarajevo destination is mostly good 65%. Knowing that the tourism staff
is a mirror of a tourism destination, it's a welcoming expression and a hosting of tourists,
then the managers should affect it more to rise it on the highest level.
272
Fig. 7. Evaluation of a tourism staff affability at some hotels and tourism agencies
in Sarajevo tourism destination on the Likert scale:
according to opinion of tourists, the visistors in 2013-2014 year
(The Survey of Tourists Results, 2013-2014)
The survey of a tourists results shows that the tourism staff affability in Sarajevo
destination is mostly good 70%. But, what we want to achieve, is to be an excellent. For
now, the share of excellent mark is only 25%. The tourism staff (guide, recepcionist,
waiter, cleaner, chambermaid, information consulter, etc.), all of them should be
easygoing, available and extremely polite toward guests.
Tab. 4. The total evaluation results of a tourism staff affability in Sarajevo tourism
destination on the Likert scale: 1- bad, 2- good, 3- excellent,
according to opinion of a tourism managers and tourists
Manager & assistant managers Tourists Average mark
2,1 2,3 2,2
(The Survey of Tourism Managers Results, 2013, The Survey of Tourists Results, 2013-2014)
The table above shows the total evaluation results of a tourism staff afability at some hotels
and tourism agencies in Sarajevo tourism destination according to the opinion of a tourism
managers and tourists who visited Sarajevo during 2013-2014 year. The average mark of
tourism staff afability is 2,2. It's a medium value of a tourism staff affability parameter.
Such a mark demonstrates that tourism managers and tourists find it good and accessible.
Anyway, the aim is to achive even better results. The tourism staff affability should be
rised on the highest level, as it's one of the most important receptional factors of a tourism
destination. That's why there should be considered some stimulating factors of affability,
such as: a job motivation, job & a salary satisfaction. For example, there's a high
unemployment rate in Sarajevo, the workers could be reminded of that, so they could give
their maximum efforts at work. Salary satisfaction for now is 56%, which is not good
enough, so it could be rised up at least to achive the demonstrative share of 60%.
Satisfaction with is workplace is now 80%, this is actualy the adventage factor that should
be used to stimulate the tourism staff affability, ''show that you like your job, smile more!''
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Fig. 8. Evaluation of a locals affability in Sarajevo tourism destination
on the nominal scale: 1- unaffable, 2- affable,
according to opinion of a tourism managers and assistant managers
(The Survey of Tourism Managers Results, 2013)
The evaluation results shows that a locals affability in Sarajevo tourism destination is
positive 95%. Tourism managers and assistant managers at some hotels and tourism
agencies mostly share opinion that people of Sarajevo are welcoming and easygoing, the
locals are mostly willing to help if you ask them.
Fig. 9. Evaluation of a locals affability in Sarajevo tourism destination

on the nominal scale: 1- unaffable, 2- affable,
according to opinion of a tourists
(The Survey of Tourists Results, 2013-2014)
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According to opinion of a tourists who visited Sarajevo destination during 2013-2014 year,
the locals are affable 92%. Same time, most of tourists wished there was other type of
scale that they could rate a locals affability in Sarajevo tourism destination with better
description. Why? Because ''affable means friendly, good-natured, or easy to talk to''
(Oxford Dictionary). They explained that their mark of a locals affability in Sarajevo
would be closer to a good or medium level of kindness instead of real affability.
Tab. 5. The total evaluation results of a locals affability in Sarajevo tourism

destination on the nominal scale: 1- unaffable, 2- affable,
according to opinion of a tourism managers and tourists
Tourists Average mark
Managers
2 1,9 1,95
(The Survey of Tourism Managers Results, 2013, The Survey of Tourists Results, 2013-2014)
The table above shows the total evaluation results of a locals afability in Sarajevo tourism
destination according to opinion of a tourism managers and tourists who visited Sarajevo
during 2013-2014 year. The average mark of locals afability is 1,95. It's a positive, pretty
higher value of a locals affability parameter. Such a mark demonstrates that tourism
managers and tourists find it pretty well and accessible.
4.3. English language skills
The English language skills are necessary for a tourism employees because they are in
charge to communicate with tourists from a different parts of the World. ''Communication
skills, speech and listening are the most important elements of a guest interaction. Speech
and the eye contact should express a full devotion to a guest. Carefull listening reflects the
respect and true willing to accomplish the guest request. Same time, carefull listening
improves to do a job without mistakes. (Tomašević, A., 2009, p. 28, 31). Intercultural
communication is a communication process in which people from different cultures try to
understand what others from different cultures try to communicate and what their
messages mean. (Lustig, M., Koester, J., 1993) In a tourism context, intercultural
communication is experienced by tourists when they encounter hosts from a foreign
culture, and by hosts when they encounter tourists from a foreign culture. The aim of
intercultural communication between tourists and hosts is to understand what each party
tries to communicate: hosts want to understand the tourists‘ needs and deliver a product
tourists want, and tourists want to communicate their needs to hosts to receive the product
they want. (Reisinger, Y., 2009, p. 167) Language is the method of human communication.
Speak the same language means to understand one another as a result of shared opinions or
values. (Oxford Dictionary, 2015)
275
Fig. 10. Evaluation of the English language skills at tourism employees at some hotels
and tourism agencies in Sarajevo destination on the Likert scale:
according to a personal assessment
The survey results shows that half of a tourism employees at some hotels and agencies in
Sarajevo destination have a good English language skills 50%. It's very important to
emphasize that, same time, there's a high percent of employees with an excellent English
language skills 42%. Bad English take the smallest share of Sarajevo tourism employees
only 9%. However, such a tourism employees, they are good at some other language skills
(turkish, arabic, german, etc.).
Tab. 6. The total evaluation results of the English language skills at some tourism
employees in Sarajevo tourism destination on the Likert scale:
1- bad, 2- good, 3- excellent
VALUE MARK RESPONDENT
Low 1 5
Medium 2 29
High 3 25
Average: 2,3 59
The table above shows the total evaluation results of the English language skills at some
tourism employees in Sarajevo destination. The average mark of their English skills is 2,3.
It's a medium value that demonstrates that tourism employees find their English language
skills pretty good.
276
Fig. 11. The most important foreign language at the hospitality & tourism services
sector of Sarajevo tourism destination
The figure above (fig.11) shows the foreign languages importance at the hospitality &
tourism services sector of Sarajevo tourism destination. English is the most needed
language in their job 59%. This is a significant share close to 60%, so it can be evaluated
as demonstrative popularity (The Survey Guide, 2001) of English language. Besides,
there's a large percentage of employees who considered Arabic and Turkish language as
the most important (Arabic 20%, Turkish 14%). Such assessment by tourism employees
indicates the tourist origin structure of Sarajevo tourism destination. Turks and Arabs are
the highest participation tourists of Sarajevo lately. On the survey that was taken in a two
year period (2013-2014), 1/3 of total respondents were exactly tourists from Arabic
countries 31%. They came mostly from a highly developed countries of Arab World:
Qatar, Kuwait, United Arabic Emirates, etc. ''The highest participation in a total number of
tourist visitors of Sarajevo in 2013 year had Turks (17,3%), Croats (16,7%), Slovenians
(7,0%), Serbians (4,9%) and Germans (3,7%). Same time the highest participation in a
total overnight stays made tourists from Turkey (16,8%), Croatia (14,8%), Kuwait (5,8%),
Slovenia (5,7%) and Serbia (4,6%).'' (Tourism Association of Sarajevo Canton) ''The
longest-staying visitors of Sarajevo comes from Arabic countries.'' (Aganović, H., 2014)
5. Conclusions
After the survey analysis, based on their evaluation results and discussions, it is necessary
to do a ranking of examined parameters according to their values. The rank position
demonstrates the parameter importance for a tourism planning and a tourism &
geographical development of Sarajevo tourism destination.
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Tab. 7. Ranking of hospitality parameters according to the measured value
PARAMETER / INDICATOR SCALE MARK RANK
Qualifications of tourism staff 1-4 3 higher
Affability of locals 1-2 1,95 higher
English language skills at tourism staff 1-3 2,3 medium
Affability of tourism staff 1-3 2 medium
(The Survey of Tourism Managers, Tourism Employees and Tourists, 2013-2014)
The ranking table shows the evaluation results of a hospitality indicators of Sarajevo
tourism destination. Parameters of the higher value are: qualifications of tourism staff and
affability of locals. Parameters of medium value are: affability of tourism staff and their
English language skills. The fact that there is a good quality of tourism staff and affable
locals is very important for tourists who visit a tourism destination. This way they can feel
welcoming and respected. Tourists can feel safety as they can ask whatever and they know
that there's a good service which can respond to their requests. What is important to
achieve is to rise up the tourism staff affability and their English language skills on the
highest level. This is because the tourism staff is the basic receptional subject of a tourism
destination. Same time, it has a big influence on a destination tourism & geographical
development. Positive impressions and experiences of tourists are very powerfull factor
that can stimulate increase in the number of tourists especially foreign visitors. They can
even wish to visit Sarajevo again because of extremely polite tourism workers who can
understand them well and that way accomplish their needs. Therefore, hospitality can
represent a strong foundation for a tourism & geographical development. It must be given
a huge importance of planning and development issues in the tourism and hospitality sector
such as a sustainability, tourism & hospitality jobs, strong tourism potentials such as a very
professional tourism staff, very kind locals of a tourism destination, English skills on the
top level, etc. This study explore the adventages of Sarajevo hospitality such as a well
educated tourism workers, affable people, knowing of English language (tourism staff)...
Same time, it shows us some disadvantages at hospitality, such as a huge but not really
adequate diversity of a tourism staff professions, or nepotism problems at a hospitality and
tourism employment system... Recommended activities should consider implementation of
supervisor monitoring at hotels and tourism agencies, the tourism staff evaluation, as well
as planning the courses and workshops of a tourism culture & education. Besides, it is
necessary to promote (via media, internet, etc.) tourism educational programmes in
Sarajevo tourism destination with the main goal ''to raise tourism conscious of locals''.
Locals mostly understand the importance of tourist visits to their place, they are even kind
already, but what is stil missing is the better english skills. In order to improve the english
language skills of inhabitants and tourism workers as well, it's necessary to give more
attention to the practicing of English conversation at preschools, schools, faculties, work,
all levels! There could be provided the free courses of english as well. Future strategy of
hospitality & tourism planning should encourage open competitions for a workplace rather
then private recommendations. This way we should provide a system for better
employment results ''the best one, with the right qualifications, get the job! In conclusion,
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the hospitality generally is recognized as a medium to higher value that practicaly
demonstrates more then a good hospitality service of Sarajevo tourism destination.
References:
1. Aganović, H. (2014): Interview at agency ''Patria''. Marketing office of Hotels Ilidţa
Sarajevo, Sarajevo
2. Digital Archive of Institute for Statistics of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Sarajevo
3. Dobre, R., Rusković, P., Čivljak, M. (2004): ''Management of tourism destination''. Higher
School of Tourism Management, Sibenik
4. Institute for Statistics of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo
5. Jovičić, Ţ. (1986): ''Tourism geography''. Scientific Book, Belgrad
6. Khan, M. (2012): Comparative Overview of the Impact of Hospitality & Tourism Industry
on a Nation‘s Development- Opportunities & Constraints with reference to Armenia.
USAID EDMC Project International Consultant
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Publishers, New York
8. Prebeţac, D. (2012/2013): ''Research of Tourism Markets.'' Ekonomic faculty of University
of Zagreb, Zagreb
9. Reisinger, Y. (2009): ''International tourism- cultures and behaviour.'' Butterworth-
Heinemann, Elsevier, Oxford
10. Smet, T. (2003): ''The definition(s) of hospitality and tourism in relation to economic
studies.'' Sector analysis project. In partial fulfilment for the requirement of the degree of
master of science in International hospitality manager, prof. Prosser. University center
''Cesar Ritz''
11. Statistical Yearbook of Canton Sarajevo for 2013 year (2014). Institute for Statistics of
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo
12. Taylor-Powell, E. (2009): ''Wording for rating scales.'' Evaluation Specialist, Program
Development and Evaluation, 2008. (c) 2009. University of Wisconsin, USA
13. The Survey Guide (2001): ''Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data''. Statistical
Services Centre, The University of Reading, UK
14. Tomašević, A. (2009): ''Guest care- in the hospitality & tourism sector.'' Agency for
Vocational Education. British Council Montenegro. Regional project Skills&Work
15. Tourism Association of Sarajevo Canton: statistical data and informations, Sarajevo
16. Vogt, W. Paul (1999). ''Dictionary of statistics and methodology.'' Sage Journals, Thousand
Oaks, California
17. Wilson, B. (2011): ''Employment Law Bits: Nepotism in the Workplace- is this illegal?''.
Bacon/Wilson, Attorneys at Law, Spriengfield, 2005-2014
18. http://bwlaw.blogs.com/employment_law_bits/2014/09/nepotism-in-the-workplace-is-it-
discrimination.html
19. http://ethics.unwto.org/en/content/global-code-ethics-tourism
20. http://ethics.unwto.org/en/content/global-code-ethics-tourism
21. http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/faculty_sites/sommerb/sommerdemo/scaling/levels.htm
22. http://survey.cvent.com/blog/market-research-design-tips-2/levels-of-measurement-for-
survey-variables-part-i
23. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/evaluate
24. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/evaluation
25. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/hospitality
26. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/identification
27. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/identify
28. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/language
29. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ranking
279
30. http://www.sarajevo.ba/ba/stream.php?kat=424
31. http://www.uwex.edu/ces/4h/evaluation/documents/Wordingforratingscales.pdf
32. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale
280
THE IMPACT OF TYPICAL RECOVERY PRACTICE USED IN
OVERSOLD ROOM ON TURKISH GUESTS
Vedat İyitoğlu1
G. Nilüfer Tetik2
Abstract: A significant number of accommodation companies overbook in order to maximize their

revenue especially during the peak periods. However, overbooking is a risky activity that may bring
companies face to face with the problem of overselling rooms. In such a situation of overselling
rooms, hotels usually transfer their guests to other hotels having similar quality as a typical recovery
practice. In this study, it is aimed to explore the possible impacts of this practice on Turkish guests'
satisfactions and revisit intentions.
The data of the study was collected through a scenario-based questionnaire in Mersin in the period
of May-June, 2014. By using snowball and convenience sampling methods, the researchers reached
116 valid questionnaires in total.
As a result of the study, it was understood that the typical recovery practice had a tragic impact on
Turkish guests. The results especially indicated that the participants' revisit intentions were
relatively much more affected, causing very few of them to revisit intentions. On the other hand,
less experience and younger participants were found to react in a statistically more positive manner
to such transfer activities. Depending on the findings it is suggested that the hotels‘ managers who
have guests mostly from the Turkish market be more careful about overbooking practice.
Additionally, if such transfers are inevitable, they are recommended to start with the youngest
guests who have least experiences of vacation.
Key words: Overbooking, Oversold, Guest Satisfaction, Revisit Intention, Turkish Guests, Hotels
INTRODUCTION
On the purpose of avoiding possible revenue loss due to from early check outs, late
cancellations and no shows, many hotels overbook and as a result they come up against the
risk of oversold. In the case of the oversold, some guests are usually transferred to other
comparable hotels as a recovery. Some previously studies have indicated that recovery
efforts carried out in the significant service failure have low effects on the guests (Hoffman
and Chung, 1999, p. 77; Suskind, 2005, p. 150; Mount, 2012, p. 155). Hence the oversold
and the recovery might have serious effects causing guest losses. So the effects of recovery
efforts on the guest behaviors must be explored.
Because the service failures from overbooking are the kinds of conscious failures that are
intended and foreseeable, they differ from other service failures. So accommodation
companies take advantage on the oversold in comparison with other failures. Because in
such failures hotels have an opportunity to make a choice in advance about such issues as
which guests will walked and which recovery strategies will be used to what extent. On the
other hand, on the study related to service failures and service recovery, it has been
revealed that the customer's reaction may change depending on such factors as some
demographic features, experience and culture (Hwang and Wen, 2009, p. 662). Within this
context, the effects of oversold and recovery on the guests are expected to be different, as
well. So on the service failure due to overbooking, guests who will have relatively more
1
Lecturer, Anamur Vocational School, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey.
2
Professor, Faculty of Tourism, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey.
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positive reactions should be chosen as walk for preventing the guests' negative reactions or
at least minimizing that.
Although there are limited study conducted on the effects of oversold and recovery on the
guests in the international literature, it has not been possible to reach any study about the
reactions of Turkish guests. The basic reason is that it is connected with the size of the
domestic tourism market. However, the number of Turkish tourist has significantly
increased in recent years and it has made progress over 100 % in ten years. Thus, it is
indicated that the rate of Turkish tourist increase 15% in the hotels in Antalya and 30% and
even at times 40% in Bodrum (TÜRSAB, 2014). On the other hand, narrowing depending
on some reasons in foreign markets such as Germany, Russia and Ukraine makes domestic
holiday market more important in terms of hotels. So it is expected that Turkish tourists
walked because of oversold. Within this context, the purpose of the study is to determine
the effect of the typical recovery activity applied in oversold on the Turkish guests'
satisfaction and return intention and to explore the relation between these two variables.
First of all, the information about overbooking, oversold and service recovery is given on
the study. Then sample, data collection and analysis process have been explained under the
name of the method. After that the findings have been presented and the study hypothesis
has been tested. On the last part, the conclusions have been summarized and some
suggestions have been made for the next studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Overbooking and Oversold
Overbooking is old and common in accommodation industry to increase the room revenue
(Rothstein, 1974, p. 389; Toh, 1985, p. 24). In the most general sense, this application is
described as accepting more reservation than certain or available capacity in a period
(Noone and Lee, 2011, p. 350).
The accommodation companies like the other ones overbook to avoid possible revenue
loss by maximizing the usage of their capacity. Because the service can not be stored,
when even one of the rooms is empty, it is thought as nonrecoverable revenue loss. When
accommodation companies take reservation as much as the number of available room, they
may come up against the risk of empty rooms. That‘s why some guests may cancel their
reservations before arrival date. On the other hand, it is possible that some reservations do
not take place even if they are not cancelled. The hotel managers considering these kinds
of negative situations prefer taking more reservation. It is possible to increase company
revenue 2% and 5% by effective overbooking application (Wangenheim and Bayon, 2007,
p. 36). Overbooking in accommodation company is so common that it is stated that these
rates may vary between 5% and 13% internationally (Gökdeniz and Dinç, 2011, p. 243).
While overbooking is described as a means of useful yield management, it is also thought
as a risky application whose results are very costly. The most important risk of this
application is to turn overbooking into oversold. In the event that a hotel is overbooked
resulting in no rooms remaining available, hotel management will often "walk" the
customer to a neighboring hotel at an equal or complimentary rate depending on the
situation. It is identified as a serious service failure in terms of the guests (Levesque and
McDougall, 2000, p. 33; Wangenheim and Bayon, 2007, p. 43; Noone and Lee, 2011, p.
335).
282
In the previous studies, overbooking is classified as serious service failures related to the
product (Zhu, Sivakumar and Parasuraman, 2004, p. 494; Lee, Singh and Chan, 2011, p.
199). The most important reason of the guest loss is this kind of service failure. Many
studies have shown that the guests who have come up against such service failures as
overbooking do not return (Ennew and Schoefer, 2003, p. 12; Wangenheim and Bayon,
2007, p. 43; Noone and Lee, 2011, p. 350; Chuang, Cheng, Chang and Yang, 2012, p. 259;
Mount, 2013, p. 94). Within this context, the most important cost related to the
overbooking applications is the loss of guests. Because finding a new guest is harder and
more costly than keeping the available one (Hoffman and Kelley, 2000, p. 419; Lee, Singh
and Chan 2011, p. 197). The researchers claims that the cost of gaining a new guest is
three-five times (Hoffman and Chung,1999, p. 72) and even six-seven times (Hisaka,
2013) more than keeping the available guest. So keeping the guest or at least having low-
level guest loss must be considered as an important goal.
Service Recovery
Even if it is not service failure, accommodation companies may avoid the loss from the
guests which service failures cause (Michel, 2001, p. 20; Mount, 2012, p. 160). It is
possible with the clear, basic and effective service recovery efforts defined as basically
―replacing the truth with the fault‖ (Mattila, 1999, p. 284; Ennew and Schoefer, 2003, p. 2;
Mount and Mattila, 2009, p. 302). During the application, any activities to solve the service
failures, to convert negative reactions of the guests who are not satisfied to positive and as
a result to keep the guests are thought as a part of service recovery (Lewis and McCann,
2004, p. 7).
The typical recovery activities used in case of the service failures because of overbooking
by the hotels are generally composed of supportive services such as free accommodation,
transportation, and telephone call (Hwang and Wen, 2009, p. 660; Noone and Lee, 2011, p.
335). This is a standard application especially used by pioneer hotels. However, in order to
satisfy their guests, in recent years accommodation companies have presented such extra
compensations as free accommodation for the next seasons, extra promotions and some
payment (Noone and Lee, 2011, p. 336). For the companies the topic that must be
considered is the effects of recovery efforts on guests‘ reactions and behaviors. Because
the effects of these recoveries may be under the expected level. In that case while the
losses of the guests occur, the direct cost increases.
The guest satisfaction may increase with the effective service recovery and accordingly the
guest losses may decrease (Lewis and McCann, 2004, p. 7; DeTienne, Seawright and
Brough, 2005, p. 2). However, there are so many studies whose literature has shown that
service recovery results are not satisfactory enough (Mattila, 1999, p. 284; Kuenzel and
Katsaris, 2011, p. 20; Mount, 2012, p. 155). For instance, while a study has shown that the
guest return is only 41% as a result of the most common service recovery applications
(Hoffman and Chung, 1999, p. 77), another study has indicated that only 28% of the
restaurant guests return (Suskind, 2005, p. 150). Although these results, it‘s claimed that
there was significant and linear correlation between service recovery and customers‘ intent
to return (Noone and Lee, 2011, p. 345; Mount, 2012, p. 161). That‘s why when costumers
perceive recovery efforts of a company as positive; their intent to return can increase.
The impact of the service failure and recovery strategies on guests may vary depending on
culture. For instance, according to a study conducted in restaurant sector in the USA and
283
Ireland, it was found out that the recovery expectations of American customers are further
(Mueller, Palmer, Mack and McMullan, 2003, p. 395). According to another study
conducted with the participants from the USA, Singapore and Australia by Wong (2004, p.
957), it was found that service recovery improves service perception in each three sample
but there is a positive impact about purchase intention only on Americans. Therefore, it is
expected that the impact of the similar service failure and recovery strategies on Turkish
guests is different. As a result, the main hypothesis of the study ―H1. There is a meaningful
relation between the guest satisfaction and their return intentions in the result of typical
recovery application.‖
The service recovery may change depending on such factors as the type of the service, the
importance of the failure, the aim of purchase, the guests' experience and the expectations
of service recovery (Lewis and McCann, 2004, p. 9; DeTienne, Seawright and Brough,
2005, p. 2). On the other hand, even the companies in the similar activity surroundings
may differ in market qualities, cost structure, service concept and management abilities. So
it is expected that the similar service failure and the recovery activities may differ from the
company to company (Zhu, Sivakumar and Parasuraman, 2004, p. 516).
Many factors such as gender, reservation time, accommodation period and who pays may
affect the sense of justice of the guests related to the overbooking policy (Hwang and Wen,
2009, p. 662). McColl-Kennedy, Dausv and Sparks (2003, p. 66) found that there were
significant differences between male and female respondents regarding their perceptions of
how service recovery should be handled. Women want their views heard during service
recovery attempts and to be allowed to provide input. Men, in contrast, do not view voice
as important. In this context another hypotheses have been enhanced as follows;
H2a. The effect on Turkish guests satisfaction of the typical recovery strategy used in
overbooking varies depending on gender.
H2b. The effect on Turkish guests' return intention of the typical recovery strategy used in
overbooking varies depending on gender.
Many studies have claimed that there is a relation between guest reaction and age in
service failure (Gyung Kim, Wang & Mattila, 2010, p. 981). As A result of the study
conducted by Varela-Neira and the others (2010, p. 40), it was found that older guests are,
less negative feelings are. The study on service failure and recovery strategies conducted in
banking sector in Greece resulted that the old participants have more expectations about
recovery (Lewis & Spyrakopoulos, 2001, p. 44).Thus, the following hypotheses were
suggested.
overbooking varies depending on age.
overbooking varies depending on age.
According to the study conducted by Chuang and the others (2012, p. 258), it is found out
that the service recovery activity may vary depending on service failure experience. Within
this context, the guests who experienced the failure are more sensitive to the recoveries.
Therefore, experienced guests overreact when there is a failure or recovery activity.
284
According to another study, it is claimed that the guests who have more perceived value
are more tolerant to the failures and are more open to the recoveries (Zhu, Sivakumar and
Parasuraman, 2004, p. 499). It is thought that the guests who have more experience can
witness more service failure related to overbooking. Within this context, the last
hypotheses of the study are;
overbooking varies depending on the holiday experience.
overbooking varies depending on the holiday experience.
METHODOLOGY
The data has been collected with a scenario based survey applied to the participants who
have had experiences before in 2014 May-September in Mersin-Anamur. The scenarios are
considered as one of the most important measuring means especially used in the studies
about the service failures (Hwang and Wen, 2009, p. 666). The scenario introduced to the
participants in applying the survey in which the convenience and the snowball sampling
methods are used is like this;
"You have made a certain reservation for a week in a 4 or 5 star hotel. However, when you
arrived the hotel, the front office staff said that the hotel is totally full and there is no
available room. So you were transferred to another hotel in near surrounding that has
similar standards with free transportation."
When TUĠK (2014) the household tourism statistics are analyzed, it has been seen that the
average number of stay overnight between 2009 and 2014 is at least 8 days. Thus, the
holiday period in the scenario has been stated as a week. In the case of the occurrence of
the situation in the scenario, in order to determine the satisfaction of the participants, a
scale with three items and whose answer categories have been ranked as seven likert (1.
dissatisfied - 7. satisfied) has been used. In order to determine the participants' return
intentions, another scale with two items and whose answer categories have been ranked as
seven likert (1.disagree - 7.agree) has been used. Both scales have been taken from the
study done by Noone and Lee (2011, p. 343).
RESULTS
The data has been collected from the participants who have had experiences in 4 or 5 star
hotels by the questionnaire. The data about the participants of the survey has been shown
in the Tab. 1.
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Tab. 1. Some Features of Participants
Gender n % Age n %
Female 38 32,8 20-30 years old 21 20,0
Male 78 67,2 31-40 years old 44 41,9
Total 116 100 41-50 years old 34 32,4
Marital status n % 51 + 6 5,7
Single 6 5,6 Total 105 100,0
Married 102 94,4 4-5* hotels experience n %
Total 108 100,0 1-2 times 41 38,0
Child n % 3-4 times 36 33,3
Yes 83 77,2 5-6 times 23 21,3
No 18 17,8 7+ 8 7,4
Total 101 100,0 Total 108 100,0
As it is seen in Tab. 1, most of the participants are married (94, 4%) and male (67, 2%),
and have children (77, 2%). According to age distribution, it is seen that while the
participants are mostly between 31and 40 (about 43%), the ones who are over 51 are the
fewest. On the other hand, most of the participants have had experiences in a 4 or 5 star
hotel only once or twice (38%). It is possible to consider this data as an important indicator
of the progress of the domestic holiday market.
Before the tests of the hypothesis of the study, the reliability tests of the scales of the guest
satisfaction and the return intentions have been done. As a result of the analysis made
using alpha, reliability co-efficient of the satisfactory scale consisted of three items has
been determined as α=.898 and the scale of the guests return intention consisted of two
items has been determined as α=.735. These rates show that test results are quite reliable
(Kalaycı, 2008, p. 405).
The explanatory factor analysis has been applied in order to determine the construct
validity of the scales used in the study. According to the result of the analysis, the guest
satisfactory scale was found p<0,001, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) sampling rate in
significance level was found 0,706 and the result of the test of Barlett was found 224,527.
The EFA result of return intention scales was found to be significant at p<0,001 level and
KMO sampling rate was found 0,500 while Barlett test result was found 71,886. Kaiser
(1974) claims that the rate of KMO must be at least 500 for the factor analysis (Hair and
others, 1998, p. 99). Within this context, while the satisfaction scale is good for the factor
analysis, return scale is acceptable for it.
The result of the satisfaction scale factor analysis showed that the data were collected in
one factor and the variation explained in one factor was %83,057. As a result of the factor
analysis of the return intention scale, the variation explained similarly was found as
%84,249. The impact of the application of transferring to other hotels in case of oversold
on guest satisfaction and return intention was shown in Tab. 2 and the relation between
these variations was shown in Tab. 3.
According to the factor analysis of the satisfaction scale, the data were collected in one
factor and the variation explained in one factor was %83,057. As a result of the factor
analysis of the return intention scale, the variation explained similarly was found as
%84,249.
The impact of the application of transferring to other hotels in case of oversold on
guest satisfaction and return intention was shown in Tab. 2 and the relation between these
286
variations was shown in Tab. 3. As it is seen in Tab. 2, the Turkish participants have found
the recovery activities in case of oversold mostly dissatisfactory ( x = 2,27). In addition,
return intentions have been affected more and it has been seen to be at lower level ( x =
1,55).
It supports that the results of the service recovery in the literature are not effective (Mattila,
1999, p. 284; Kuenzel and Katsaris, 2011, p. 20; Mount, 2012, p. 155. However, the
Turkish guests bear cost overrun relatively. Many Turkish guests spend a lot of money and
time for holiday. Thus, they have more expectations for holiday and they are affected more
by the service failure (Lewis and McCann, 2004, p. 9; DeTienne, Seawright and Brough,
2005, p. 1)... As a result, the service recovery activity has almost no impact on the Turkish
guests. According to this result, it is advised to manager to use less costly applications in
oversold.
Tab. 2. The Potential Effects of the Typical Recovery Application on Turkish Guests
Std.
n Minimum Maximum Mean
Deviation
Guest satisfaction 116 1,00 4,00 2,2701 ,96400
Satisfaction 116 1,00 3,00 1,5474 ,59336
According to the Tab. 3, it is seen that there is a positive and significant relation between
the satisfaction and the return intention of the guests transferred to the other hotels (r=
0,798; p< .01). As a result, H1 was supported. In other words, the possibilities of the guest
loss significantly increase with the typical recovery activity.
Tab. 3. The Relation between Guest Satisfaction and Return Intention (n = 116)
1 2
1. Satisfaction Pearson 1
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
2. Return Intention Pearson ,798** 1
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) ,000
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
As it is understood in the table above, transferring the guests to the other hotels as a result
of oversold just supports a shot-term company profit. Nevertheless the losses of the guests
increase in long-term and the company profit is affected negatively. Thus accommodation
companies falling short must apply more creative recovery activities in order to avoid the
losses of the guests.
The study conducted by Noone and Lee (2011, p. 345) has shown that a little payment in
addition to recovery activities may increase the guest satisfaction but there is not a
meaningful effect on the return intention. Therefore transferring the guests who affect the
company less instead of over recovery activities may be an important strategy. Within this
287
context it is advised to transfer the guests who affect the company profit least to the other
hotels when the hotel falls short.
Independent two samples t-test was administered to determine if there are significant
differences between the satisfaction and return intentions of the participants in terms of
gender. As a result of the test, it was found that the average of the satisfaction ( x = 2,10 )
and the return intention ( x = 1,43) of the females is lower than the males ( x = 2,35 and x
= 1,60). However, these differences have not been supported statistically (t= -1,359; p >.05
and t= -1,441; p>.05). So H2a and H2b have not been accepted.
The ANOVA results applied to determine the varieties depending on age and holiday
experience that are the other hypothesis of the study are shown in the table below.
Tab. 4. The Effect of the Typical Service Recovery According to Gender and Holiday
Experience
Age Group n x s.s. F p Difference
1 (20-30 years 21 2,5714 ,93180 5,795 ,004 1 and 2 >3
old)
Satisfaction 2 (31-40 years 44 2,3258 1,06746
old)
3 (41 + ) 40 1,8167 ,65350
1 (20-30 years 21 1,6429 ,55097 5,819 ,004 1 and 2 >3
old)
Return
2 (31-40 years 44 1,6705 ,64649
Intention
old)
3 (41 + ) 40 1,2750 ,46616
Experience p Difference
Group
n x s.s. F
1 (1-2 times) 41 2,7154 ,85167 10,167 ,000 1 and 2 >3
Satisfaction 2 (3-4 times) 36 2,3704 ,92506
3 (5 + ) 31 1,7849 ,82349
1 (1-2 times) 41 1,7927 ,60183 6,430 ,002 1>3
Return
2 (3-4 times) 36 1,5833 ,59161
Intention
3 (5 + ) 31 1,3065 ,49459
As it is seen in the Tab. 4, the satisfaction and the return intention of the participants vary
depending on age (F=5,795; p<.01 and F= 5,819; p<.01). Accordingly, in case of being
transferred to another hotel, the satisfaction ( x = 1,82) and the return intentions ( x = 1,28)
of the potential guests who are 41 and over are statistically lower than the other age
groups. Thus, the older they are, the less satisfaction and return intention are. In that case,
H3a and H3b hypothesis the study have been supported. It is thought that older guests stay
the course of holiday and so they are affected much more by the negative situations. In this
sense, in case of oversold, it is advised to address initially younger guests. It is found out
that according to the comparison in terms of experience, the satisfaction and the return
intention of the guests who are experienced in holiday are significantly lower. So H4a and
H4b have been similarly supported and accepted. The number of the Turkish guests
transferred to other hotels because of overbooking can be expected to be less due to the
size of the domestic holiday market. Therefore, especially the reactions of the guests who
288
experienced the same situation in their previous holiday may be more severe. When these
results are evaluated together, it is understood that the older guests who are more
experienced in holiday are more responsive to the recoveries applied in oversold.
CONCLUSION
Most of the accomodation companies overbook for income maximization and therefore
face the risk of oversold. In case of oversold, the companies transfer their guests to other
hotels as a standart recovery activity. The result of this study indicates that the application
may have strong negative effects. As a result of the study, the impact of the recovery
activities commonly applied by hotels on the guests' satisfaction and the return intention is
lower than expected. It has an impact on bussiness profit in two ways. Within this context,
they lose their guests and also the costs increase because the sources are not used
effectively. So, firstly the hotel managers should make an effort not to oversold. In case of
oversold, it is possible to decrease the loss of income caused by the loss of guests. Within
this context, first of all, when the income contribution of the guests is considered, those
who have less contribution must be initially transferred. On the other hand, as a result of
the study, the guests who have less holiday experience and who are younger react more
positively. Hence, it is advised to transfer those guests to other hotels in case the hotel
oversold. It is possible for the hotels that do not overbook to fall short because of failure,
repeated reservation, mis-reservation and some reasons caused by a guest or the hotel, as
well. Therefore, the result of the study is important not only for the accomodation
companies overbooking but also for those falling short.A study conducted using the
detailed interview technique by Kuenzel and Katsaris (2011, p. 20) has explored that
managers and tourists do not have the same opinion about the service failure and recovery.
Thus, the managers of the accomodation companies must develop a more customer-
centered point of view to find effective recovery strategies in oversold. Although similar
data collection method has been exceedingly used in the literature, the most important
limitation of the study is to acquire the data from the participants who do not actually have
any service failures.
On the other hand, based on the methods of the sampling, the data collected from the
limited target population are open to discussion in terms of representation of the
population. So similar studies may be conducted by collecting tha data especially from the
guests who have experienced service failure related to overbooking before and from the
available guests of the hotels. Beside it is thought that the studies in which the absolute
data instead of the comparative one is used are necessary to evaluate service recovery
applications in terms of the hotels. It is possible to explain the rate of each recovery
activity with the mathematical formulas including such data as the cost of the sources, the
impact on the customers, the risk (the risk of vacancy and/or compensation because of not
serving, the risk of paying reklamation). In accomodation companies and food and
beverage companies, although there are similar service recovery strategies, different
activity ratio may occur (Hoffman and Kelly, 2000, p. 422).. Therefore, the studies can be
conducted comparatively in different service sectors, different accomodation companies
and different customer groups. It is claimed that the service failures must be recovered as
soon as possible. Because it is thought that the negative attitudes of the customers will
increase when it is too late. However, another idea claims that applying the service
recovery after a while instead of immediately will give better results. The guests who have
experienced the failure may be calm, behave logically and think positively about the
289
recovery efforts of the company in the course of te time. Within this context, the reactions
of the guests may be explored more meaningfully with the help of the evaluations
especially before and after standard recovery application. Because the services in the hotels
where the guests transferred to may be below or beyond expectations, the reaction of the
guest may vary.
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292
IS EMPLOYER BRANDING A CHALLENGE FOR HIGH-CONTACT
SERVICE INDUSTRIES? INSIGHTS FROM THE HOSPITALITY
SECTOR IN POLAND
Marlena A. Bednarska1
Marcin Olszewski2
Abstract: High-contact service industries involve close and direct customer-employee interaction
for a prolonged period; consequently they rely on the knowledge, skills and abilities of their staff.
Growing recognition of the significance of this interaction for service organisations‘ performance
has led to the need to increase efforts to attract and retain high-quality human recourses.
Effectiveness of these efforts can be supported by applying employer branding practices. To
develop a sound employer value proposition, company needs to examine internal employer brand
image first. The purpose of the paper is twofold: first, to identify the hospitality industry‘s strengths
and weaknesses in the context of employer branding, second, to investigate the differential effects
of selected factors on perceived industry attractiveness as a workplace. The research was conducted
on the group of 331 hospitality workers in Poland. Data were collected through self-administered
questionnaires. The study revealed that the best perceived employer brand dimension was social
value, the worst – economic value. There was a significant negative association between the
willingness to recommend the sector as an employer to others and all of the employer brand
dimensions under investigation, with job content yielding the strongest relationship. The analysis
further showed that perceptions of rewards received in the workplace were higher for men, self-
employed or having indefinite contracts, occupying managerial positions, and working in micro
entities and in accommodation services. Results of the investigation prove that it is a challenging
task to position hospitality firms in the minds of potential employees as a great place to work.
Organisations that try to attract human recourses by presenting an overly positive picture of their
employment experience are likely to encourage unrealistic expectations in newcomers with
subsequent disappointment and decreased job performance.
Key words: employer branding, hospitality industry, employees, Poland
INTRODUCTION
High-contact services are characterised by high levels of communication time, intimacy of

communication, and richness of information exchanged during interaction between
customers and employees (Kellogg and Chase 1995). Therefore high-contact service
organisations rely above all on the abilities and intentions of personnel to understand and
enact their service strategies (Goldstein 2003).
Increasing competition within the sector, combined with the significance of the customer-
employee contact in the service delivery, has resulted in an intensified awareness amongst
practitioners and researchers to better appreciate how to attract and retain employees who
are committed to the set of values and organisational goals and who can become a source
of company‘s sustainable competitive advantage and contribute to its market success (King
2010).
1
PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of Tourism, Faculty of International Business and
Economics, Poznan University of Economics, Poznan, Poland.
2
PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of Tourism, Faculty of International Business and
Economics, Poznan University of Economics, Poznan, Poland.
293
The role of the service provider in the consumer‘s evaluation of the service experience is
paramount. This is particularly true when market offering is produced by means of co-
creation between employees and customers (Lusch, Vargo, and O‘Brien 2007; Andreassen
and Lanseng 2010). Employees constitute the interface between a brand‘s internal and
external environment and can have a powerful impact on how stakeholders perceive the
service organisation (King and Grace 2006). De Chernatony, Cottam, and Segal-Horn
(2006) highlight the impact of staff on current and potential customers‘ organisation
perceptions through their role in delivering both functional and emotional brand values.
According to Mosley (2007), employees are increasingly key in developing sustainable
service brand differentiation, not only through the development of a positive service
attitude, but also through the emotional values that tend to be evoked by a particularly
distinctive style of service. Dowling (2001) claims that interpersonal communications
between employees and external entities is far more influential in terms of shaping
attitudes and image than any communication sponsored by the firm itself.
A significant impact of employees on the service organisation‘s performance has been
confirmed by the numerous studies (generally referred to as the service profit chain) that
have diagnosed causal links between business results and customer/employee satisfaction
(Heskett et al. 2008; Yee, Yeung, and Cheng 2011) as well as customer/employee
identification (Homburg, Wieseke, and Hoyer 2009). Findings of these studies support a
company's efforts to communicate to existing and prospective staff that it is a desirable
place to work – developing strategies to become an employer of choice helps recruit
suitable employees who will contribute to the efficient and effective delivery of services.
Most jobs in the hospitality industry are not bestowed with high status and respect. There
are many factors contributing to this image. A lot of occupations in the industry are
seasonal, part-time, law-skilled, law-paid, and born upon unsocial working hours. Internal
labour markets are weak and career development perspectives are limited. What's more,
employees are often confronted with customers‘ unfair and inappropriate demands on
service providers (Riley, Ladkin, and Szivas 2002; Wood 2003; Poulston 2009). Since
employees‘ engagement is affected by organisation‘s ability to reciprocate with economic
and socioemotional benefits (Saks 2006), the perceived law status of hospitality
employment is regarded as a major obstacle to the recruitment of quality labour. In
consequence, it makes it a particularly challenging task to position the firm in the minds of
potential employees as a great place to work (Baum 2008; Bednarska and Olszewski
2013).
This study seeks to contribute by identifying the hospitality industry‘s strengths and
weaknesses in the context of employer branding. It also examines the differential effects of
selected individual and organisational factors on perceived industry attractiveness as a
workplace and on willingness to recommend the sector as an employer to others.
To reach the objectives proposed, the paper proceeds as follows. First, the concept of
employer branding is discussed on the basis of the existing literature. Next, research
methodology and findings of the study on hospitality career perceptions are presented. The
last section concludes by summarising the most important findings.
294
EMPLOYER BRANDING STUDIES – LITERATURE REVIEW
In recent years, employer branding has received a growing attention in both the
practitioner and academic literatures. Interest in this approach has been driven by
increasing competition within the labour market for the talent required by companies to
realise their corporate goals (Mosley 2007). The concept has emerged from applying
marketing principles to the field of human resources management (Edwards 2010; Martin,
Gollan, and Grigg 2011). The term employer brand is believed to be coined by Ambler and
Barrow, who described it as the ―package of functional, economic, and psychological
benefits provided by employment and identified with the employing company‖ (1996, p.
187). Employer branding thus can be defined as the process of building an identifiable and
unique employer identity that differentiates the firm from its competitors, in other words it
is a specific form of managing corporate identity by creating, both within and outside the
firm, an image of the organisation as a desirable place to work (Backhaus and Tikoo 2004;
Ewing et al. 2002). A closely related to the employer brand concept is the notion of
employer attractiveness, which may be considered an antecedent of the more general idea
of employer brand equity (Berthon, Ewing, and Hah 2005).
Employer brands play a dual purpose. The employer brand proposition needs to clarify
what potential and current employees can expect from the organisation in terms of rational
and emotional benefits. However, it also needs to clarify what is expected of employees in
return (Mosley 2007). Given its dual nature, employer branding yields positive
consequences for both parties of the employment contract. Primarily, it provides an
organisation with the benefits of increasing applicant quantity and quality (Turban and
Cable 2003; Collins and Han 2004). Companies with strong employer brands can reduce
costs of acquiring employees and decrease employee turnover. Moreover, such companies
can offer lower compensation for equally qualified employees compared to those with
weaker employer brands (Berthon, Ewing, and Hah 2005). Strong employer brands play a
key role in creating and protecting reputational capital (Martin, Gollan, and Grigg 2011)
and in enhancing the perceived value of the company in the job market, enabling segment-
specific recruitment strategies to be developed (Wilden, Gudergan, and Lings 2010).
Employer brands are also assumed to have the abilities to differentiate, to satisfy, to create
loyalty, and to develop an emotional attachment (Davies 2008) as well as to support
favourable employee attitudes that enrich the customers experiences during interaction
(Schlager et al. 2011). Finally, employer branding influences positively job seekers‘
information costs, perceived risk and work quality associated with the prospective
employer (Wilden, Gudergan, and Lings 2010).
A critical component of employer branding is an employer value proposition, which is a
representation of what the firm offers to its employees and provides the central message
that is conveyed by the brand (Backhaus and Tikoo 2004). To develop a sound employer
value proposition that helps attract and retain quality human resources, company needs to
examine internal employer brand image first.
A message about the organisation as an employer is transmitted to target groups through
different channels, word-of-mouth communication being one of them (Van Hoye and
Lievens 2005). If actual employment conditions are perceived as inconsistent with signals
about employment offering communicated as a part of the employer branding activity, this
could be interpreted as psychological contract breach (Edwards 2010; App, Merk, and
Büttgen 2012). Unmet expectations may lead to negative consequences for both the
strength and the length of the employee-employer relationship (Bednarska 2014). As stated
295
by Wilden, Gudergan, and Lings (2010), employees shouldn‘t have doubts about the
willingness and ability of the employer to deliver what is promised.
To date, there have been very few attempts at empirically exploring perceptions of
employer brand in the hospitality industry. Taking into account that one of the major
challenges for the industry is attracting and retaining high potential employees (Enz 2009),
the shortage of investigations in this field is quite surprising. The present study attempts to
address this gap.
RESEARCH METHOD
To reach the objectives of the study field investigation was conducted. The target
population comprised current employees in the hospitality industry in Poland. A total of
331 participants from 12 locations were recruited for the study. 45% of them worked in
accommodation establishments, 55 % – in food service companies. Females represented
the majority of the sample (71%) and the mean age of respondents was 33 years. More
than a half of those surveyed had an upper secondary level of education and only 21% of
the staff completed tourism-related school programmes. 59% of participants reported they
had gained work experience in different sectors and the mean tenure in current
organisation was 5 years. Moreover, employees held mostly non-managerial positions
(80%), their work arrangements were primarily fixed term (48%) and full-time (77%). The
majority of the sample (64%) worked in micro entities.Table 1. shows descriptive statistics
for the sample.
Based on a review of previous research on employer image (Berthon, Ewing, and Hah
2005; Schlager et al. 2011; Bednarska, Janta, and Olszewski 2014) the questionnaire was
developed for the purpose of this study. The research instrument consisted of three
sections. Section one dealt with job and organisation attributes describing five core
dimensions of employer brand, these are: job content, economic value, development value,
social value, and reputation value. Section two sought information about respondents‘
willingness to recommend the sector as an employer to others – employment referrals are a
form of word-of-mouth communication, which can enhance the effectiveness of employer
branding practices. The third section collected demographic data that were used to identify
the different groups of respondents for purposes of comparative analysis.
Data were collected through self-administered questionnaires. As a growing body of
empirical evidence supports the notion that employee attitudes and behaviours are affected
by fit between individuals and their work environments (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, and
Johnson 2005), the study investigated both expectations towards careers and perceptions of
hospitality careers. Respondents were requested first to imagine an ideal employer who
they would choose to work for and evaluate 26 job and organisation characteristics based
on their expectations. Afterwards, they were asked to assess the analysed items regarding
current employers in the hospitality industry. A seven-point Likert scale was used, ranging
from ―strongly disagree‖ (1) to ‖strongly agree‖ (7). The data enabled the computation of
the gaps between preferred and perceived job/organisation attributes. The gap was
calculated as a difference between expectation and perception for desired attributes and as
a difference between perception and expectation for undesired attribute (Bednarska and
Olszewski 2013). Accordingly, a positive number denotes unmet expectations, and a
negative number denotes exceeded expectations.
296
Tab. 1. Sample characteristics
Variable Category N %
Female 233 70.6
Gender
Male 97 29.4
24 years and below 102 31.9
25 – 34 years 102 31.9
Age 35 – 44 years 68 21.3
45 – 54 years 24 7.5
55 years and above 24 7.5
Tertiary 96 30.1
Level of education Upper secondary 168 52.7
Primary/lower secondary 55 17.2
Tourism-related 56 21.0
Field of education
Tourism-unrelated 211 79.0
In the same sector only 67 20.5
Prior work experience In different sector(s) 193 59.0
None 67 20.5
Less than 1 year 80 26.8
1 – 2 years 84 28.0
3 – 4 years 32 10.8
Organisational tenure
5 – 9 years 48 16.0
10 – 19 years 33 11.0
20 years and more 22 7.4
Managerial 60 19.5
Position
Operational 247 80.5
Self-employment 36 11.4
Indefinite contract 99 31.2
Employment contract
Fixed term contract 151 47.6
Other 31 9.8
Full-time 236 76.9
Work arrangement
Part-time 71 23.1
Micro 208 63.6
Organisation size Small 68 20.8
Medium 51 15.6
Type of economic Accommodation 150 45.3
activity Food service 181 54.7
In order to analyse the questionnaire, data descriptive statistics and correlations were
employed to portray the main features of variables under study and relations between
them. Because the assumption about normality in the data was violated, as confirmed by
Shapiro-Wilk test (0.813<W<0.977; p<0.001), non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test was
applied to detect significant differences between groups. The statistical processing of the
survey data was conducted using the SPSS software package.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the analysis are reported in Table 2. It presents means, standard deviations,
correlations, and internal reliability estimates for the variables of interest. Measures of
employer brand dimensions demonstrate the level of subjective misfit between employees‘
expectations and perceptions of job content and context. A measure of employment
297
referrals shows the level of respondents‘ engagement in positive word-of-mouth
communication about the industry as a workplace.
Tab. 2. Variable means, standard deviations, correlations, and internal reliability estimates
Standard Spearman‘s correlations
Variable Mean
deviation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
1. Job content 1.59 1.33 (.768)
2. Economic value 2.43 1.62 .630* (.794)
3. Development value 2.27 1.74 .690* .795* (.891)
4. Social value 1.40 1.26 .515* .567* .551* (.862)
5. Reputation value 1.61 1.44 .565* .630* .675* .605* (.806)
6. Employment referrals 5.80 1.36 -.479* -.383* -.396* -.360* -.392*
* Significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Note: Values in parentheses along diagonal are internal reliabilities (Cronbach‘s alpha) for multi-
item constructs.
The descriptive data in the table prove that hospitality employees rated economic rewards
and development opportunities as the greatest weaknesses of the industry as a workplace.
The smallest expectation-perception gap was found for social relations. The computed
correlation coefficients indicate that there was a significant negative association between
all of the employer brand dimensions under investigation and the willingness to
recommend the sector as an employer to others. In other words, the higher discrepancy
respondents perceived between their needs and rewards offered in the work environment,
the lower was their inclination to make employment referrals.
Table 3 provides information about differential effects of selected factors on employer
brand image and employment referrals in the hospitality industry. All of variables under
study led to significant differences in at least one dimension of employer attractiveness.
Gender was linked to economic, development and reputation values; women perceived
each of them worse than men. Field of education displayed relationship with job content,
with those who got tourism-related education reporting smaller misfit. Position held was
linked to all dimensions under study except social value; managers tended to rate the
degree to which their needs were fulfilled by rewards in the workplace higher than
operational employees. Those holding managerial positions were also more engaged in
employment recommendations.Employment contract demonstrated relationship with all of
the variables under investigation; self-employed and those with indefinite contracts held
more positive views about their careers and declared higher level of work-related positive
word-of-mouth communication. Work arrangement was associated with economic and
development values, with part-time employees experiencing greater expectation-perception
gaps in these areas. Organisation size was related to development, social and reputation
values and with employment referrals;respondents employed in micro entities perceived
their work as more fulfilling and they willinglyspoke positively about their jobs. As far as
the type of activity is concerned, food service companies were evaluated as inferior
employers with regard to job content and development value.
It is noteworthy that the largest differences in mean ranks were identified for development
value, the smallest – for social value. With regard to explanatory variables, the largest
average differences were attributable to the type of employment contract, the smallest – to
the type of economic activity of the employer.
298
Tab. 3. Differential effects of individual and organisational factors on hospitality employer
brand image and employment referrals
Development Employment
Job content Economic value Social value Reputation value
value referrals
Variable
Mean U Mean U Mean U Mean U Mean U Mean U
rank value rank value rank value rank value rank value rank value
Gender 9844.5 8175.5 9497.0 9961.5 9444.5 10343.0
Female 171.1 173.0 ** 170.9 * 170.6 172.1 * 160.8
Male 150.5 134.1 147.4 151.7 146.4 171.8
Field of education 4705.0 5611.5 4616.0 5236.5 4961.5 5563.5
Tourism-related 113.6 * 113.0 116.0 123.2 118.2 136.8
Tourism-unrelated 138.7 135.1 136.7 136.2 136.9 132.0
Position 4061.0 5223.5 4277.5 6100.0 5047.5 6080.5
Managerial 98.8 ** 120.6 ** 102.5 ** 133.4 115.6 ** 171.9 *
Operational 166.6 157.5 164.5 158.3 162.0 147.8
Employment contract 8071.0 7037.0 6834.5 9667.5 7590.0 10047.5
Self-employment and ** ** ** ** ** **
indefinite contract 127.8 119.8 118.5 139.6 124.2 172.5
Fixed term contract and
other 182.2 183.4 187.2 173.4 184.1 146.3
Work arrangement 7060.0 6526.0 6673.5 7813.0 7381.0 7394.0
Full-time 148.4 143.9 * 146.0 * 155.4 149.4 156.5
Part-time 170.4 170.4 174.2 147.1 165.1 141.1
Organisation size 11004.5 10704.0 10569 9949.5 10448.0 10269.0
Micro 157.2 154.3 154.6 * 152.1 ** 154.5 * 171.7 *
Small and medium 174.5 169.8 176.2 183.4 178.0 146.5
Type of economic activity 11197.5 12680.0 11409.0 13416.0 12369.0 12256.0
Accommodation 150.2 ** 163.4 151.6 * 166.0 158.1 171.7
Food service 178.1 160.8 175.1 165.1 170.7 158.6
* Significant at the 0.05 level, ** significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Given the acknowledgement of the significance of the customer-employee interaction in

the service delivery as well as the growing imperative to attract and retain talented job
candidates, surprisingly scant attention to date has been drawn to employer brandingin the
hospitality industry. The present investigation seeks to fill this knowledge gap by
examiningthe hospitality internal employer brand image. Specifically, by assessing the
degree to which employees‘ needs are satisfied by rewards in the work environment, this
study aimed to identifythe hospitality industry‘s strengths and weaknesses in the context of
employer branding.
As advocated by numerous researchers (e.g. Backhaus and Tikoo 2004; Knox and Freeman
2006; Wilden, Gudergan, and Lings 2010) development and communication of employer
brand can become a critical tool for attracting and retaining talents. To reach this goal,
however, the message that an organisation sends to potential recruits needs to be reinforced
by itscurrent employees, which requiresemployer brands communicated internally and
externally to be consistent. When an employer is presented in a manner not congruent
withactual working environment, potential applicantswillperceive brand signals as
untrustworthy or will form unrealistic expectations towards employment relationship and
their post-entry performance and retention will be negatively affected.Hence, employer
should clearlyunderstand what promise of benefits couldbe offered to prospective and
current employees to avoid theperceived violation of a psychological contract (Foster,
Punjaisri, and Cheng 2010).
The study revealed that economic benefits and development opportunities are those
dimensions of hospitality employer image that employees found the most unsatisfactory.
Concurrently, they evaluated relatively favourably the extent to which their needs were
met with regard to social relations and job content.These results correspond with previous
research on the hospitalityindustry as a workplace.In line with this investigation, others
observed that limited avenues for career progression were key drivers to exit the industry
(McGinley et al. 2014) or even not to enter the industry upon graduation (Richardson
2010).The study also showed that the industry‘s image of being low paid holds true
(Poulston 2009; Gallardo et al. 2010).On the other hand,relationships with colleagues and
299
working with people were commonly pointed out as attractive aspects of careersin the
sector (Brown, Thomas, and Bosselman 2015; Gallardo et al. 2010).Researchers also found
that challenging and stimulating job was a valued attribute of hospitality employment (Lub
et al. 2012; Mkono 2010).
The findings of the study suggest that, when developing an employer value proposition
aimed to attract and retain quality human resources, hospitality organisations should
emphasise job content and social values. Friendly atmosphere, feeling of integration,
supportive attitude of colleaguesas well as challenging work assignments and variety in
daily activities appear to be the greatest strengths of the industry as a workplace. It is also
important not to neglect opinions of current employees as their engagement in positive
word-of-mouth communication is closely related to perceived rewardsobtained in the
workplace. And, as noted byWilden, Gudergan, and Lings (2010), employee referrals are
considered one of the most credible sources of employer brand information.
The results reported in the paper must be tempered by several limitations. First, all
variables were measured with self-reports. Although the use of a survey methodology was
appropriate, given the perceptual nature of the study variables, it does raise concerns about
common method bias, especially social desirability, which may have influenced the results.
Another aspect to keep in mind is that some of the unique characteristics of the hospitality
industry may limit the generalizability of the findings to service sectors not considered
here. However, accommodation and food service establishments provide a useful
environment for investigating high-contact services.
CONCLUSION
In today's, characterised by increasingly fierce competition economy, employees are focal

to the process of service brand building and their attitudes and behaviours can either
reinforce a brand's values or, if inconsistent with these values, undermine the credibility of
market communications. If companies wish to gain a competitive advantage through
attracting and retaining talented workforce, they should engage in the process of placing an
image of being a desirable place to work in the minds of current and potential hires.
Employers ought to invest in clear and consistent brand signals. Those signals must be
credible – organisations that present an overly positive picture of their employment
experience are likely to encourage unrealistic expectations in newcomers with subsequent
disappointment, which could lead to reduced job satisfaction, decreased job performance,
and increased voluntary quit rates. In other words, it is critical that actual employment
conditions not contradict the signals delivered to job seekers in the pre-employment phase.
Effective employer branding requires then understanding of the factors that are important
for employees and of the current image of the organisation as a workplace.
Acknowledgement: The research reported in the paper is a part of the project supported by the
National Science Centre, Poland under the Grant ―Quality of work life in competitive potential
development in the tourism industry‖ (DEC-2012/07/B/HS4/03089).
300
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EVALUATION OF MEDICAL TOURISM IN PUBLIC HOSPITAL
SERVICES
İrfan Özcan1
Emine Erdur2
Metin Ateş3
Ertuğrul Tarcan4
Abstract: Evaluating the services of public hospitals in medical tourism in our country, to create
data structures to improve. The research is descriptive and field research. The questionnaire was
used as data collection tool. The population of the research was public hospitals in Ġstanbul. It has
yet to determine the sample. All were included in the study of the universe. Surveys have been
applied to the hospital executives face to face. Serving a total of 62 public hospitals in Istanbul has
reached 60 from the administrator. Data were analyzed by SPSS software package was used.
Demographic information obtained as a result of the implementation of the survey percentage (%)
and number of people (n) taking statements have been prepared. In the analysis of data obtained
from the survey; frequency distribution, mean, standard deviation, chi-square (χ2) test was
conducted as required statistical analysis. According to the research findings; from abroad,
especially from June to July and August in the patients (86.7%) were admitted to hospitals and
reference is made to themselves (90%) were determined. Patients are often admitted to the eye and
obstetric services (40%), the majority (91.7%) of the patients and 46.7% from the Turkish Republic
of Germany. If Turkey is found to be effective in the choice of the price with a rate of 96.7%. These
results indicate that the desired level yet in the public hospitals of health tourism.It shows that we
are more advanced in their health tourists. Foreign patients, especially the Public Hospitals have to
choose when they come to Turkey. Choice of hospital activity in patients, beds, staff and a similar
number of properties have been found to be no effect. When assessing overseas promotion activities
for both types of hospital patients it has been identified where there aren‘t serious efforts. For this
purpose, the Internet, magazines, newspapers, brochures or tour operators visit methods were used.
In our country, it is necessary to increase the awareness level of the public hospitals in medical
tourism. Management and organization structure, together with physical conditions must arrange
accordingly. Need to develop promotional activities. For this, they need to do serious work with
academics and industry representatives of the relevant ministries.
Key words: health tourism, medical tourism, public hospitals
INTRODUCTION
Medical tourism, defined as surgery or other medical treatments in order to travel. Medical
tourism involves two basic topics including surgery and therapy. There is a distinct
difference between the two. Surgical tourism necessarily require specific operation.
Therapeutic aimed at improving methods of treatment used in tourism. Therapy is a little
different from the surgery. There are similar aspects such as medical examination and
diagnosis. However, this treatment different from surgery requires longer and continuous
control. (Smith and Puczko, 2009: 101-102).
1
Assistant Professor, Mediterrain Univercity, Antalya, Turkey.
2
Msc, Ministry of Health, Turkey.
3
Professor, Department of Health Management, Faculty of Health Sciences, Marmara University,
Ġstanbul, Turkey.
4
Professor, Istanbul Univercity, Ġstanbul, Turkey.
304
Medical sector and the results of jointly producing goods and services in the tourism sector
have emerged in medical tourism. (Silver and the Great, 2008: 435). Medical tourism,
more economical and the treatment, processing and quality health care for less waiting
time is to go from one country to another. Medically from one country to another to avoid
spa treatments are also needed medical tourism. (Aydin, 2008: 6). To go to another country
to obtain health care is not a new thing. . However, the concept of medical tourism has
emerged in the last 10-15 years. (Yanos, 2008: 16). Includes all concepts to the general
concept of health tourism, remain healthy and fit. Medical tourism is for medical
intervention and treatment (Brick, 2008: 8). In medical tourism, "tourists" are intended to
be primarily medical treatment. However, the rest of the attractions, leisure activities, such
as participating in the traditional tourism assessment (Mugomb and Danelle, 2007: 1).
It is possible to separate the history of medical tourism into two categories. The most
prominent feature of the old-fashioned medical tourism is expensive. In this system,
wealthy patients belonging to poor countries have suffered from the high treatment costs
and transportation difficulties in Europe and America. However, they were receiving a
higher quality of medical service. . New procedures in the medical tourism facilitated
travel between the north-south and south-south and is so advanced that even medical
tourism. To explain with a longer Examples Hindus can go for the treatment of unexpected
decrease in body mass to America. A Bangladeshi can go to Thailand for the treatment of
varicose veins. Therefore, the patient is no longer flow only from the third world to the
first world. As from the third world to the third world it can take place in the form of the
first world to the third world (Reisman, 2010: 29).
Asian countries are dominant in the medical tourism market worldwide. India in particular
has an important place in the market with low prices. Medical tourism market demand is
concentrated in three regions. North America, Western Europe and the Middle East. The
distribution of the demand for destinations in these areas is as follows. European medical
visitors‘s favorite countrys India, Malaysia and Thailand. Dominate the Middle East
market because of the Malaysian Islamic reference. Singapore, the main destination of the
Japanese mark Cuba is directed to the Central American market. Asian region is the most
important continent for medical tourism. District attracts 1.3 million medical tourists
annually (Health Foundation of Turkey, 2010: 47).
Mostly eye surgery in Turkey within the scope of medical tourism, dental surgery, in vitro
fertilization practices, aesthetic and plastic operations, services for the treatment of heart
and vascular disease, are presented. (Akdur, 2009: 40). Patients usually comes from
England, Holland, Belgium, Russia, Bulgaria, Romania, Kosovo and Syria (Stephanou,
2009: 15). Medical and health services in developed countries like U.S. or Great Britain is
expensive. European and American patients due to expensive treatment and long waiting
periods in the insurance go to Thailand, India or other southeast Asian countries. In Asia,
despite the lack of valid insurance services to foreigners, many foreigners seeking medical
help because of price differences in this part of the world (Garcia and Besing in 2006: 42).
The most important area in medical tourism, Asia is continent. Zone has attracted 1.3
million medical tourists annually. India is considered as the center of medical tourism.
Nigerian for citizen spends $ 2 billion a year for medical expenses outside the country. In
Thailand tourism movement began in the 1970s with the sex-change operations. Later
aesthetic surgery came to the foreBAKA, 2011: 6). Jordan, since the 1970s in the Middle
East and Asia, the healthcare industry has been ahead of the country. In this regard, the
country is the world's fifth. (Lightning and Altunkaya, 2006: 1; Ozturk, 2011: 50).
305
Medical tourism is fast and big changes in the world. Especially in developing countries,
stable and high income source in the search for fragile economies, are turning to outside
sources of income such as exports and tourism. Due to various shortcomings in the social
security services and proecedures developed countries, medical tourism is seen as an
important source of revenue (Yavuz, 2010:6).
RESEARCH
Aim of the study
Evaluating the services of public hospitals in medical tourism in our country, to create data
structures to improve.
Methods
The research is descriptive and field research. The questionnaire was used as data
collection tool. The research population consisted of public hospitals in the province
Ġstanbul. All were included in the survey universe. Surveys have been applied to the
hospital executives face to face. Serving a total of 62 public hospitals in Istanbul has
reached 60 from the administrator.
The questionnaire used in the research field consists of two parts. The first section consists
of 13 questions and descriptive information about the hospital administrator. 34 guestion in
the second part of the research relates to health tourism. 12,14-23,26-28,30-31 and 34-47
survey questions used in the form of the question Yalcin (Yalcin, 2006) is taken from the
thesis.
Data Analysis
In data analysis software package SPSS was used. In the analysis of data obtained from the
survey; frequency distribution, mean, standard deviation, chi-square (χ2) test analysis were
performed.
FINDINGS
The results of the studies performed are listed as follows:
Patients from abroad has used health services provided by hospitals, especially in June-
July-August (86.7%).
Applicants have themselves foreign patients.
Patients have often resorted to eye and gynecological diseases.
The majority of patients of the Republic of Turkey, Germany, Ġran are from.
Especially in choosing Turkey it shows that prices are effective.
Public hospitals are specifically selected by foreign patients.
306
The hospital's activities during the year, bed capacity, number of employees and similar
issues are not effective in the preferences.
They came to Turkey for vacation and illness in an emergency or health problems because
it is understood that apply to the nearest health facility.
The promotion activities for overseas patients it was seen on the internet. Magazine,
newspaper, brochure or tour operators visit methods aren‘t preferred.
Promotional activities aren‘t carried out in hospitals.
According to hospital administrators, only 13,3% of the hospitals surveyed health tourism
unit has been created.
According to the hospital director, the automation system for foreign patients has not been
established in the majority of hospitals surveyed.
According to the hospital director, foreign language skills of employees 70% of the
hospitals surveyed are insufficient.
According to hospital administrators, hospital software package for treatment of foreign

patients has not been established in 94% of surveyed.
According to hospital administrators, guidance for foreign patients only 26.7% of the
hospitals surveyed and warning signs were developed.
According to the hospital director, the hospitals surveyed posters and leaflets for patients
only 23.3% foreigners were created.
According to the hospital director, hospital facilities only in accordance with the reputation
of 23.3% of the patients belonging to different religious faith has been provided.
According to hospital administrators, the most important factor in choosing the Turkey of
foreign patients (96.7%) was the price.
According to hospital managers (96.7%), insufficient promotion services for foreign

patients.
According to the hospital director, human resources and physical and technological
infrastructure to provide services to foreign patients in hospitals in the survey is not
enough.
None of the hospitals involved in this study were found to have contracted interpreter.
None of the hospitals for foreign patients involved in this study there is no reserved floor.
Only 16.7% of applications from foreign patients to the hospital by insurance companies.
307
Foreign patients to the hospitals surveyed had applied for most eye diseases (41.7%).
Secondly, for gynecology (40%) and thirdly to respiratory diseases (38.3%) were admitted.
Hospital executives, foreign patients admitted to hospitals suffer from various problems
that they had with the insurance company.
Insurance companies, rates, accreditation, payback time and have experienced problems
with patients provisioning issues.
Hospital managers have often said that foreign patients come to the hospital in the spring.
The patient application is at least the winter months.
CONCLUSION
According to the research findings; from abroad, especially from June to July and August
in the patients (86.7%) were admitted to hospitals and reference is made to themselves
(90%) were determined. Patients are often admitted to the eye and obstetric services
(40%), the majority (91.7%) of the patients and 46.7% from the Turkish Republic of
Germany. If Turkey is found to be effective in the choice of the price with a rate of 96.7%.
These results indicate that the desired level yet in the public hospitals of health tourism.It
shows that we are more advanced in their health tourists. Foreign patients, especially the
Public Hospitals have to choose when they come to Turkey. Choice of hospital activity in
patients, beds, staff and a similar number of properties have been found to be no effect.
When assessing overseas promotion activities for both types of hospital patients it has been
identified where there aren‘t serious efforts. For this purpose, the Internet, magazines,
newspapers, brochures or tour operators visit methods were used. In our country, it is
necessary to increase the awareness level of the public hospitals in medical tourism.
Management and organization structure, together with physical conditions must arrange
accordingly. Need to develop promotional activities. For this, they need to do serious work
with academics and industry representatives of the relevant ministries.
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uygulamalar üzerine bir araĢtırma; Ġstanbul ve Ankara örneği, YayınlanmamıĢ Yüksek
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Yayın Dağıtım.
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kuruluĢunda araĢtırma, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Turizm ĠĢletmeciliği
Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara.
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framework for entry into the industry tourism and hospitality managemet, Master Thesis,
Göteborg: School Of Bussiness, Ekonomics and Law Göteborg University.
Öztürk, M. (2011). Termal konaklama iĢletmelerinde yöneticilerin stratejik kalite yönetimi

algıları: Afyon bölgesinde bir uygulama, YayınlanmamıĢ Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Düzce
Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Bolu.
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Edward Elgar Publishing.
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Türkiye Sağlık Vakfı, (2010). Dünyada ve Türkiye‘de sağlık turizmi durum analiz raporu
ve çözüm önerileri, Ankara, Efil Yayınevi.
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bülteni,5.
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Kemal Dedeman AraĢtırma ve GeliĢtirme Proje YarıĢması.
Yıldırım, H.H., Altunkaya, Ü.(2006). Türkiye‘nin sağlık turizmi potansiyeli ve güçlükler

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309
THE EFFECTS OF TEAM – AND CUSTOMER-MEMBER EXCHANGE
ON EMPLOYEE SERVCICE PERFORMANCE IN KOREAN HOTEL
RESTAURANTS
Mahn Hee Yoon1
Abstract: This study focuses two exchange relationships at service workplace––team-member

exchange (TMX), customer-member exchange (CMX)––that customer contact employees may be
involved in during a service encounter. This study extends exchange relationships into the service
marketing domain by investigating less explored exchanges but ones (CMX, TMX) that service
employees typically engage in the service encounter. It also highlights the mediating role of team
commitment in team-oriented work environment. Based on social exchange theory and the self-
regulation of attitude, this study examines the effects of both exchange variables on an
emotional/attitudinal response (team commitment) and behavior (service performance). Data were
collected from 468 customer-contact employees across 21 restaurants in seven branches of a
prominent hotel chain in South Korea. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate proposed
model and test hypotheses. The results showed that both TMX and CMX relationships have
significant effect on team commitment, which in turn have positive impact on service performance.
Team commitment mediated partially the positive relationships between both exchange variables
and service performance. In regards to the direct effects on service performance, team commitment
was strong relative to the effect of organizational commitment.
Future studies should incorporate customer ratings or immediate supervisors‘ ratings of
subordinates to measure the employee service performance. Further, the customer-member
exchange scale needs further investigation in other contexts, to insure we have adequately captured
it. Service organizations should not limit the employee relationships only to the formal contract or
economic exchanges. Service management should scrutinize the critical role of TMX and CMX as
perceived by service employees in generating positive job-related attitudes (team commitment) and
superior service performance.
Key words: team-member exchange, customer-member exchange, team commitment, service
performance, hotel restaurant
INTRODUCTION
In hospitality businesses, service employees typically engage in multiple exchange

relationships with a variety of individuals or groups inside or outside the organization. The
exchanges employees have with the various parties, such as customers, coworkers, and
immediate supervisors, strongly affect their job performance, making exchanges an
important construct to examine in a service context. In the past few decades, organizational
researchers have extensively studied the nature and role of employees‘ exchange
relationships in organizations. Blau‘s (1964) social exchange theory provides a theoretical
framework for understanding exchange relationships, noting that reciprocity-based
exchanges are predictive of employees‘ positive work behaviors (e.g., extra-role behavior,
low intention to quit) and attitudes (e.g., high job satisfaction and organizational
commitment). Specifically, the leader-member exchange (hereafter referred to as LMX)
(Liden et al.,, 2000) and perceived organizational support (hereafter referred to as POS)
(Eisenberger et al., 1986) literatures show that employees‘ perceived quality of exchange
1
Professor of Marketing, Department of Business Administration, Daegu University, Gyeongsan,
Gyeongbuk, South Korea.
310
with their organization and supervisors influence their performance and attitudes (Liden et
al., 2000). In service management, both constructs have been often discussed in regards to
internal marketing issues, where the internal exchange between the customer-contact
employee and the organization must operate effectively and satisfactorily prior to the
achievement of successful external exchanges.
Despite numerous exchange studies, still there can be several opportunities to extend
exchange relationships into the services domain. We can expand on an existing type of
exchange relationship not previously addressed enough in the service marketing literature--
team-member exchange (hereafter referred to as TMX) (Seers, 1989). TMX is an
important type of exchange relationship (Seers, 1989) in the management literature. Seers
et al. (1995, p.22) define TMX as the degree to which an employee ―incorporates his or her
role in relation to the group…within the self concept.‖ Despite its importance, researchers
have not explored this exchange relationship relative to team commitment in the team-
oriented workplaces. As Cole et al. (2002) argue, TMX is part of an employee‘s workplace
social exchange network and, thus, is important to study. There is a growing recognition of
the importance of the need to study work teams in their natural environments and their
interrelationships to other types of exchange partners. Such integrative considerations help
us understand the overall exchange dynamics in organizations that ultimately affect
employee‘s decisions for behavioral or attitudinal reciprocation. In fact, some studies tried
to explain team commitment in terms of perceived team support (Bishop et al., 2000),
perceived task interdependence and intersender conflict (Bishop et al., 2000). But there
was no attention paid to the relationship between team-member exchange and team
commitment, even though both are key constructs in a team-oriented context.
In addition to TMX, there is another exchange that may strongly explain team
commitment, which is customer-member exchange (hereafter referred to as CMX). This
type of exchange relationship is particularly relevant in service encounters, where
customers play important roles. Service employees, as boundary spanners, continuously
interact with customers outside the organization, and their attitudes and service behaviors
depend heavily on their perceptions of the quality of customer exchanges. Thus, customer-
employee exchange is important to include as an exchange type in a service setting. Unlike
other internal exchanges, it deals with the external exchanges between employees and
customers and represents an employee‘s generalized perceptions (based on past customers
and occasions) of his interactions with customers. Obviously, there are some studies in
marketing that have explored constructs similar to this exchange relationship, such as
commercial friendship (Price and Arnould, 1999) and customer-employee rapport
(Gremler and Gwinner, 2000). However, the customer-employee exchange is different
from these constructs in its theoretical base and its focus on the employee‘s perspective.
Thus, it extends the ideas of leader- and team-member exchange into the services area,
with a focus on employees‘ perceptions of the quality of their customer interactions.
In this paper, we attempt to examine the incremental contributions of TMX, CMX, and
team commitment to explaining service employee‘s performance in a team-oriented
service setting above the impact of LMX, POS, and organizational commitment on
employee job performance (e.g., Liden et al., 1998). Specifically, following Bagozzi‘s
(1992) self-regulation of attitudes (cognitive appraisal attitudinal/emotional
response coping/behavior), this paper explores how two exchange relationships (TMX,
CMX), as perceived by employees, influence their work attitude toward work team (team
commitment), which in turn affects their behavior (service performance).
311
BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESES
Team-member exchange (TMX)

TMX refers to an employee‘s perception of his or her exchange relationship with the work
group as a whole (Seers, 1989). Thus, it involves employees working together with other
coworkers of the role set to accomplish their tasks. According to Seers et al. (1995), team
members use the reciprocal behaviors inherent in a social exchange to reinforce individual
roles.
As an individual level construct, TMX involves an employee‘s aggregation of role episode
exchanges across members of their work group (Seers et al., 1995). Using a role theory
perspective, TMX involves employees working together with other coworkers of their role
set to accomplish their tasks. Likening it to team identification, Seers and his colleagues
suggest that TMX involves the degree to which an employee ―incorporates his or her role
in relation to the group…within the self concept‖ (1995: 22) and entails generalized
reciprocity (social exchange theory) of group members with one another and across the
group such that greater team identification suggests higher TMX.
Employees who perceive low TMX, do not see themselves as strongly identifying with the
team and therefore, the behaviors they enact as a result of that relationship involve the
exchange of materials necessary for work completion. In contrast, those perceiving high
TMX, see themselves as ―team players,‖ (Seers et al., 1995) and are more likely to engage
in reciprocal exchanges of resources and social commodities, such as support, help, and
recognition of team members, which go beyond the requirements of simple work execution
(Liden et al., 2000). This concept relates also to the importance of positive connections in
the workplace. As Dutton (2003: 7) states: ―energy can be renewed and spread as
individuals infect each other by connecting in positive ways.‖
Customer-member exchange (CMX)

CMX is an employee‘s generalized perception (across past customers and occasions) of his
or her interactions with customers. It is an individual level construct and represents the
employee‘s mental aggregation, reflecting his/her generalized feelings about all of his/her
interactions with customers over time. Given the service encounter or relationship is a
work environment, like climate perceptions, employees integrate their microperceptions of
episodes or interactions with customers into macroperceptions of customer-exchange
relationships (Diet et al., 2004). Also, following role theory, employees first look at what
they bring to the relationship as well as that which is expected of them in their roles as
employees. Then, as they encounter different customers, some level of exchange occurs
with each customer and occasion (social exchange theory). The level of reciprocity will
differ for each interaction but employees will be able to cognitively assess these
relationships across all interactions, forming a generalized emotional response, e.g., ―most
of my interactions with customers are wonderful and make me feel good.‖
Thus, similar to LMX and TMX, low quality CMX involves pure exchange relationships
with customers in accordance with job related requirements, while high quality interactions
involve the exchange of social elements or commodities, such as mutual respect, trust,
obligation, friendship and liking. These interactions may occur across different types of
customer encounters or relationships. That is, employees may interact with customers they
do not know and only interact with only once (i.e., encounters or pseudorelationships) or
they may interact with regular customers, engaging in ongoing relationships (Gutek et al.,
312
1999). High-quality CMX exchanges are possible between employees and customers in
both ongoing relationships and encounters.
CMX is a construct of employee-customer interaction and thus it is similar to the idea of
rapport in the service literature, which involves ―having an enjoyable interaction with a
service provider employee, characterized by a personal connection between the two
interactants‖ (Gremler and Gwinner, 2000: 92). However, Gremler and Gwinner
emphasize this as a customer view, not really addressing it from the employee‘s
perspective. CMX can also be similar to Dutton‘s (2003) notion of ―high quality
connections,‖ composed of three elements--respectful engagement, task enabling, and
trusting in the management literature. However, the concept of CMX is different from
these ideas— its theoretical base is social exchange theory and it focuses on what is given
and received by whom and for what reason (Cole al., 2002). Further, it is a logical
extension of the relationship exchange partners already addressed in the management
literature (leaders and team members). Finally, it encompasses a broad range of social
content from the employee‘s (rather than the customer‘s perspective)—including mutual
trust, professional respect, recognition or praise, and friendship and liking. The focus here
is not on identifying the trait or personality aspects of this construct. Instead, the focus is
on the degree to which employees would generally say that their customer exchanges
involve positive feelings and energizing connections between themselves and their
customers. This, in turn, would have many important consequences for employees,
customers, and their firm.
Exchange relationships and team commitment

If service employees receive high-quality social currencies from their teammates in the
forms of recognition, trust, and respect, then they will, in return be committed to the goals
and values of their work team and be emotionally attached to the team and its members. As
Seers et al. (1995) noted, employees use reciprocal attitudes inherent in a social exchange
to reinforce individual roles and identify both within the group and for the group at large.
Such reciprocal attitudes towards the team will be evident in the team-oriented work
environment, where a work group or team is an immediate, local focus for employees.
According to Lawler‘s (1992) theory of nested commitment, the immediate or local focus
is more salient and has interaction advantage over distant foci. Thus, if the local focus has
a positive effect on the working condition of service employees, they may attribute
positive emotions to the local focus, which will be the object of their emotional
attachment.
Just as service employees appreciate positive reactions and interactions from team-
members and supervisors, they also appreciate positive reactions and interactions with
their customers (Bowen, 1983). When employees receive positive reactions from
customers, they feel positive emotions towards their most immediate focus ‗customers‘,
and next to the most proximal individuals in the work environment—their teammates.
Further, Lawler‘s (1992) nested commitment idea suggests that initially the customers and
then the work team will become objects of the employee‘s emotional attachment. This may
be a result of emotional contagion as well (Pugh, 2001). Thus, in a positive team-service
environment, customers provide positive feedback that is transferred to positive feelings
towards teammates, a sense of camaraderie and a mutuality of purpose in serving the
customer, leading to the following hypotheses.
H1. Service employees‘ (a) team-member exchange and (b) customer-member exchange
will be related positively to team commitment.
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Team commitment and service performance
Recent commitment literature indicates that employees‘ attitudinal commitment to the
workplace is multidimensional and that the focus of commitment (that is, to whom or what
employees are committed) is important in assessing employee attachment (Bishop et al.,
2000). The team commitment of service employees is likely to influence their job
performance positively because when employees feel emotionally attached to the team,
they may be more willing to contribute to the work-team goals by increasing their personal
performance. This is consistent with Fishbein and Ajzen‘s (1974) principle of
compatibility that ―a given attitude should be related to behavior only to the extent that the
target (foci) of the attitude and behavior are similar‖ (Becker and Kernan, 2003, p.331).
Thus, this involves a matching of commitment and performance foci.
H2. Team commitment will be positively related to employee service performance.
Direct Effects of Exchanges on Employee Service Performance

While only a few studies have examined the effects of team-member exchange on job
performance, researchers have found that it influences job performance (Liden et al.,
2000). In the Liden et al.‘s study, the team-member exchange directly aided peers in
attaining higher levels of performance, while emotional support and guidance from the
immediate supervisor (LMX) did not. In regards to high-quality team-member exchange
relationships, employees exchange work-related expertise or knowledge and/or feedback
from teammates, which allows service employees to perform their jobs better. As Cole et
al. (2002) argue, performance is an acceptable currency for social exchange.
Further, customers are also a source of positive feelings for service employees. Employees
appreciate customers‘ rewarding, recognizing, and/or praising their behaviors as currencies
for the customer-member exchange process. Like leader- and team-member exchanges,
employees rely on customers for positive reactions (Bowen, 1983). Service employees may
treat their customers differently in response to the quality of customer-member exchange.
When high-quality exchange occurs, employees should reciprocate with more pleasant,
rewarding behaviors towards customers, i.e., better job performance, although the
empirical assessment of this linkage appears to have not been assessed. Thus, we offer the
following.
H3. Service employees‘ (a) team member exchange and (b) customer-member exchange
will be related positively to employee service performance.
Mediation effect of team-commitment

H4. Service employees‘ team commitment partially mediates the relationship between their
(a) team member exchange and (b) customer-member exchange and service performance.
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Sample and data collection

We surveyed approximately 700 service employees across 21 restaurants in seven branches
of a luxury hotel chain in South Korea. A hotel restaurant is an appropriate setting for our
empirical study because service employees in the restaurant services are subject to a
variety of human interactions with both customers and internal parties—supervisors and
team members. We received questionnaires from 468 employees (67% response rate),
314
excluding one employee response because of missing identification. The sample was 46%
male and 54% female. Seventy-six percent of the employees graduated junior college, 58%
were less than 30 years old, and 65% not married. Twenty-eight percent of the sample had
worked for the restaurant for less than one year, 42% one to three years, and 30% had
worked there more than three years.
Measurement model
We estimated a confirmatory analysis (CFA) for validation for all of our measures
including control variables, specifying a seven-construct measurement model with 49 item
indicators. The CFA indicates a satisfactory fit of the data ( 2 = 4807.77, df = 1106, p <
.01; TLI = .95; CFI = .95; RMSEA = .08). All indicator loadings for constructs were high
and significant (p < .01), with parameter estimates 15 to 24 times as large as the standard
error. All scales achieved coefficient alphas and composite reliabilities greater than .87 and
the proportions of variance extracted (AVEs) above the recommended level of .50, as
shown in Table 1. Thus, our measures appear to have convergent validity.
Tab. 1. Summary statistics and internal consistencya

Me
SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
n
(Focal constructs)
1.
1. Team-member exchange 5.08 .93
00
2. Customer-member
5.14 .86 .50 1.00
exchange
3. Team commitment 5.00 1.01 .64 .58 1.00
1.0
4. Service performance 5.21 .93 .56 .58 .67
0
(Control variables)
5. Perceived organization. 1.0
4.18 1.28 .28 .37 .31 .23
support 0
6. Leader-member 1.0
4.79 .99 .63 .50 .53 .49 .31
exchange 0
7. Organizational
4.58 1.22 .41 .37 .59 .41 .61 .56 1.00
commitment
Internal Consistency
Cronbach‘s .93 .88 .89 .88 .95 .88 .93
Composite Reliability .92 .87 .91 .89 .95 .89 .95
Average Variance Extracted .54 .54 .60 .56 .73 .57 .73
a. Correlation coefficients are disattenuated estimates from confirmatory factor analyses
using LISREL.
Discriminant validity exists when the AVE values in each construct exceed the square of
the coefficient ( ) representing its correlation with other constructs (Fornell and Larcker,
1981). This criterion was satisfied across all pairs of constructs. See Table 1. Second, we
calculated a two-standard error interval estimate of each coefficient ( ) to examine
whether the correlation coefficient plus two standard errors included the value 1.0. None of
315
the 95 percent confidence intervals for any correlation did. Thus, discriminant validity
appears to exist between all pairs of constructs.
Structural Model Results

We simultaneously estimated the hypothesized paths among focal constructs and the paths
among the focal constructs and control variables. Netemeyer and his colleagues (2005:
137) suggest that ― the recent trend in structural equation models is to control for variables
that are not central to study hypotheses.‖ Thus we also estimated paths among control
variables and their linkages to service performance. This full structural model fits the data
well ( 2 = 4890.03, df = 1111, p < .01; TLI = .94; CFI = .95; RMSEA = .08). Table 2
presents the standardized estimates for structural paths in the proposed model. All
hypothesized relationships were supported at p<.05 or better. As predicted in H1a and
H1b, team commitment was positively impacted by team-member exchange ( = .47, t =
9.35) and customer-member exchange ( = .36, t = 7.35). Both exchange paths explained
51% of the variance in team commitment. We also predicted that service employees‘ team
commitment would affect their service performance. Supporting H2, team commitment
positively influenced employees‘ service performance ( = .39, t = 6.24). In H3a and H3b,
we predicted that both team- and customer-member exchanges would directly influence
service performance. Both paths were supported (team-member exchange: = .14, t =
2.20; customer-member exchange: = .26, t = 4.51).
Tab. 2. Structural model estimation results

Structural paths Coefficient t-value
(Hypothesized Paths)
TMX Team commitment (H1a) .47 9.35***
CMX Team commitment (H1b) .36 7.35***
Team commitment Service performance (H2) .39 6.24***
TMX Service performance (H3a) .14 2.20***
CMX Service performance (H3b) .26 4.51***
(Control variable paths)
POS Organizational commitment .49 11.64***
LMX Organizational commitment .41 9.95***
POS Service performance -.07 -1.37***
LMX Service performance .08 1.21***
Organizational commitment Service
.04 .69***
performance
Model Fit: 2 = 4890.03, d.f. = 1111, p < .01; TLI= .94, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .088
* < .10 ** < .05 *** < .01
316
In order to assess empirically the mediation role of team commitment in the effects of two
exchange variables to service performance (H4), we compared the hypothesized partial
mediation model with the fully mediated model. The chi-square difference ( 2) test was
used to compare the two models. The result ( 2 = 25.22 with df = 2, p < .01) shows that
the partially mediated model is better-fitting than the fully mediated model. Using another
SEM approach to assess mediation (Schneider et al., 2005; MacKinnon et al., 2002), we
found that the team commitment played a partial mediator role between both exchange
variables and service performance. Partial mediations exist if the direct path (TMX or
CMX service performance) remains significant (TMX: = .14, t = 2.20; CMX: = .26, t
= 4.51), while paths (a) and (b) (TMX or CMX team commitment; team
commitment service performance) are significant (TMX: =.47, t = 9.35; CMX: =.36, t
= 7.35; and = .39, t = 6.24, respectively).
CONCLUSIONS
As anticipated, we found evidence that recognition or supportive behaviors from work-

teams and customers can affect service employees‘ emotional attachment to their team.
Even though not explored in previous studies, this result indicates that the social exchange
theory can provide a theoretical base for understanding the influences of TMX and CMX
on team commitment, and provides an empirical answer to prior findings in organizational
studies that argue for the further development of exchange relationship types.
Further, we found that employees‘ emotional attachment to their team is an important
attitudinal antecedent of their service performance. This finding underscores the
importance of matching the form of commitment to type of performance, consistent with
Fishbein and Ajzen‘s (1974) principle of compatibility. Also, we find that service
employees who feel attached to the work team are more willing to contribute to their team
by engaging in higher quality service. This indicates that service performance has foci as
well. Field theory (Lewin 1943) also provides a rationale for this result. Team commitment
contributes more to work performance than organizational commitment due to the greater
physical proximity of teammates and their psychological saliency to the one another.
Our results indicate that when employees receive positive social exchange currencies from
team members and customers they perform better. These findings suggest that researchers
should pay more attention to understanding the effects of TMX and CMX on employees‘
service performance. The powerful effect of CMX on service behaviors cannot be
overemphasized. It implies that the positive feedback or emotional support that employees
receive from customers is a strong motivator, which contributes in an important way to
excellent service behaviors. When service employees perceive customers‘ rewarding,
recognizing, and/or praising their behaviors as currencies for high-quality exchange, the
norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960) sets in, such that they reciprocate with more pleasant
or better service performance as positive behavioral currencies.
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318
MANAGEMENT OF ON-LINE SALES CHANNELS AT HOTELS:
CHANNEL MANAGER SYSTEM
Ali Avan1
Ahmet Baytok2
Özcan Zorlu3
Murat Toker4
Abstract: Rapid development of technology has caused a dramatic change at marketing and
purchase types of products in the last 20 years. This change which is also characterized by the
growing rates of internet usage and online sales has affected hotel enterprises like all other business.
Especially, intensive usage and accessibility of internet has established a dynamic web based
platform where the hotel enterprises can easily market their services in which the consumers can
access those services quickly, easily and cheaply. These web-based platforms named as on-line
sales channels (OSCs) show an upward trend as an alternative to traditional marketing. However,
today OSCs have become comparable for both end-users and channel managers as a result of the
growing number of such platforms. And this fact has made the knowledge standardization
obligatory in terms of marketing ethics, marketing style and on-line sales agreement. At this point,
Channel Manager System (CMS) has become as a way of knowledge standardization for the hotel
enterprises. Usage of CMS has made the management of relevant processes easier by enabling fast
& easy update of necessary information, pictures, daily activities and prices in hotels. Within this
context, this study examines contributions and amenities of CMS in terms of OSCs with an
application which is currently used in a thermal hotel.
Key words: On-line sales channels, on-line marketing, Channel Manager System.
INTRODUCTION
Recent developments in information technologies, reaching and using information easily,

and rapid developments in interactive communication turned the world into a global
village and necessitated to make a new definition of goods and services production and
other business activities. This process is accelerated by the developments in personal
computer, laptop and smart phone technologies,by the increase interest and use of such
technologies by individuals (Murphy, Chen and Cossutta, 2016: 44) and with the support
of internet and web applications (Aksu and Tarcan, 2002: 94).According to
Internetworldstats' internet usage statistics, the number of internet users in the world
reached to 3.079.339.857.The number of tablet owners is 1,06 billion and 1,91 billion
people are smart phone users.Moreover the number of internet users and the machines
providing internet access is increasing constantly.The number of internet users increased
753% in the last 15 years.It is estimated that the number of smart phone users will reach to
2,56 billion people by 2018 (World Internet Users and 2015 Population Stats; Smartphone
Users Worldwide 2012-2018).
Tourism is one of the fields in which information technologies are frequently used
today.The basic characteristics of tourism -inseparability, perishability and intangibility-
force tourist to gain more information before making their travel purchase decisions.For
1
Res. Assist. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
2
Assoc. Prof. Dr.,Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
3
Assist. Prof. Dr.Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
4
Specialist, Ikbal Thermal Deluxe Hotel, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
319
this reason, internet is the most important information source for travel planning and hotel
reservations (Murphy, Chen and Cossutta, 2016: 45; Kucukusta et al., 2015: 185). While
enterprises in tourism sector use information technologies in the marketing and sales stages
of their products, the tourists who benefit from the utilities of these enterprises use
information technologies before making their purchase decisions (Heung, 2003:
370).Fesenmaier et al., (2011) define the websites used for travel planning as ―general
search engines‖, ―suppliers‘ sites‖, ―online travel agencies‖, ―friends and family review
sites‖, ―destination sites‖, ―general travel sites‖, ―travel search engines‖, ―travel guidebook
sites‖, ―community sites‖, ―newspaper/magazines sites‖, ―consumer content generates
sites‖ and ―social networking sites‖ (cited in Murphy, Dang and Chen, 2015: 765).But the
existence of numerous online distribution channels related to tourism sector formed by
parties independent from each other require consumers to spend more time in order to gain
up-to-date and reliable information (especially for making price comparisons) (Law, Chan
and Goh, 2007: 496). Also, some problems arising from the emergence of different
information sources cause disruptions in the activities of businesses in the field, problems
related to ethics and a damage to image of the businesses.For this reason, it is imperative to
develop applications for the use of both businesses and tourists which will enable effective
use of internet and web page.
Within this context, the aim of the study is to present the convenience and benefits of
channel manager system through the booking and registration processes both for tourists
and hotel enterprises with an example at a thermal hotel.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The main factors which influence the success of hotels in the 21st century are
globalization, technological development, changes in consumer choices, differentiation in
the competition of hotels, horizontal and vertical combination, and legal regulations (Aksu
and Tarcan, 2002: 94). In relation to technological developments which are considered
among the success factors of hotels, the use of information technologies has become a
global market where vendors and purchasers meet in order to share information for the
purpose of introduction and sale of travel related goods and services (Law, Chan and Goh,
2007: 495). The choice of the most efficient distribution channel for a product is at the
same time the determiner of the power and status of that product in the market (Kucukusta
et al. 2015: 185).In this regard, information technologies have particularly changed the
distribution channels of hotel enterprises.Traditionally, hotel enterprises realize the sales of
their products through intermediaries which are tour operators and travel agencies.The
growth of internet with the development of technologybrought out the emergence of online
travel distribution channels and a revolutionary transformation in the realization of travel
records (Law, Chan and Goh, 2007: 495).
Online sales channels offer opportunities to hotels to advertise their products directly and
to reach their guests without the borders of time and geographic location in a broader
market with lower distribution costs (Kucukusta et al. 2015: 186).Increasing the sales,
diversifying goods and services, rapid response to changes in market conditions, increasing
service quality, increasing efficiency, and finding, collecting, evaluating information and
feedback can be counted among the benefits of information technologies for hotels (Aksu
and Tarcan, 2002: 94-95). For this reason, hotels adopt the use of electronic commerce (e-
b2c) more day by day and create web pages in order to inform consumers about their
products, and to advertise and market their goods and services.The main use of web sites
320
by hotels is to present general information about their facilities and to provide
communication opportunities.The main feature of web sites is to function as an
advertisement brochure.In addition to this, online registration and reservation is the other
most important feature which is expected to be on hotel web sites (Zafiropoulas, Vrana and
Paschaloudis, 2006: 156-161).
Web sites of hotels are an important source of information and a tool of competitive
marketing.For this reason, businesses should renew their web sites frequently and make it
attractive for new customers.From consumers perspective, usefulness of a web site is as
important as its ease of use.In terms of usefulness, expectations of users from web sites are
speed, efficiency, easiness and providing information.For this reason, planners of web sites
of hotels should take usefulness as much as ease of use in to consideration while creating
web sites.The fusion of these features become a describingfactor for their online
registration intentions.Another important issue which should be taken into consideration is
the benefits of online registration.For example, in a study made in Hong Kong, it is found
out that users approach online sales channels with a benefit oriented view (Kucukusta et al.
2015: 195).Another issue which should be addressed by hotel web site planners is the
defining role of online social networks and their influence on consumers' choice of
destinations and businesses.In their study on consumers' sharing information on travel
oriented online social networks, Bilgihan et al. (2016) found out that consumers rely on
information about choosing places for travelling and take the advices on online social
networks before making their decisions.Accordingly, it is stated in the study that placing
applications that will facilitate information exchange of consumers will provide benefits
for hotel enterprises.Another issue brought into discussion by the researchers is the
importance of adding an icon to business web site which will ensure reaching to online
social networks.
An individual‘s search on the internet about hospitality industry takes place before
deciding where to go for holiday.Internet users‘ web searches for accommodation purposes
have increased 26% in 2014 compared to 2013.Internet usage rates for business oriented
travel is 69% and for leisure purposes is 65%.According to realized holiday rates, 60% of
users made their first search on internet (Google Travel Study, June 2014). These figures
and the realized accommodation statistics of internet use rates direct hotels towards new
marketing channels, namely Online Sales Channels.These channels are virtual markets
where hotels can offer their services and products, put them on the market and take
reservations, and get payments for these reservations.Contrary to classic travel agencies
which have an established order, online sales channels offer many benefits to hotel since
they do not require more procedures, offer instant control of price, quota and content, and
because of their flexible use feature.For the hotels which consider guest satisfaction as the
primary goal and adopt online sales as virtual businesses, the most important factors which
influence online sales and the income yielding from these channels are the presentation and
price of the product. For this reason, in order to increase marketing and sales of their
products, hotels have to develop marketing strategies which are planned beforehand and
include online channels.Because the price and quotas can be seen not only by potential
guests named as end users but also by competing hotels and other regional travel
agencies.This situation necessitates using channel management systems which are useful
for keeping the website up-to-date, protecting its competitiveness and managing it
effectively.Businesses working with channel management systems obtain some advantages
and facilities at online marketing and sales preferences of consumers.
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ONLINE SALES CHANNELS
As a result of the development of information technologies, intense effects of internet
usage in every field of social and business life caused to the definition of the 21 st century
characterized with the virtual concepts such as e-life and online buying. Both in business
and social life, the increase of virtual activities and events day by day also bring important
changes to the buying behaviors of individuals.Traditional buying activities in which
customers realize their purchases through seeing, tasting or experiencing continued until
2000s and left its place to online buying behavior gradually nowadays.Thus, as mentioned
before, internet usage and smart phone/tablet usage rates showa regular increase
throughout the world every year, and accordingly the levels of online buying increase
regularly.
The continuation and steady increase of online buying activities caused radical changes in
the traditional functioning of tourism sector which is located in service industryas in all
sectors.Although there is a wide conviction that purchasing activities in tourism generally
occur through tour operators and travel agencies, upon request or through pre-experience,
the increase in travel search engines where holiday opportunities are displayed and detailed
information about touristic activities brought different perspectives to this traditional
view.One of the most important effects of social media and internet usage on touristic
purchasing behaviors is the increase in the popularity of meta-search sites/engines whose
numbers increased rapidly recently.Opening the use of meta-search engines to potential
guests caused a differentiation in the buying process both for hotels and the guests.In its
study named ―The 2014 Traveler's Road to Decision‖ conducted with 5000 people who
travel at least once individually or three times for business, Google identified that 74% of
3500 participants of leisure travelers use online search for travel planning.It is found out
that meta-search engines is the most popular method among online searches with 60% and
individuals pass from these search engines to purchase/reservation process in between 12-
18 seconds (Google Travel Study, June 2014).
With the introduction of meta-search engines into the daily lives, individuals who want to
have holidays changed their purchase behaviors from traditional buying methods to
searching hotels directly on internet from the region, destination or directly with the name
of the hotel in order to find the most suitable options for them.At this stage, sensibility of a
great majority of individuals to prices and quality results in numerous comparisons on
virtual environment.Quality-price comparisons of planned holidays are basically done
through meta-search engines.Individuals who reach advisory information about the holiday
experience through popular search engines mainly such as Trivago, Tripadvisor, KAYAK,
Travelocity, Priceline, Orbitz can also see many online sales channels at the same time.
Online sales channels which can be described as virtual markets where hotel enterprises
put their products and services on the market, take reservations and/or sale them are
displayed on a single screen by meta-search engines.The individual who wants to
experience a holiday can see different price options and special promotions about the hotel
he/she wants stay instantly, can make a reservation and/or do the purchase transaction
directly without using any kind of intermediaries.Online sales channels, reaching up to
hundreds, are a new market for hotels; they do not require a lot of procedures and are
flexible virtual businesses because the control of price, content and quota are in the hand of
the business. Moreover, the elimination of many procedures in traditional buying process
for potential tourists and time saving features direct hotels to more effective use of such
channels.New channels are added to this system every day and among them Booking.com,
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Expedia, HRS and Hotelbeds can be named as the most popular ones. They make up an
interactive marketplace both for potential tourists and businesses with many different
features.It is possible to explain this process taking place between the individual's buying
behavior and hotels' marketing-sales strategies which causes radical changes with a model
given below.
E- End user
Traditional Buying
Behaviour
On-line region/destination/ hotel search
Meta-search site A Meta-search site B Meta-search site C
On-line reservation / buying
Sale Sale Sale Sale Sale

Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel D Channel E
Authorized On-line Sales

Channel Personnel of the
hotel
Fig. 1: On-line buying behavior of tourism products via e-sales channels
This model is important since it includes the online buying behavior of individuals through
meta-search engines and explains how hotels get into this process.Before introducing their
services into this interactive market, hotels have to input their all the information into the
sales channel according to their marketing strategies.Sales channels give place to the
number of hotel‘s stars, location, room types and features, accommodation options
changing depending on price, accommodation information, room quota status, hotel rooms
and service units, visuals of general locations of the hotel and guest comments.In order to
compete in the interactive market, hotels should first upload all the information to the
related channels except guest comments and thus make up a product range by making
product/service definitions.Moreover, in order to provide a competitive advantage in the
interactive market, hotels should always be one step ahead of their rivals, increase their
visibility on the channel and realize instant price changes.At this stage, it is impossible for
the personnel who is responsible for controlling online sales to keep numerous sales
channels active and up-to-date all the time, change price levels instantly, follow room
reservations and/or sales immediately.
323
MANAGEMENT OF ONLINE SALES CHANNELS AND CHANNEL MANAGER
SYSTEM
With the increase in touristic purchases from online sales channels and with the increase in
the number of sales channels, hotels had to appear more on sales channels and keep their
information actual all the time in order to exist in the interactive marketplace.In addition to
this, while updating sales channels, price and quota of the hotel is required to be defined by
taking the current status of the hotel and the defined price-quota information should be
reflected on all the sales channels simultaneously.Furthermore, it is imperative to inform
local agencies about these updates made on online sales channels at the same time and
revenue losses resulting from the dilemma of wrong price and quota, and/or overbooking
should be prevented. Nowadays, hotels make up units responsible for online marketing in
order to prevent such losses and wrong operations. The existence of numerous sales
channels makes the use of channel manager systems (CMS) necessary which bring such
channels together.CMS, with a simple definition, is a system which combines many online
sales channels on a single control panel and thus enables the simultaneous control and
synchronization of these channels.These kind of systems enhance the command and
control of hotel on sales channels during the online buying process. This process can be
shown as in Figure 2.
As can be seen from Figure 2, the most significant function of CMS is its ability to
maintain online sales channels of hotels rapidly.For this purpose, hotel managements make
agreements with one of the national or international CMSs in accordance to their sales and
marketing strategies.Functional magnitude of the preferred CMS directly influences the
sales and income amounts which will be obtained from the interactive market.While with
small scaled and not very functional CMSs, hotels can only control and update the system,
especially with international scoped CMSs. CMS executives may also increase the number
of the channels in which hotelsmonitored and in response hotels may have the power to
decrease the commission rates.Following the deal with any one of the CMSs, hotel
representatives are given authorization by CMS and thus they can input hotel information
and visuals to the system only once.Since the responsible person of the hotel can connect
to all the online sales channels on the system automatically, the input content and visual
are screened to all the onlinesales channels in seconds.
After screening the content and visuals of the hotel on the channels, the quotas and prices
defined by the hotel are uploaded to system with bar rate through a control panel.At this
stage, by defining bar rate, hotels can prevent out any sales which are under the bar
rate.During this process, hotel can make an update on all the sales channels or on a single
channel through CMS.On the other hand, the multitude of online sales channels on CMS
system and/or its increase in time can ease hotel in terms of finding new markets.While
hotel reach new markets through CMS, representatives of CMS make the necessary
connections and deals with the sales channels in question and invoicing.In relation to the
various number of channels on CMS system, being screened on many channels and being
on upper ranks during screening give hotel businesses a chance to decrease commission
rates made to these kind of channels. At this stage, the request for a commission depending
on the sales quotas on online sales channels by the CMS authorities by relying on their
international power and agreements results in payments of lower commission rate amounts
by hotel businesses.Thus, hotel may both find new markets and make savings in terms of
time and cost of commission payments.
324
E- End user
Traditional Buying
Behaviour
On-line region/destination/ hotel
search
Meta-search site A Meta-search site B Meta-search site C
Sale Sale Sale Sale Sale

Channel Channel Channel Channel Channel
A B C D E
Channel
Manager
System
Authorized CMS operator

of the hotel
Fig. 2: Channel Manager System at On-line Buying Behaviour
Another important contribution of CMS is its feature to provide regular information about
the competitors in the region.CMS authorities analyze the region where the hotel operates,
weekly, monthly and seasonally, and provide detailed reports for the occupancy rates and
prices about the other hotels in the region.Thus, the hotels can follow the region without
showing any effort and accordingly, they can develop proactive marketing strategies in
short time.Information given by CMS authorities about the near future events which may
come up in the region enhances the success of proactive marketing strategies and its
efficiency.In this process, while CMS develop strategies and applications in order to
increase its sales amounts, it also contributes to the sales of the hotels and it boosts the
visibility of the hotel on meta-search engines.
Another advantage of CMS for hotel enterprises is its convenience for reservations and
invoicing.In situations where hotels do not use CMS, they accept reservations through
numerous online sales channels and have to update their room quotas instantly according
to accepted reservations.Management of reservations become much more difficult when
individual reservations (by phone, mail or individually)added to online ones. Moreover,
hotels have to do invoicing and collecting for all these reservations separately.In situations
where CMS is used, hotels accept all the reservations through a single control panel and
have an opportunity to control reservations from one single point.In connection to
reservation management, CMSs make a significant contribution to hotels in terms of room
325
sales revenues.Instant control of all sales channels through CMS enable the hotel
management to offer remaining rooms with a higher price when the number of vacant
rooms decrease.By this way, hotel management can increase its profitability when the
occupancy rate goes up.
CMSs also help hotels with the payments. It decreases both room price collection process
time and commissions paid for collection.When reservations are made through phone, mail
or individually, prices are generally collected when the stay is realized and nearly 4%
commission is paid forpayments made with credit cards.But with reservations made
through CMS, the price is collected in advance and transferred to hotels account during the
daytime.By this way, hotels can take guaranteed reservations and do in advance price
collection.Also paying a maximum commission of 3% to CMS according to the content of
the agreements made, hotels can gain an advantage with the commissions.Generally hotel
businesses pay commission for CMS use according to the number of reservations taken.In
some cases, they rent CMS use yearly.
While CMSs have numerous advantages for online sales and sales channels, hotels should
take some precautions in order to get optimum benefit from such systems; a) they should
create their online sales strategies, b) employ qualified personnel in order to operate the
system efficiently and c) the system should be followed and updated 24 hours a day.In
situations where prerequisites are met and correct strategies are applied, CMS usage
prevents unnecessary workload of sales-marketing and reservations, and thus the number
of personnel assigned for these duties can be reduced and work processes can be
facilitated. As a result, it can be said that CMS is an important sales-reservation
management tool in today‘s world where online purchases are important for hotel
businesses.
CONCLUSION
Online sales for touristic purposes haveincreased steadily in the last decade.Accordingly,
using online sales channels become an important alternative for the end users (tourists)
during their purchase decisions.Besides, online sales channels facilitate sales and control
processes of hotel businesses.With the continuous growth of the market, the increase in
online sales channels cause information pollution both for the end users and hotel
businesses and give rise to ethical problems.CMS system which is discussed in this study
is one of the new systems which is developed in order to overcome such mentioned
problems.Revealing the importance of CMS which facilitates the management of online
sales channels of hotels can boost sales and profit rates.The benefits of using CMS which
collects all the sales channels of a hotel in various meta-search sites on a single page and
act as a control panel for their reservation and sales processes can be listed as below:
With instant updates of the hotel's information on various meta-search sites, it

provides reliable and up-to-date information.
By inputting the content and visuals of the hotel simultaneously to all the sales
channels at once, it reduces time and increases the efficiency of the hotel
businesses.
Since CMS managers follow the destination/region sales and can inform such
information to hotels through the system, it enables the hotel to compete in terms
of pricing and setting out competency strategies.
326
CMS provides an advantage in terms of cost of the sales.Hotel enterprises can
work with lower commission rates than the amounts paid to the local travel agents
and/or during the sales made at reception desk.
CMS also positively affects the sales performance of the hotels.Hotels can change
their prices and sales strategies in different periods by using CMS system and
increase their profitability.
The extent of CMS contacts web affects the recognition and prestige of the hotel
positively.
It increases the visibility in meta-search in the destinations where there are a lot of
hotels.By this way, in terms of positioning themselves, they may create an image
of being in the top lists in the minds of its guests as it appears on the top ranks in
meta-search.
CMS increases room sales revenues.It allows hotelsto change the price of last
remaining rooms through the system and by this way they can increase their profit.
By using CMS, the number of staff in marketing and sales departments can be
decreased and thus enhance the efficiency by working with less personnel.
This study which aims to bring a new perspective on tourism intended online sales,inspects
the structure of the system.For this reason, finding about the topic are limited relatively.In
order to better understand the influence of CMS on sales performance and its contribution
to time-cost savings, it is necessary to do empirical studies about this issue.Such studies
can make important contributions to the field by comparingoccupancy and profit rates
periodically, by comparing online sales performances and profitability of hotels using the
system with the ones which does not, and byassigning the requirements of the
infrastructure for CMS system.
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PLANNING DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM IN TUZLA CANTON AS A
FACTOR OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF NORTHEAST BOSNIA
Senada Nezirović1
Abstract: Tuzla Canton is located in the northeastern part of Bosnia and Herzegovina and is one of
the ten administrative and political organizations of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In
this work, the area of Tuzla Canton is seen as a destination with an attractive, functional, material
and organizational elements. During this process, natural and other cultural tourism values that were
partially used in the development of tourism were observed and analyzed. For recognition and
identification of the key factors of development and the restrictions of individual tourist destinations
SWOT analysis was used, on which basis some priorities, measures, development vision and
projects that will contribute to the development of tourism in Tuzla Canton were formulated. On the
basis of the results of assessing the situation and development possibilities of Tuzla Canton we can
convert comparative advantages into competitive advantages and external threats into development
opportunities. After assessing the overall tourism potential, factors that affect the larger economic
effects are separated, guidance is given on the development of tourism infrastructure and the
optimal use of tourism potential, all the while connecting the narrower destinations and creating the
position of Tuzla Canton as a significant tourist destination in the region of northeastern Bosnia.
Key words: Tuzla Canton, planned development, factors of tourist offer, tourism, northeast Bosnia
INTRODUCTION
Tourism industry is a significant driver of economic development in the world, as an

activity it connects different peoples and cultures, and is becoming a more modern activity
dealt by a man. Economic effects on economic activities agriculture, transport, trade,
health care, construction and trades are achieved by development of tourism. Bosnia and
Herzegovina has considerable tourist resources, thus opening the possibility of entering the
tourism market. It is a known fact that Bosnia and Herzegovina economy suffered
significant material and human losses during the last war, which unfortunately still reflect
on further development. More efficient access to the tourist market requires a new
approach in the use of basic instruments of business and tourism policy, a renewal and
improvement of the position that Bosnia and Herzegovina can and should have in these
relations. In Tuzla canton, there is a remarkable increase in tourist activity, which was the
immediate cause for the analysis of available natural and cultural tourism values and their
planned use in the development of the tourism industry. After the last war in Bosnia and
Herzegovina that took place from 1992 to 1995, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina is
administratively regulated as a complex state with two entities and one district. Bosnia and
Herzegovina is consisted of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republic of Srpska
and the Brčko District.
1
PhD Senada Nezirović, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science,
University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Hercegovina.
329
Fig 1. Geotraffic location of Tuzla Canton
The entities and Brčko District don't have state sovereignty, and the boundaries between
them don't have the characteristics of the state border. The territory of the Federation of
Bosnia and Herzegovina is regulated at the cantonal principle, under which there are ten
cantons. Cantons are administrative and political communities, which bring together
municipalities, as the lowest form of administrative organization of government in its
territory. As part of the Tuzla Canton there are 13 municipalities and these are: Banovići,
Doboj-Istok, Gračanica, Gradačac, Kladanj, Kalesija, Čelic, Lukavac, Srebrenik, Sapna,
Teočak, Tuzla and Ţivinice. The main administrative, cultural, commercial and economic
center of the Canton is the city of Tuzla. From regional-geographical aspect, the Tuzla
Canton belongs to northeastern part of the macro-region of Northern Bosnia. The territory
of Tuzla Canton has a surface of 2.652 square kilometers with the population of 477.278
inhabitants. The area is traffically connected to all parts of the country. The main road is
the Ţupanja-Tuzla-Sarajevo-Mostar,in addition to exiting to the international E-70 corridor
Zagreb-Belgrade, it connects parts of the Pannonian and continental region with the
Adriatic sea. In the last decade of the twentieth century (1998), air transport was
established by the Tuzla International Airport. Furthermore, in the paper, there is given a
short analysis of the areas where there are tourism resources and facilities with
predominant function of tourism, or in which tourism can become a significant economic
activity.
330
EVALUATION OF PREVIOUS DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM IN THE TUZLA
CANTON
For the modern tourism development and attracting visitors to tourist destinations that are
suitable for rest, recreation and treatment, special attention goes to tourism planning,
support from the current government and connection among tourism associations. Local
communities in the area of Tuzla Canton have recognized the opportunity in the
development of tourism by continuing started activities in the development of tourism
infrastructure, which is of a great importance for the tourist offer in the future. Capacities
of tourist accommodation are the basis of tourist traffic, be it hotel accommodation or
camping. In the area of Tuzla Canton, accommodation is offered by 52 facilities possessing
787 rooms with 1.419 beds.
Fig 2. Structure of accommodation capacities in the area of Tuzla Canton
For assessing the success of the tourism industry, the Ministry of Trade, Tourism and
Transport monitors the arrival and movement of visitors in the area of Tuzla Canton. These
activities are conducted through regular monthly reports of business entities that provide
accommodation services. According to the indicators listed, in the accommodation
facilities in the area of Tuzla Canton for the period 2009/2013, there were 151.783 visitors
who accounted for 421.667 overnight stays.
Tab. 1. Tourism in the accommodation capacities TK for the period 2009-2013

Arrivals Nights
Year Domestic Foreign Total Domestic Foreign Total
2009 20.809 13.873 34.682 64.996 30.516 95.512
2010 21.435 12.432 33.867 64.559 24.160 88.719
2011 15.320 11.227 26.547 56.725 22.420 79.145
2012 14.979 10.495 25.474 54.172 18.832 73.004
2013 20.274 10.939 31.213 63.317 21.970 85.287
2009-2013 92.817 58.996 151.783 303.769 117.898 421.667
Source: The Government of Tuzla Canton, The Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Transport
of Tuzla Canton,Tuzla,2014.
In 2013, there were 31.213 visitors or 5,4% of total arrivals to the Federation of BiH (577.
077), or 3,7% to the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina (844.189).
331
Tab. 2. Comparative indicators of the arrival of visitors to the territory of Bosnia and
Herzegovina in 2013.
Visitors BiH FBiH TK % in FBiH % in FBiH
Domesti 315.61 166.42 20.274 12,2 6,4
c 0 7
Foreign 528.57 410.65 10.939 2,6 2,1
9 0
Total 844.18 577.07 31.213 5,4 3,7
9 7
of Tuzla Canton, Tuzla,2014.
According to the total number of overnight stays, the leading are the local communities of
municipalities of Gradačac, which thanks to a spa health resort achieved 55%, Tuzla 19%,
and Lukavac 13%. The most numerous visitors are from Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia,
Germany, Austria, Italy and Turkey. According to the number of overnight stays in the
Tuzla Canton, it is evident that foreign visitors made 1-2 overnight stays and it can be
concluded that these were visits of business character. In these tourist facilities, visitors
achieved the revenue of 23.648.657 KM. In accordance with the type of catering facilities,
hotels have the main share of 8.351.121 KM, restaurants of 9.256.367 KM, canteens and
serving facilities of 2.638.383 KM, and other catering facilities.
Tab. 3. Tourism in Tuzla Canton for the period 2009-2013

Type of facilities 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Hotels 10.28378 9.281.30 8.228.99 8.453.25 8.351.121
1 3 2 8
Restaurants 6.947.862 7.562.20 8.199.04 9.019.25 9.256.367
2 5 2
Taverns 978.287 979.142 1.068.23 500.803 386.695
2
Bars 146.978 112.263 111.340 306.235 400.827
Camping sites and 160.020 164.109 159.814 104.441 132.203
other
Buffet 344.338 330.295 411.746 374.362 1.711.613
Serving facilities 6.060.386 6.075..87 6.689.82 4.890.30 2.638.383
7 5 6
Total 24.921.6 24.505.1 24.868.9 22.877.2 23.648.65
52 91 94 09 7
of Tuzla Canton, Tuzla, 2014.
According to types of catering services provided in tourist catering facilities in the area of
Tuzla Canton, the highest demand are services of food, drink and accommodation,
followed by other services of visible and invisible trade. The highest turnover was
recorded through foodservice that is positive for the cooperation of the tourist industry and
agriculture through the placement of the domestic agricultural products. Overnight stays
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reached the revenue of 3.208.643 KM, which shows a slight decrease, considering that
there was a smaller number of overnight stays compared to the previous periods.
Tab. 4. Tourist traffic by type of service in Tuzla Canton for the period 2009-2013
Type of services 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Beer 859.552 1.039.91 1.067.92 1.007.38 1.267.70
3 3 0 5
Wine 928.193 997.893 943.566 968.862 930.660
Brandy 145.566 127.084 95.078 92.110 103.460
Other alcohol drinks 392.835 465.955 399.936 346.803 291.425
Fruit juices 670.726 847.307 993.930 810.275 763.012
Other non alcoholic 1.177.346 1.195.29 1.363.12 1.683.10 1.700.11
drinks 1 1 7 9
Mineral water and 657.365 718.131 760.694 657.623 616.581
soda
Food 14.291.83 13.819.1 14.483.7 12.867.2 11.529.7
8 37 68 61 67
Beverages 1.780.001 1.519.76 1.233.82 1.192.53 1.526.66
4 9 7 4
Tobacco and matches 37.950 50.879 51.963 53.992 65.812
Other goods turnover 18.538 16.755 30.223 19.559 6.717
Other non goods 190.253 119.595 54.253 942.079 866.644
turnover
Nights 3.771.489 3.587.48 3.390.71 3.007.06 3.208.64
7 0 9 3
Total 24.921.6 24.505.1 24.868.9 22.877.2 23.648.6
52 91 94 09 57
Source: The Government of Tuzla Canton,The Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Transport
of Tuzla Canton, Tuzla, 2014.
By analyzing the actual effects of tourist spending in tourist catering facilities, it is noted
that receptive factors of tourist offer lack effects which tourism should leave in the
development of the overall economy. This primarily applies to catering facilities in which
dominate the classic forms of taverns, cafes, buffets and aščinice (restaurants serving
traditional stews and pies) with a lack of culinary specialties of local cuisine.
Rating of tourism development in the Tuzla Canton by visitors
During the 2014 summer season, I surveyed visitors in accommodation facilities in the
Tuzla Canton. The survey was completed by six hundred respondents who gave a
substantial contribution to this research by their replies. When filling out the questionnaire,
the visitors had the opportunity to express their views and give their answers to posed
questions on the possibilities of tourism development, and give evaluation of tourist sites
in the area of Tuzla Canton. On this occasion, the visitors have pointed to special tourist
values of the area and factors that are important in the overall tourist development of the
area.
333
Tab. 5. Rating of tourism development in Tuzla Canton by visitors
Question Tot
Answer al
Do you think that the area of TK has I do -
the conditions for tourism development not
Yes No know
Replies 450 50 100 - 600
% 75% 8% 17%
In your opinion can tourism Yes No
development may affect the overall
economic development
Replies 520 80 - - 600
72% 28%
What are the most important factors in accommoda Roa Food Servic
the development of tourism TK tion ds and es
facilities drink
Number of replies 250 150 120 80 60
0
% 42% 25% 20% 13%
The survey questionnaire provided the following results:75% of respondents believe that
the Tuzla Canton has conditions for tourism development, 72% believe that the
development of tourism has an impact on the overall economic development, 42% think
that the most important factor in the development of tourism is accommodation.
In the assessment of natural resources, 59% of respondents believe that these are
Pannonian salt lakes, 16% healing springs, 12% the protected landscape Konjuh, 8%
artificial lakes, 5% the hunting grounds of Konjuh. In the assessment of cultural heritage,
42% of respondents believe that it is Etno avlija Banovići, 25% kula Huseinbega
Gradaščevića (the tower of Huseinbeg Gradaščević) in Gradačac, 20% the Archaeological
Park and the Neolithic settlement in Tuzla, 8% medieval fortress Srebrenik, 5% religious
facilities.
Tab. 6. Rating tourist sites in Tuzla Canton by visitors
Tourist sites
natural resources Number of % Objects of cultural Number of %
replies heritage replies
Pannonian salt 350 59 Ethno courtyard 250 42
lakes Lancaster
healing springs 100 16 Kula Huseinbega 150 25
Gradaščevića
Protected Landscape 70 12 Archaeological Park in 120 20
Konjuh Tuzla
artificial reservoirs 50 8 The medieval fortress 50 8
Srebrenik
Hunting grounds 30 5 Religious Buildings 30 5
Konjuh
total respondents 600 Total respondents 600
Average values 3,3
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Areas of the Tuzla Canton that are worth from the aspect of tourism are rated by
respondents with an average score of 3,3 that indicates that they are wellknown with the
conditions in this area. The analysis of the current situation in the Tuzla Canton has shown
that most visitors consider that there is a favourable environment for the development of
tourism, but there is a lack of accommodation capacities, and there is a poor road
infrastructure.
DEVELOPMENT POSSIBILITIES OF TOURISM IN THE TUZLA CANTON
Through the research of the Tuzla Canton, there were analyzed available tourist values and
their use in the development of tourism. There was used SWOT analysis as a basis for
determining the comparative advantages in the tourism development of Tuzla Canton. The
goal of this analysis is to identify the internal and external factors that influence the
development of tourism. Based on the SWOT analysis, there were determined the
priorities, measures, development vision and projects that will contribute to the
development of tourism in the Tuzla Canton.
Based on the indicators, it can be concluded that the Tuzla Canton has more internal
advantages than internal weaknesses, which enables the realization of comparative into
competitive advantages or external threats into development opportunities. Internal
weaknesses can be relatively rectified, it is primarily the lack of professional staff for
project management and the development of tourist destinations. The tourist offer of Tuzla
Canton is not on the satisfactory level, therefore, for the development of tourist industry,
guidelines are necessary for improving the quality of services and accommodation. On the
basis of these indicators, we can conclude that there is a significant constraint for tourism
development, as evidenced by the fact that the tourism and transport infrastructure is
under-developed.
The existing accommodation capacities are not sufficient for the reception of larger groups
of visitors.
The development of tourism in the Tuzla Canton should be based on the principles of
sustainable development as the only possible long-term competitive development option
for this area, which includes a balanced development of the infrastructure, economy and
culture, but with as little damage to the environment as possible. The basic principles of
tourism require the creation of a quality tourism product, improvement of environmental
quality, and the development of entrepreneurship in the tourism function. In this way, it
can ensure competition in the tourism market.
Comparing the impacts of the factors through SWOT matrix, there were determined key
and strategic guidelines and focusing is done on the basic aspects that may be carriers of
the tourism development of the Tuzla Canton.
335
Tab. 7. SWOT analysis of the resource base in Tuzla Canton
S Internal - power W internal weaknesses

(opportunities) (problems)
Favorable geographical position underdeveloped infrastructure

rivers Spreča, Drinjaca and lack of identity as a tourist
Oskova destination
lake: Lukavac, Hazan, Vidar and missing encouraging support
Snjeţnica underrepresentation of
Pannonian salt lakes accommodation
healing springs in Gradacac, poor human resource base
Gracanica, Tuzla and Srebrenik lack of skilled personnel for
Protected landscape nature project management
Konjuh insufficient agencies and
cultural and historical heritage turooperatera
touristic events low level of environmental
hospitality awareness
missing tourist signalization
insufficient tourist offer
O External - opportunities T External threats

(opportunities) (uncertainty)
the possibilities for the poor purchasing power of the

development of health, excursions, population
rural tourism not enough investment in
improving transit tourism tourism development
demand services in health tourism missing incentives
connecting tourist destinations not enough co-operation of all
development of complementary business entities
activities there is no market recognition
better tourism promotion not enough awareness of the
providing quality services population for sustainable
employment of workers of tourism tourism development
profession not sufficiently developed
raising living standards complementary activities
development of private enterprise
access to European funds
STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF TOURISM RESOURCES

OF THE TUZLA CANTON
Tourism is an activity for whose development, in terms of organization, a huge

responsibility has the environment, from the lowest to the highest levels of management
and authorities. Looking at the overall results achieved in the field of promotion of tourism
in the municipalities of the Tuzla Canton, it is evident that in addition to protection of
336
space, there was not sufficiently invested in the design of tourism facilities which would
also contribute most to the development of tourism in this region. Investment in tourism
facilities, infrastructure construction, renovation and expansion of capacities would lead to
the enhancement of total turnover, primarily through collection of payment for useage of
the built contents and revenue realized by catering as a supporting economic activity, and
which forms an integral part of the overall tourism offer.
A chance for the development of tourism is based on the natural, cultural and historical
heritage, which includes the conversion of existing comparative advantages, such as
people, knowledge, natural resources and cultural and historical heritage, to the
competitive advantage through clerical and creative services. Integrated systematic
management in the future must have an important factor in the successful development of
all types of business, and creation of their own cultural development as part of the system,
ie. general culture of behavior of the organization that deals with tourism, as well as the
organizational culture at the level of each segment of such organization.
Travel factors in
Tuzla Canton
The favorable The expanse of Enthusiasm

geographical position greenery
links and awareness
rich hydrography
east and west historical of the possibilities
significance
pleasant climate
Fig 3. Travel factors in Tuzla Canton
and the need for the
development of Tourism
After defining a developmental state, a logical sequence of activities is to find an effective

and efficient organizational mechanism for successfully implementing the projected
development goals as well as the realization of the same which would require the
following: human resources management based on the principles of modern knowledge in
municipality local communities, the development of studies or master plans in all
municipalities except Srebrenik and Banovići, networking of all tourism service centers in
the Tuzla Canton, connecting to one information center for booking and the reception of
visitors.
Activation of alternative accommodations in motels, religious facilities (houses), family
houses for pilgrims, scientists, organization of courses, exploring the culinary trends etc,
the analysis of farm households owning an attractive location and tourist infrastructure,
setting tourist signs on the roads with the appropriate welcome signs and direction signs to
the tourist sights, production and sale of souvenirs, running the old crafts and activation of
household cottage industry in Kladanj, Banovići, Tuzla, Sapna and Teočak, activation of
picnic and camping terrains in suburban or rural environment for rest, entertainment and
recreation. (Ilinčica and Kiseljak-Tuzla, Lipici-Srebrenik, Svatovac-Lukavac, Toplice-
Ţivinice, Muška voda-Kladanj, Zlaća-Banovići). Successful business must be based on the
continuous improvement of service quality. This can be achieved by mutual cooperation of
all businesses and employees in the tourism industry.
In the concept of development, there should create a contact, identify partners, create a
strategy for development, analyze the situation, offer the range of services, check the
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impact on the environment, take the initiative of government and analyze the results.
Guidelines on improving the quality of services and accommodation should be conducted.
Development of tourism should be managed from the canton level, working on joint
cooperation of all stakeholders in order to build a tourist destination. Atractive and
valuable areas should be adapted to standards, using experience with elements of
hospitality, which provides the possibility of extended stay of visitors in tourist facilities.
In the tourist orientation of areas, education of the local population is necessary in order to
develop the tourist industry which is the foundation of the future survival on the tourism
market. For the environmentally conscious tourists, development of mentioned types of
tourism is very attractive because they are focused on nature, in addition to that the tourist
offer should include the rich cultural heritage. Available unique resources require more
forceful action on the management and direction of investments towards less developed
tourist area, valorization of resources is a possibility for the expansion of tourism market,
therefore we need a new quality in tourism development of the area. Economic
development in the area of Tuzla Canton should be focused on a number of aspects of
tourism. In this respect, in the forthcoming long term it is necessary to work towards the
development of health and recreation, rural, cultural, religious and transit tourism.
Integrated system management in the future must have an important factor of successful
development of all types of business as well as creating their own culture development as a
part of the system, ie. general culture of organizational behavior dealing with tourism.
Natural sights and rarities, valuable forest systems, hydrological and geomorphological
monuments, thermal and mineral spa give the character of authenticity, representa tiveness,
diversity, integrity and landscape spatial values have scientific, cultural and historical,
social and economic function and ecological significance. Natural conditions are suitable
for the organization of summer and winter recreation in the mountain regions.
Numerous cultural monuments are the basis for the development of cultural tourism, as
well as cultural manifestations. To achieve a higher income from services rendered, the
tourist offer should include traditional Bosnian cuisine that has domestic dishes under the
bell, homemade plum brandy, cheese, smoked meat, pies, cakes, a variety of drinks made
from herbs. In addition to this, specialized, coffee, milk, fast food, seafood and vegetarian
restaurants are necessary for modern catering offer. Based on the presented results, the
general economic effects of tourism and catering economy in the canton are modest. Based
on the total indicators and high lag in economic development, it is clear that the tourism
sector do not provide anywhere near effects that are realistically possible. Assessment of
the state of tourism in the Tuzla Canton highlighted the key features of the potential,
advantages and disadvantages from the viewpoint of possible development. Internal power:
high-preserved natural resources, cultural and historical heritage and hospitality should be
converted into competitive advantages. Cooperation of all businesses and employees in the
tourism industry can ensure that visitors receive quality service for which he spent his
money.
338
Fig 4. Tourist map of the Tuzla Canton
CONCLUSION
Tourism can contribute to economic development of the area, improve the quality and
standard of life and enable the creation of new jobs, reduce the number of unemployed
only if it is approached with, a plan, monitoring the current situation and taking into
account the needs of the market. The study of tourism market as a factor of economic
development in the Tuzla Canton may allow making important marketing decisions based
on accurate and verified information, research data, to improve tourism in all its segments,
and which are the economic effects of it. The development of tourism in the Tuzla Canton
should be positioned at finding quality content of tourist destinations to identify, valorize
and turn into a competitive advantage through the development of specific types of
tourism. Cultural and historical heritage, natural beauty, multiculturalism and tradition are
the backbone of power on which to base strategic directions of development of the tourism
industry of the Tuzla Canton. Existing tourism facilities favored certain communities as
tourist destinations, only with a high-quality and efficient cooperation of all segments of
importance to tourism development can be achieved competitive advantage.
339
REFERENCES
1. The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Dayton Agreement, Annex 4

1995: article.1.3. p.74.
2. Photomonography Tuzla, 2007, Copyright, Bosnia ars, Tuzla, p.25
3. Archive of the Panonika enterprise, 2013, Tuzla
4. Spatial plan for areas of TK (2005-2015), Official Gazette TK 06/09 (2008),
Tuzla
5. The Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2013): The only relevant
data of the Population and Housing in BiH 2013. officially published results of
the Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Entity Statistics Bureau.
6. Tourist Board of Tuzla Canton, 2014, Tuzla
7. The Government of Tuzla Canton, The Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Transport
of Tuzla Canton, 2014, Tuzla
340
HEALTH TOURISM IN TURKEY: A STUDY ON PAPER NEWS
Emel İŞTAR1
Abstract: The purpose of this study is to identify how health tourism is approached in Turkey and
to analyze the current situation by considering paper news. Health tourism is becoming more
important for countries in the economic and social aspects. Turkey is a country with many
opportunities on this evolving branch of tourism.At the crossroads between East and West, Turkey
is on its way to become the next ―center of attraction‖ for the global health tourism market.
In this study, health tourism was approached initially in a conceptual framework. Then, the previous
studies regarding health tourism. In the last part, the paper news related to healthth tourism was
analyzed through content and textual analysis. The population of the study was composed of the
online papers which broadcast their archive. ―Hürriyet‖ which is one of the newspaper with the
widest circulation was used as the sample and the news with regard to ―health tourism‖ between
July 20, 2014 - July 9, 2015 were examined. The study was conducted on 30 news there was found.
Key words: Tourism, Health Tourism, Turkey
INTRODUCTION
Health tourism has been the fastest growing service sector of our time. Health tourism has
become a sector that helps everyone reach quality medical services, increases employment
rate, and supports economies. The emergence of health tourism occurred in relation to the
developments in medicine (Connel, 2006). Health tourism is a sector that cooperates with
the tourism sector in order to provide special ―cost effective‖ treatment to patients that
need applications of medical treatment in general surgery or other fields that require
special expertise (Barcavd., 2013). According to Magablih (2001), the travels in scope of
health tourism have certain time periods. Health tourism is defined as travelling to other
countries for no less than a day and no more than a year to get the treatment they need to
get better (Barcavd., 2013).
Because of the increase in the world population, rise of quality of life, and increase in
medical costs in various countries, other countries emerged as options where high quality
treatments are performed with lower costs and led to the rise of the health tourism sector.
Another thing that led to this emergence is that the world population is getting old.
The reasons for this situation are;

Avoiding long waiting lists for patients
Receiving higher quality treatment cheaper
Reaching high technology in medicine
Reducing cost of medical services
Eliminating the need for chronic patients, the elderly or the disabled to go
somewhere else and be treated
Wishes to be treated in different or more suitable environments by people with
addictions of drugs or other things
The desire to travel and have cultural visits alongside the treatment
The person‘s will of life and struggle to live (Ciğerdelen, 2012).
1
Assistant Professor, Department Of Health Institutions Management, Faculty of Business, Düzce
University, Konuralp Campus, Duzce, Turkey.
341
Health tourism in Turkey had started either by organizations individual efforts or by the
result of foreign patients‘ research they started to choose our country. In our country there
is a misunderstanding of health tourism as if it constitutes only thermal and SPA
applications. It is important to divide health tourism in to three, thermal, old age (elderly,
senior) and medical tourism.
Özbek, (1991) define the thermal tourism as a tourism activity for curing (treatment)
applications combined with support treatments such as climate curing, physical therapy,
rehabilitation, mecanotheraphy, exercise, psychotheraphy and diet as well as various types
of methods such as mineralizes thermal water baths, mineral springs, inhalation and mud
baths. Facilities of these applications are called as Thermal Curing Centers or Hot Spring
Treatment Centers. Old age tourism is regarded with senior travelers. Littrell, Paige, &
Song (2004) described senior travelers as becoming an important travel segment because
of their level of wealth, higher discretionary income, lower consumer debt, greater free
time to travel, and their tendency to travel greater distances and for longer lengths of
time.Senior citizens (with 55 years old and over) represent around 25% of the European
population. They have both purchasing power and leisure time (mainly in the retirement
age), thus representing a significant economic market potential.Smith and Puczkó (2009)
define the medical tourism as ―… travel to destinations to undergo medical treatments such
as surgery or other specialist interventions... Medical tourism [...] can have two major
forms: surgical and therapeutic. There is a clear distinction between the two. Surgical
certainly involves certain operations(s), whereas therapeutic means participating in healing
treatments.‖ (Azaklı, 2012).
Turkey is on its way to becoming an important destination in thermal,old age and medical
tourism, especially in the areas of rehabilitation, retirement homes and communities.
Health tourism should not only be viewed as medical treatment. Equally as important are
thermal spas, rehabilitation and retirement communities and services that cater to the
elderly population. Turkey has taken important steps in developing these facilities and
services.
METHOD
The aim of this research is to investigate the content of news which has the term ―health
tourism‖ in the title or text in newspapers and to analyze the current situation in Turkey. In
addition, it is aimed with this research to determine the way and frequency of statements
regarding health tourism in printed media. Determining the place of Health tourism in
printed media would provide great contributions to the literature regarding this issue.
The World of this research has been created by the newspapers which publish their
archives on internet. Being one of the newspapers that have highest circulation, Hürriyet
has been evaluated as a sample and the news published regarding health tourism in the
dates between 20 July 2014 and 9 July 2015 have been assessed. The research has been
conducted through the 30 news that were determined in the archive.
In this research, the content analysis of data collected via document investigation has been
used as method. Being a qualitative research method, the content analysis includes the
systematic investigation of scanned newspaper news and printed news. Content analysis is
a reading tool depending on deductive method. This analysis can be done through texts,
speeches, advertisements and even through the television programs. Within this context,
content analysis is a scientific research method which conducts investigation not only on
342
the content of apparent, but also on the background of content and which ensures
meaningful implications (Gürel&Alem, 2010: 335-336). Categorical classification and
assessment of the ideas has been done by using this method.
FINDINGS
In scanning of the news in newspaper, the data of the last 1 year (20 July 2014 – 9 July
2015) were scanned by using the search engine after entering in the archive of the
newspaper in website. As a result of scanning, the news which have the term ―health
tourism‖ in the title or text have been categorized in line with the remarks of experts and
thus, the validity and reliability of the study have been ensured.
Hürriyet
Kelebek
7% Gündem Ege
10% 20%
Ankara
Ekonomi 20%
33%
Avrupa
10%
Fig. 1. The chapters where the news regarding health tourism are found
When the news including the term ―health tourism‖ in the title or context are evaluated
generally, it has been determined that this issue is mentioned in ―Ekonomi‖ chapter at
most. 10 of the 30 scanned news were given under this chapter. It has been determined that
the news regarding health tourism are mentioned respectively in the chapters of Ege (6
news), Ankara (6 news), Avrupa (3 news), Gündem (3 news) and HürriyetKelebek (2
news). When the data is evaluated with the content analysis, the news bearing the term
―health tourism‖ in the title or text have been categorized under 5 points. (see Tab. 1.).
343
Tab. 1. Categories of News about Health Tourism
News Category Number of News
International Developments in Health Tourism 7
The Condition of Health Tourism in Turkey 9
Economic Benefits of Health Tourism 6
The Steps to be Taken for Development of Health Tourism 5
Other 3
Total 30
When the news regarding health tourism are investigated, it has been determined that most
of them (9 news) are informative texts giving information about current conditions in
Turkey. Then, there are 7 news mentioning about summits, conferences and fairs which are
the international developments regarding health tourism. The news apart from these are
mentioning about the economic benefits of health tourism (6 news) and the steps to be
taken for developing the health tourism (5 news).
International Developments in Health Tourism
Turkey has been an attraction center with its strategic geographical location, its closeness
to Europe, Asia, Middle East, North and Middle Africa, Russia; the accessibility to these
geographies and with its developed health system. The health system in Turkey attracts the
attention as the most important destination in the sector of health tourism with ists code of
conduct, hospital equipments, technologic infrastructure, and trained health personnel. This
important position of Turkey has started to attract attention more in international field as a
result of ensuring participation into various fairs, congresses and meetings. 7 of the 30
news investigated within the research are about international developments in the sector of
health tourism. In the news, the fairs, summits and conferences to which the participation
has been ensured were mentioned. In the news which has the title of ―Meeting for Health
tourism in Ankara” (Hürriyet, 10 June 2015), it has been stated that in his speech before
160 people coming from more than 20 countries as 10 of them from Balkans, the President
of World Health Council and Turkey Health Council has mentioned about the service
quality of hospitals in Ankara and about the technologic competences in health sector and
thus, the attention has been attracted to the potential of capital in health tourism sector. In
the news, it has been seen that many countries are willing to cooperate with Turkey in the
sector of health tourism. One of them is Sincan Uyghur Autonomous Region that is
dependent to People‘s of Republic of China. In the news titled as ―Health Investment from
Urumqi” (Hürriyet, 6 Haziran 2015), the satisfaction taken from the condition that
―Traditional and Integrative Medicine and Application Center‖ is going to be established
in Kızılcahamam which gives services for the art of medicine of Uyghur and China with
the protocol that was signed between ―UrumçiTarım A.ġ.‖ and ―YıldırımBeyazıt
University‖ in has been stated.
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The fields of health tourism where each country has expertise are different from each
other. Turkey promotes its expertise in the fairs to which the participation has been ensured
and thus, tries to attract tourist from other countries. In the text titled as ―Attack Towards
Africa in Health Tourism” (Hürriyet, 20 May 2015) the participation of Managing Director
of an hospital who is also thePresident of Health Tourism Works Council under the
Foreign Economic Relations Committee, with a board into Africa Health Congress and
Fair that was organized in Johannesburg city of Republic of South Africa. In the text, it has
been stated that the board had information exchange on health system of Republich of
South Africa, public and private health financing models, the place of private sector in
World health tourism market and the patient flows from sub – Saharan countries to this
country. In the news, it has been pointed that the centers for infectious diseases,
transplantation, trauma, brain surgery, ambustion and pediatrics are developed and wide -
spread and on the other hand; Turkey is in advance in the fields of liver transplant, brain
surgery and hip prosthesis. In the fair, it has been underlined that South Africa is willing
and open to send patients to Turkey. Turkey has been participating into various fairs in
various regions to promote its ―health tourism‖. One of these fairs is ―Berlin Fair‖. In the
text titled as ―The Target of Turkey: Health Tourism‖ (Hürriyet, 4 March 2015), the speech
of Ministry of Culture and Tourism Undersecretary has been shared. In news, the
Undersecretary has stated that ― We are strengthening our infrastructure in thermal and
medical sector. We give importance to Health Tourism. The steps to ensure the opportunity
of having rest while being treated for our guests shall be continued. In addition, we work
on old – age tourism. As the life standards have increased, we aim to host the retired
people for a long rime. The options for longer and more extensive holidays shall be
provided.‖, ―We attach importance to German markets. We hosted 5 million 250 thousand
of guests from Germany in the past year. Our target is to increase this amount for more
than 5%. Besides the sea, sand and sun; we conduct our infrastructure studies to increase
the attention for culture and history tourism. Each region of our country have been
reconstructured to host guests‖ and the importance of German tourists was also mentioned.
In the news titled as ―Turk Tourism promoted in Londra” (Hürriyet, 4 November 2014), it
has been stated that the developments of Turkey in the sector of health tourism are also
promoted in addition to the the historical heritages that are found in the UNESCO list, sea
tourism centers,folkloric features, in the World Tourism Market which is organized in
England with the participation of more than 180 countries and is visited by more than 50
thousand people.
The international fairs and meetings about health tourism are not only held in abroad.
There are serious organizations held in country. In Ġstanbul, Brand in Tourism & Gastro
Conference‘‘ has been organized in the dates between 24-25 March 2015 which is defined
as the biggest meeting of Tourism and Gastronomy sector and the World famous names of
sector have convened in there. In the news titled as ―Tourism Leaders to Meet in İstanbul”
(Hürriyet, 20 February 2015), the issues such as health tourism, rapidly growing food –
drink tourism, the stories about branding in toursim, the supply chain system in hotels,
social media tendencies and the importance of training and Franchise in branding have
been narrated by general managers and CEO‘s. Another organization which was included
in the news and organized in Ġstanbul is ―Ġstanbul Health Expo – Medical product, Hospital
Equipment, Health Informatics and Technology, Laboratory Systems, Residential Care
Products and Health Tourism Fair‖ that was organized in the dates between 10 and 13
December 2014. In line with the news titled as ―Innovation Competition in Health Fair”
(Hürriyet, 4 November 2014), many innovative product which can contribute to
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development of health tourism as ranging from new head guard communication system
that is produced for Ambulance Emergency Action motorcycles to new intraocular lens
implants has been exhibited in the fair.
The condition of Health tourism in Turkey
Health tourism has been categorized under three branches as medical, thermal and old age
tourism in the World. Turkey has great advantages especially in terms of thermal tourism.
Turkey has a worldwide potential in terms of geothermal sources and it is the leader with
its source potential in Europe and it is the third with its hot spring practices. Having more
than 1500 resources of which temperatures are changing between 20 - 110 0C degrees and
of which flow rates are changing between 2 – 500 lit / sec; our country has been evaluated
among the first seven countries in the World thanks to its source richness and potential.
(http://www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr/, 10.09.2015) Bu özellikleri nedeniyle Türkiye‘de
termal tourism oldukça önemli bir konuma sahiptir.
In 4 of the 8 news showing the condition of Health tourism in Turkey, the importance of
thermal tourism in Turkey has been mentioned. Among them, in the news titled as
―Changing the Faith of ÇeĢme‖ (Hürriyet, 23 June2015), it has been stated that a company
with 60 partners participated in a tender for thermal tourism in ÇeĢme has rented an
approximately 85 decare of field for 35 years. It has been stated that the company will
build a great thermal facility which will have Aqua Park, aesthetic surgery, treatment cure
center, swimming pool, nursing center for old persons, hotel and comprehensive sport
fields with 40 million dollars of investment. In the related news, it has been stated that the
dead – season in ÇeĢme will give place to vitality, the number of qualified tourists will
increase and the foreign tourist will be attracted through this region.
Thermal tourism has a great potential in Aegean Region in Turkey. In the news mentioning
about this issue which has the title as ―We should make use of thermal sources‖ (Hürriyet,
26 September 2014), it has been stated that 410 of approximately 1300 thermal sources in
Turkey are prominent in terms of health tourism with their flow rates and heats; 123 of
these 410 thermal sources are in Aegean Region. In the news, it has been indicated that the
tourists coming for health tourism also come to Aegean Region for holiday and thus, there
should be an arrangement by avoiding from the appearance of hospital except for the clinic
centers. It has been expressed that the foreign tourists do not want to feel themselves as if
they are in a hospital and thus, the natural structure should be protected in the regions
where the thermal facilities are located and avoiding from over – structuring is important.
In the news regarding thermal tourism given in newspapers, not only the Aegean Region,
but also the potential of Ankara and Tunceli has been attracted. In the news titled as
―Branding with Health Tourism‖ (Hürriyet, 26 March 2015), the place of Ankara in health
tourism has been mentioned: It has been indicated that the districts ofAyaĢ, Beypazarı,
Çamlıdere, Çubuk, Güdül, Haymana, Kazan, Kızılcahamam and Polatlı are very rich by
thermal sources. In the news titled as ―Pertek to develop with thermal tourism” (Hürriyet,
12 December 2014), the situation that the thermal facilities in Pertek city of Tunceli
attracts tourists. In the news, it has been indicated that the thermal water, of which
temperature reaches to 37 – 40 degree, provides remedy for many diseases with the
minerals inside and also, the thermal water is ―natural mineral water‖.
It has been stated that, i n the thermal facilities which are 250 meter distant from Pertek
ferry dock and which have 446 thousand square meter of indoor area, there are semi
Olympic pools, kiddy pools, aqua park, thermal pools, family baths, Turkish bath and
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sauna; and the thermal water is good for many diseases such as the joint disorders and
bone loss, gastroenterological diseases and dermatologic disorders such aseczema,
psoriasis and acne.
Turkey has important progresses not only in the sector of thermal tourism, but also in
sector of medical tourism. As some of the medical expenses have been ejected from the
insurance coverage, because of economic crisis in Europe, this has caused people living in
there to get treatment from countries where the medical expenses are low. Turkey is one
the first – preferred places among these countries. On the other hand, Arab tourist also
prefers Turkey both because of geographical closeness and the low prices. In the news
titled as ―Both business and holiday‖ ( Hürriyet, 3 December 2014), it has been indicated
that in 2014 when there is the decrease in the number of European tourists in recent years;
there is a serious increase in the number of people coming from Iran and Arab bazaars and
also Turkey becomes more than a country of sea, sand and sun thanks to the investments
and promotions and continues its claim in world health tourism market. In the text titled as
―Pamukkale not leaving the summit” (Hürriyet, 16 October 2014), it has been indicated
that the ones who attribute great attention to Denizli for health tourism are respectively the
tourists from Russia, Germany, England, China and South Korea.
Turkey is a country which takes substantial steps in medical tourism, especially in
transplantation in recent years. This issue has been mentioned in the news titled as
―Remigration started in transplantation‖ (Hürriyet, 13 February 2015). In the news, it has
been stated that the bone marrow transplantation problem has been solved in Turkey and
the doctors do not send the patients abroad for treatment no more and the patients from
abroad come from Turkey. It has been expressed that the bone marrow transplantation
problems are solved in the country thanks to the incentives and supportive approaches of
both the Ministry of Health and SSI (Social Security Institution) at the end of 2014.
When the news regarding the condition of health tourism in Turkey are investigated, it has
been determined that the country has a great potential in old – age tourism, too. Especially
the increase of population rate of group constituted by people over 65 to total population in
countries in Europe and Far East emerges various medical expenses and various treatment
processes for old aged people. Within the scope of old age tourism, the sightseeing tours,
rehabilitation services, various therapies, elderly care in nursing homes and special travels
and nursing services for people with disabilities are found. Among the investigated news,
in the text titled as ―Turkey is the lifesaver for aging Europe‖ (Hürriyet, 23 November
2014), it has been stated that Turkey has many advantages in equality of opinions for
elderly care tourism. It has been stated that many elements such as accessibility, economic
service and health procurement, experiencing the four seasons, young labor force
population, widespread academic staff and hospitality can be listed among these
advantages and elderly tourism can provide great acquisitions for our country. In the text
titled as ―Cure Holiday for Japan‖(Hürriyet, 4 November 2014), it has been indicated that
elderly Japan people are going to start to get service from nursing and old age asylum and
facilities in Ankara by 2015 in line with the protocol signed between DÜNYADER and
Japan – Turk Economic Development and Cooperation Foundation. In the news, it has
been noted that the protocol shall be valid for 10 years and this will ensure the arrival of 50
thousand of old Japan to Turkey in the first 5 years.
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Economic Benefits of Health Tourism
The development of health tourism in Turkey provides great benefits to the country.
Among these benefits, the increase of information sharing among countries, development
of partnerships, ensuring the technology and information exchange among countries and
making contribution to development of international relations can be provided. However,
the most important contribution of health tourism to our country is the high economic
benefits. When the reports were investigated, it has been determined that 6 of 30 news are
about the economic benefits of health tourism.
Turkey is a country with high potential for gathering economic income especially in
thermal tourism sector. This situation has been evaluated in the news titled as ―Uşak
reaches to new thermal facility” (Hürriyet, 23 March 2015) and it has been narrated that
10 million liras of investment is going to be made to the region following the allocation of
Hamamboğazı Thermal Touristic Site which is idle in Banaz District of UĢak to
municipality andit is aimed to provide the economy in city by enliven the thermal tourism.
In the text titled as ―Naomi Campbell starting trade in Bodrum” (Hürriyet, 6 January
2015), it has been mentioned that not only the thermal facilities, but also the detox centers
can be investment tools in the health tourism sector in this country. In the news, it has been
stated that being a famaous model, Campbell wants to purchase a detox center in Bodrum
and it is remarkable that the people who prefer such centers are very rich and powerful in
economic aspect.
Tourism is an important source of income for national economy in Turkey. In the news
titled as ―Fiscal deficit is removed with health tourism” (Hürriyet, 27 September 2014), it
has been stated that the health tourism income for 2013 is 2,5 billion dollar and the
expectation for 2014 is around 5 billion dollar. In the news, it has been indicated that the
tourist coming for health spends 10 times more money when compared to normal tourist
and this amount can be increased to 10 billion dollars when required measures are taken in
2 – 3 years and a great contribution to national budget can be made by meeting the 18.6
billion TL of budget of Ministry of Health for 2014 by health tourism. In the news,
additionally, it has been expressed that we have a geographical location which appeals for
approximately 1 billion people including Russia, Turkic Republics, North Africa and
Middle East and as a result of embargo of Iran, we can gather great income in health
tourism as tourists coming from Syria and Iraq prefer Turkey for health problems they live
as a result of war. In the news titled as ―The number increases every year‖(Hürriyet,
December 2014), the economic benefits of health tourism were mentioned and it has been
stated that the number of tourists coming for health tourism is more than 500 thousand and
in addition, the contribution of this situation to national economy with side sectors is
reached to 5 billion. In the news, it has been indicated that Ġzmir and Aegean region host
patients from every countries around the World not only for aesthetic surgery and dental
treatments, but also for advanced Technologies such as robotic surgery and ―know how‖
applications that are used in a range including obesity and renal denervation surgeries that
are done for diabetes and hypertension, for ear implants, for in vitro fertilization and
transplantation. It has been underlined that an endorsement equal to the entire exportation
item of Aegean Region (approximately 20 billion dollar) can be earned from health
tourism alone.
In the investigated report, it has been stated that the tourists coming for health tourism
spend more money when compared to other tourists. That is because they make expenses
not only for holiday but also for health care services. Regarding this is issue, in the news
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titled as ―European people turned the route to Turkey‖ (Hürriyet, 30 November 2014), it
has been indicated that more than30 million annual tourists did not increase the tourism
income as expected; however the arrival of 1 million people coming for health tourism
provided more than 30 million tourists. Because of this economic value, the Ministry of
Health also aims to reach a Turkey that is a brand in this sector. This target was expressed
in the news titled as ―If you went to this hospital, they may knock your door‖ (Hürriyet, 16
January 2015) as Turkey will gain 9 – 10 billion in 2018 and 20 – 25 billion dollar in 2023
in health tourism services.
Things That Can Be Done to Improve Health Tourism
The increasing importance of health tourism in Turkey in recent years, led the government
to include it in the economic plan. It has been reported in the news article entitled
―Important Statements by Prime Minister Davutoğlu‖ (Hürriyet, 4 November 2014) that
the government declared an ―economic structural transformation plan‖ and the things that
can be done to improve health tourism is among the 9 main titles in the plan. Two main
titles were included in the plan as the plan on structural transformation in health industries
and the plant to improve health tourism. The details of the plan were outlined in another
article entitled ―We will transform with our spirit‖ (Hürriyet, 6 November 2014); and it has
been reported that a special model of producing blood plasma will be developed and it will
be done under a partnership of the Turkish Red Crescent, a foreign firm and a domestic
firm. It has been reported that, in scope of the plan, legislative adjustments would be made
about health tourism till the end of the year 2014; a database would be formed, an
implementation to apply a different price policy to patients visiting Turkey from outside
would be developed and elderly tourists would be considered among priorities. In the
month these news articles were published, the Action Plan to Improve Health Tourism was
published in scope of the Tenth Progress Plan (2014-2018) and details of the steps were
included(http://dap.gov.tr/yeniDosyalar/Kaynaklar/odop/11.pdf, 10.09.2015). Commercial
chamber chairmen also stated their opinions about the improvement of health tourism in
the news. In the article entitled ―EkremDemirtaş Invited Erdoğan to İzmir‖ (Hürriyet, 15
December 2014), the chairman of Ġzmir Chamber of Commerce (ĠTO) stated that tourism,
especially health tourism should be diversified and Turkey‘s image as a safe country
should be preserved.
For tourism to be improved, the number of personnel who can use foreign languages is
very important. A main source of problems in medical tourism is that medical personnel
are not trained in foreign languages. This issue has been investigated in the news article
―Language Training for MedicalPersonnel a Must‖(Hürriyet, 26 October 2014). In the
article, it was reported that medical personnel should be trained on Medical English and
there might be problems to reach the goals because of the lack of medical personnel with
language training. It was also emphasized that Arabic is another language that should be
taught because of the number of Arab tourists visiting the country.
Other News Pieces
Other news articles in newspapers (3 articles) include articles that provide information
about the meetings on this subject and facilities that are established. In the article
―Invitation to Turkey for English Patients‖ (Hürriyet,11 May 2015), it was reported that
the Ministry of Health is preparing to organize a London Medicine Summit to promote
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English patients to come to Turkey, and in the summit, some fields of expertise to be
included are; organ transplantation, test tube babies, neurosurgery, ophthalmology,
cardiology, orthopedics and traumatology, plastic surgery and dentistry and orthodontics.
Thermal facilities opened in Afyon and Sakarya were reported in the article ―Turkey’s
Goal: Health Tourism‖ (Hürriyet, 4 March 2015) and it was reported in the article ―From
Call Center to Health Tourism‖ (Hürriyet, 16 December 2014), the plan to establish a
wellness&spa hotel that will serve in the field of health tourism was announced.
CONCLUSION
In the research conducted, news articles published in newspapers between July 2014 and
July 2015 were investigated. In the articles, the improvements of Turkish health tourism in
an international sense, its current state of affairs, the economic uses that will be provided
by health tourism and plans were reported, and information was given about events
organized, and facilities established.
In the study, it has been found that Turkey is in a strong position in health tourism and the
conflicts in the Arab world, the proximity to Europe and lower prices have been effective
in this situation. With the supportive work of the government, health tourism in Turkey,
which has been formed only of building hotels around hot springs, has been diversified as
medical tourism and elderly tourism. Individuals are now visiting Turkey from abroad for
organ transplants and serious surgeries. The economic value to be added by health tourism
will be substantial when one takes into account the geographical location of Turkey, the
trend to join the European Union, policies and the health transformation plan, the current
state of the health sector as including in the Progress Plan and Programs, and
improvements in tourism. Although health tourism is a sector that has great economic
revenue, it also comprises unknown variables. As health tourism is a newly emerging
concept in Turkey, there is not consistent statistical and academic work on the subject.
There is no certain statistic about the amount of tourists that come to Turkey for health
tourism, and the numbers are gathered from various reports with estimation.
It is seen on the news articles that events like fairs, summits and conventions provide basis
to establish international health tourism partnerships. Increasing the government support
on publicity and marketing, setting a basis for cooperation with other countries, and
promoting advertising and providing information on Turkey‘s health system will
contribute greatly to the encouragement of tourists to visit Turkey.
Another suggestion to improve health tourism is to place emphasis on foreign languages,
and training especially the personnel to be included in medical services on medical
terminology. For success in health tourism, in addition to quality of service and publicity,
innovation is very important. Keeping up to date with international developments in
medicine and establishing facilities in accordance, will increase the country‘s preferability.
Additionally, the cooperation of the public and private sectors, non-governmental
organizations and universities should be made stronger, and all institutions should satisfy
certain standards in health tourism. Furthermore, health tourism related organizations
should firstly decide in which group and to which market will health tourism work.
Thermal tourism, elderly tourism, medical tourism, even in medical tourism firstly it
should be decided whether it is latest technology treatment? Or plastic surgery? Or others?
Finally, as a country if we are asserting to be a health tourism country the first and the
easiest thing is to open ourselves to the market on hand. Countries like Turkish Republics,
Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria and Middle East are close to us and also we have unity in culture.
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The organizations concerned with health tourism definitely should choose the market and
health tourism group which is suitable for them.
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1. Azaklı, H. S., (2012). In Partıal Fulfılment Of The Requırements For The Degree
Of Master Of Scıence In Cıty And Regıonal Plannıng.(A Thesis Submıtted To The
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Interdisciplinary Tourism Research Conference 12-15 April 2012, Kemer-
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Analizi: Simpsonlar. Uluslararası Sosyal AraĢtırmalar Dergisi, 3 (10), 335-336.
6. Littrell, M. A., Paige, R. C., & Song, K. (2004). Senior travelers: Tourism
activities and shopping behaviors. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 10, 348–362.
7. Özbek, T. (1991). Dünyada ve Türkiye‘de Termal Turizmin Önemi. Anatolia
Dergisi, C. 2, S.3., 15-29.
8. Smith, M., Puczkó, L. (2009) Health and Wellness Tourism, Oxford, UK: Elsevier
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9. http://www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr/TR,11479/turkiyede-saglik-ve-termal-
turizm.html (10.09.2015).
10. http://dap.gov.tr/yeniDosyalar/Kaynaklar/odop/11.pdf, 10.09.2015.
351
DESTINATION MANAGEMENT COMPANIES (DMCs) IN CROATIA
AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE REDUCTION OF SEASONALITY
Maja Donadić1
Abstract: The tourism and hospitalityindustry faces a problem of seasonality everywhere in the
world. Croatia as a tourist destination has a strong seasonality and it is recognized primarily as '' The
sun and the sea'' destination. One of the possibilities to reduce the seasonality is a development of
new tourism products in the periods out of peak season. An attempt to overcome the seasonality
could be development of Destination Management Companies (DMCs), specialized receptive
tourism agencies that create and place an offer of complex tourist products or packages, tailored to
the needs of tourists, especially during periods out of peak season. This paper reviews these issues
by analyzing the level of development of tourism products of Destination Management Companies
(DMCs) in Croatia and their possible impact on the reduction of seasonality in Croatia.
Keywords: Destination Management Company (DMC), travel agency, seasonality, Croatia
INTRODUCTION
All tourist destinations are faced to some degree with the problem of seasonality, one of
the inevitable characteristics of tourist demand. Seasonality is a temporal imbalance in the
phenomenon of tourism, which may be expressed in terms of elements such as numbers of
visitors, expenditure of visitors, traffic on highways and other forms of transportation,
employment and admissions to attractions (Baum & Lundtrop 2001, p.5).Croatia is
recognized primarily as a destination of ''The sun and the sea'' product.Compared with the
EU-28, Croatia‘s tourism activities are much more seasonal (Eurostat 2015). Strong
seasonality has been present in Croatia for years. For examplethe strong seasonality
wasrecorded in Croatia during the year 2012. The peak months of July and August
accounted for 58% of nights spent in Croatian tourist accommodation establishments2,
compared to EU level which was only 33% of nights spent in the EU, and July and August
were also two peak months at EU level. In the same year the winter months from
November to March had a share of nearly 25% of nights spent in EU, and in Croatia
November-March period was far less significant and only accounted for 3.7% of the
annual total of nights spent in Croatian tourist accommodation establishments (Eurostat
2015).
Monthly distribution of the total number of nights spent at tourist accommodation
establishments, EU-28 and Croatia, 2012 (%) can be seen in Figure 1. It shows strong
seasonality which has been present in Croatia.
Public and private sector in tourism are interested in solving the problem of seasonalityand
use pricing incentives and product varation in order to stimulate demand during shoulder
and off-season periods (Baum & Lundtrop 2001, p.2).Fernandez-Morales (2003) analyzed
seasonal concentration in tourism demand series in three destinations in region Andalusia,
Spain in the period of 20 years by means of Gini index. In all three analyzed destinations
1
CEO at Petros d.o.o., PhD student – Ekonomski fakultet Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.
2
Tourist accomodation establishments according to Eurostat statistics means: hotels and similar
accomodation, holiday and other short-stay accomodation, camping grounds, recreational vehicle
parks and trailer parks. It excludes provision of homes and furnished or unfurnished flats or
apartments for more permanent use.
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the main tourist product was the ''The sun and the sea', and Fernandez-Morales (2003)
came to the conclusion that the destination where the tourist productwas the most
diversified recorded the largest reduction of seasonality.Accordingly,in destination with
the most diversified tourist producttourist nights in hotels were more evenly distributed
over the year.
Fig.1. Monthly distribution of the total number of nights spent at tourist accommodation
establishments, EU-28 and Croatia, 2012 (%) Source: Eurostat
One of possibilitiesof addressing the problem of seasonality in Croatia could be more

diversified tourism product that can meet the demands of today's tourists.Čavlek et al.
(2010, p.201) state that experience has become nucleus of holidays. An integral part of the
vision of Croatian tourism by 2020 is for Croatia to become a destination that offers to its
guests hospitality, safety and a unique diveristy of various activities and experiencesall
year round (Government of Republic of Croatia 2015).1
Destination management company (DMC) is one of the main actor in the provision of
unique, authentic often personalized, year-round tourist products.
The aim of this paper is to analyze the development of tourism products ofDestination
Management Companies in Croatia, with emphasis on those tourism products which
Destination Management Companiesoffer in the period out of peak season and thereby
contribute to the reduction of seasonality.
DESTINATION MANAGEMENT COMPANIES (DMCs)
Demands and needs of modern tourists are becoming increasingly complex and hence
there is a need for more individualized and more diverse tourism products.To design,
develop and implement increasingly complex, often personalized and specialized tourism
products, there is a need for Destination Management Companies (DMCs) to operate. They
have an overall knowledge of the destination and necessary resources to design, create and
sell various tourism products in thedestination.
Association of Destination Management Executives,founded in 1995, defines the
Destination Management Company (DMC) as a professional services company that has
1
The vision for the development of Croatian tourism until 2020: ''In the year 2020, Croatia is a
globally recognizable tourist destination, competitive and attractive to investors, which creates new
job openings and manages the development on its entire territory in a sustainable manner nurturing
the culture of quality, and offering hospitality, safety and a unique diveristy of various activities and
experiencesall year round'' (Goverment of Republic of Croatia)
353
extensive knowledge of the area in which operates, expertise and other resources,
specializing in the design and implementation of events, activities, tours, transportation
and program logistics(ADMEI 2015).
Euromic, the leading association of Destination Management Companies in Europe,
founded in 1973, defines the Destination Management Company (DMC) as a company that
provides a full range of services and must have extensive knowledge of destinations and in
addition, experience, imagination, expertise, local contacts andsuppliers that are necessary
to plan and execute the exclusive MICE programs as well as unique special interests
programs (EUROMIC 2015).
The increasing specialization and offer individualization, in order to adjustto the
requirements of the today's tourists, is not only present in small and medium-sized tour
operators, but also with leading global tour operators.Many leading, small and medium-
sized tour operators have begun a transformation or have already transformed their
businesses in the direction of the Destination Management Companies (DMCs). Thus
Kuoni Travel Group, which was founded back in 1906, and today is among the leading
European tour operators, founded the strategic business unit Kuoni Destination
Management. Kuoni DMCs network consists of over 70 wholly-owned Destination
Management Companies (DMCs) and 20 sales offices throughout Africa, Arabia, Asia,
Australia, Europe, India and the USA. (Kuoni Group 2015).
Destination Managment Companies (DMCs) in Croatia
Offer specialization and individualization among Croatian tour operators was encouraged
by Ministry of Tourism in the year 2010.1 in order to adjustto the requirements of the
today's tourists needs.As one of the measures of tourism policies in the Tourism
Development Strategy of The Republic of Croatia until 2020.,is listed measureof
development of specialized receptive travel agency (DMC - Destination Management
Companies) which create and place complex tourism offers, i.e. holiday packages tailored
to the needs and/or demands of tourists in specific market segments. DMCs are one of the
key players in the diversification and standard increase of the total value of destination
offer (Croatian Ministry of Tourism 2015)2.In accordance with the Tourism Development
Strategy of The Republic of Croatia until 2020. (Croatian Ministry of Tourism
2015)tourism products in Croatia can be divided into dominant products and products with
visible growth potential.
Dominant products:
1. The sun and the sea
2. Nautical tourism (yachting/cruising)
3. Business tourism
4. Cultural tourism
1
Significant development of DMCc in Croatia was recorded in 2010 when the Ministry of Tourism
in accordance with the program to encourage the creation,design and promotion of new tourism
product in 2010. "Discover Croatia" awarded financial support to 36 travel agencies.
2
The emphasis of the measure is on the development of the ability to create and place unique and
memorable experiences and special interest tourist packages, especially in pre- and post-season
periods, and in continental destinations.
354
Products with visible growth potential:
1. Health tourism
2. Cycling tourism
3. Gastronomy and Oenology
4. Rural and mountain tourism
5. Golf tourism
6. Adventure and Sport tourism (diving, kayaking and canoeing, river rafting,
adrenaline sports, shooting, fishing, winter sports and sport preparation)
7. Other products (Eco tourism, Youth tourism, Social tourism)
This paper analyze presence of these dominant products and products with visible growth
potentialin the offer of 34 Destination Management of Companies (DMCs) in Croatia with
the purpose to determine the development of the tourism product of Destination
Management Companies (DMCs)in Croatia. Offer published on their websites was
examined. From a total of 34 analyzed Destination Management Companies (DMCs), 29
of companieswere certified by the Association of Croatian Travel Agencies as DMCs
specialists.1Furthermore, 5 Destination Management Companies (DMCs)were analyzedthat
were not certified by the Association of Croatian Travel Agencies as DMCs specialists, but
were recognized by the Croatian National Tourist Board as potential candidates for the
development of Destination Management Companies (DMCs) in Croatia (Croatian
Tourism Board 2015).2 Offer of all DMC's in Croatia, which were certified by the
Association of Croatian Travel Agencies as DMCs specialists (29 DMCs) and offer of all
DMC's which were recognized by the Croatian National Tourist Board as potential
candidates for the development of Destination Management Companies (DMCs) was
analyzed. Presence of dominant products and products with visible growth potential
offered by analyzed Destination Management Companies (DMCs) in Croatia is shown in
Table 1.
1
Specialization of tour operetors by topics, regions and niche markets is done by Association of
Croatian Travel Agencies (UHPA). The objective of this specialization is to raise the quality and
professionalism in the provision of services of DMCs in Croatia.
2
The selection of potential candidates for the development of the DMCs and the granting of aid for
programs of development and market introduction of complex tourism products for the market of
special interest was done in 2014 and 2015 by Croatian Tourism Board. In year 2014. nine DMCs
and in year 2015. seven DMCs were supported by Croatian Tourism Board. Some of these agency
were Association of Croatian Travel Agencies DMCs specialists and therefore only additional 5
DMCs who were not Association of Croatian Travel Agencies DMCs specialsts but were supported
by Croatian Tourism Board were analyzed in this papaer.
355
Tab. 1. Presence of dominant products and products with visible growth potential offered
by analyzed Destination Management Companies (DMCs) in Croatia
The Sun and the Sea product was found to be the most common product inthe offer of
Destination Management Companies (DMCs) in Croatia. Over 80% of the analyzedDMCs
had this product in their offer. Followed by Cultural tourism, which was offered by 24
DMCs, then Gastro and Oenology tourism offered by 20 DMCs, Adventure and Sport
tourism offered by 18 DMCs, Nautical tourismoffered by 15 DMCs, Rural and Mountain
tourism (13 DMCs), Cycling (12 DMCs), Health tourism (12 DMCs), Eco, Youth and
Social tourism (11 DMCs), Business tourism (10 DMCs) and Golf tourism (1 DMCs).
Number of analyzed DMCs who offered a certain tourist product can be seen in Figure 2.
356
Fig. 2. Number of analyzed DMCs who offered a certain tourist product
Over 30% of the analyzed DMCs included in their offer at least one or more of these
products: Rural and mountain tourism, Cycling tourism, Health tourism, Eco, Youth and
Social tourism (the products with visible growth potential)1, and these product's
cancontribute to reducation of seasonality of Croatian tourism as they are usually offered
in periods outside the peak season. It should be noted that among the products with visible
growth potential products: Eco, Youth and Social Tourism were analyzed together as
''Other products''. Among ''Other products'' Social tourism products were not found in the
offer of the DMCs, while Youth tourism was far dominant among ''Other products''
category (8 DMCs).2 Golf tourism was offered only by 1 DMC. Gastro and Oenology
tourism products as well as Adventure and Sport tourism products were offeredby over
52% analyzed DMCs.
CONCLUSION
Compared with the EU-28, Croatia‘s tourism activities are much more seasonal. One of
possibilitiesof addressing the problem of seasonality in Croatia could be more diversified
tourism product that could meet the demands of today's tourists.Given the needs of today's
tourists these products are often complex, specialized, authentic and unique and can be
created by a Destination Managment Comapny (DMC). Dominanat products (Bussines
tourism, Cultural tourism and Nautical tourism) as well as products with visible growth
potential (Health tourism, Cycling tourism, Oenology and Gastro tourism, Rural and
1
Rural and mountain tourism (13 DMCs), Cycling tourism (12 DMCs), Health tourism (12 DMCs),
Eco, Youth and Social tourism (11 DMC's).
2
High presence of Youth travel in offer of DMCs is to some extent result of tradition of travel of
elementary and high school students in Croatia and these travels are regulated by Croatian Ministry
of Science, Education and Sports. Regulations about the trip, excursion and other educational
activities outside school (Narodne novine 2015)
357
Mountain tourism, Golf tourism, Adventure and Sport tourism, Eco and Youth tourism) are
included in offer of Destination Management Comapanies (DMCs) in Croatia. Social
tourism products are not included.
High share of the product The sun and the sea in the offer of Croatian DMCs indicates that
there is a possibility for further specialization of Destination Management Companies
(DMCs) in Croatia in the direction of special interest programs, organized out of the peak
season, what would contribute to reduction of seasonality in Croatia.
Further research could be focused on the investigation of the degree of specialization of
Croatian Destination Management Companies (DMCs) and the success of DMCs product's
sales in the periods out of the peak season, and thus the impact on the reduction of
seasonality.
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359
THE EFFECTS OF E-COMMERCE APPLICATION ON TRAVEL
AGENCIES AND EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE
Cihan Seçilmiş1
Burhan Sevim2
Barış Yilmaz3
Abstract: E-commerce, which has been a very prominent issue with the help of current
developments in information and communication technologies and worldwide prevalence of the
internet, has been intensively used considering the benefits for both customers and businesses.
Tourism businesses, which demand to be successful in such rapidly changing competitive business
environments, attempt to develop e-commerce applications in order that they can compete with their
competitors and make use of new opportunities. It is emphasized that despite the various benefits of
e-commerce, it might also bring the end of some sectors, which have not developed essential
arrangements and infrastructures for this virtual environment. It is estimated that the need for
package tours, tour operators and travel agencies will decrease in the future depending on the
growing interest in the independent travel, the number of searches that people make on the internet
search engines and tendency to act in accordance with the travel programs. The primary aim of this
study is to figure out how much travel agencies in EskiĢehir use the e-commerce, the positive and
negative effects of e-commerce on travel agencies and how e-commerce is perceived by agency
administrators and employees. Besides, this study aims at determining the relationship among the
perceptions of these employees and their performance. Within the scope of this research, 61travel
agencies operating in EskiĢehir were selected and a survey consisting of close-ended questions
applied to these business administrators and employees. The results revealed that almost all travel
businesses have a web site, and the most important reason why they use the internet is easy
accessibility and getting new customers. Employees think that use of e-commerce will not have any
negative effect on the future of their businesses. According to results of correlation analysis, there
was significant relationship found between employees‘ perceptions about the effects of e-commerce
use on businesses and their performance in which they are employed.
Key words:E-commerce, travel agencies, employee performance
1. INTRODUCTION
The great opportunities human have come on the scene by information Technologies and
the developments of computer World. Information and communication Technologies have
become inseparable part of human by means of mobile phones, identity information,
commercial accounting operations, e-commerce, banking operations and Daily routines.
In terms of tourism, the dimensions of the sector have been extending day by day, become
widespread and globalize. Parallel all these developments the last stage of information
Technologies provide new opportunities and advantages by means of management,
marketing, advertising and introducing to the enterprises working on tourism sector. The
enterprises working on tourism sector has started to take the benefit of information
1
Associate. Professor, Department of Tourism, Tourism Faculty , University of EskiĢehir
Osmangazi, EskiĢehir, Turkey.
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Tourism, Faculty of Social Science, International Hodja Ahmet
Yesevi Turkish-Kazakh University, Kazakhstan.
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Technologies intensively. The intensive internet usage and e-commerce has brought a new
dimension to the sector (Bayekeyeva, 2009).
The fast development and becoming widespread of technology and internet caused lots of
changes and developments on global commerce. These changes also bring arguments
about the advantages and disadvantages of internet. With these argumentsthe limitations of
services and outcomes have become the part of the arguments (SarııĢık & Akova, 2006).
Common internet usage in tourism sector which has a great role in global commerce
affects the travel agencies which provide the connection between customers and
enterprises directly. Especially on the recent years the developments on e-commerce have
make people think of the future of travel agencies and their staff. The thoughts about the e-
commerce practices of the staff of A group travel agencies in Eskisehir and how e-
commerce effect their performances has been studied on this workout.
2. E-COMMERCE AND EMPLOYEES PERFORMANCE
2.1. E-Commerce Concept
It is possible to define electronic commerce (e-commerce) as the production advertising,

selling and delivering of services and productions on electronic environment and
telecommunication network (Turban and King, 2003:3).
By globalizing and technological developments the boundaries between countries have
removed, the importance of e-commerce has been increased day by day by means of
economy. Even if e- commerce is a new system in economy it is not totally distinguished
from traditional commerce and the same and partly similar ways has been used. (Ekici and
Yıldırım, 2010:69). To make e-commerce on internet a supply chain and a distribution
channel has to be arranged and managed. It is a must to transport the goods and services to
the right place at the right time with e-commerce. (Banger, 2000:46). The characteristics of
e-commerce are arranged like this (TaĢlıyan, 2006:50):
The services served in e-commerce determine the future of the enterprise.

E-commerce is the greatest door opens to the World for an enterprise.
E-commerce is global and needs to be pulled away from regionalism.
7 days 24 hours working base puts away the time problem that limits the
communication and marketing.
The trustworthiness of e-commerce would increase by developing technology by
time.
Personal commerce relationship can be done by collecting personal information by
the help of e-commerce database.
E-commerce addresses consumers having a different culture and this culture is
becoming wide by growing up the internet.
Due to the fact that the customer and the dealer make trade by not seeing each
other some additional measures has to be taken for mutual trust.
The most e-commerce using countries are in Europe, North America, and Far East –
Pacific as in World wide. Parallel to the developments in Worldwide there are some
important developments on e-commerce also in Turkey. By 1996 internet has started to be
used not only in the universities but also by others make to increase internet users. By this
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development the enterprises in our country has started to use e-commerce in enterprise to
enterprise and to customers (WTO).
The most e-commerce used areas are: digital electronics, life, automotive, hobby-sports,
supermarkets, food, flower, fruit, souvenirs, opportunity sites, organization tickets, travel –
booking, fashion, beauty, multi category shopping, etc. (TaĢlıyan, 2006:66).
2.2. E-commerce on tourism
The globalization and technologic applications‘ contribution is great on serving new and
flexible duties and increasing competitive power of tourism enterprises. The great need of
getting and emitting information for the potential customers in tourism makes these
enterprises one of the most important sectors to use e-commerce tools. Tourism enterprises
uses e-commerce tools while communicating, introducing, marketing, advertising and
managing(Avcıkurt and Köroğlu, 2004:280).
It is very common to use e-commerce in tourism and it is developing day by day.
Producing travel services, advertising, introducing, public relations, buying selling
procedures, payment and delivery are all possible by e-commerce in tourism (AltaĢ,
2010:12).
The advantages of e-commerce in tourism are as; (Akbulut, 2007:9-14):
The profit increases due to the agencies are disabled.
The enterprises have the opportunity to increase their service quality by e-
commerce.
The decrease of transaction costs and transportation costs is an advantage for
customers.
The prestige of the enterprises using e-commerce increases against competitors.
The communication between enterprises and customers increases.
The enterprises using e-commerce can serve 7/24.
Enterprises can use human resources more convenient and flexible.
But as it has a lot of advantages it also has disadvantages like in all areas using
technological developments. The enterprises that cannot accommodate go into liquidation.
The disadvantages of e-commerce in tourism are as; (Pırnar, 2005:18):
Worry in credit usage,
Security problems due to e-commerce data base problems,
To send messages and a mails which are not ethic to everybody,
Parallel to technological developments, thelegal arrangements are slowly produced
so legal gaps occur.
The personal information is used in internet.
Worry about Hackers during operations.
Non-detected shopping enterprise.
2.3. E-Commerce applications of Travel Agencies and tour Operators
Tourism an important part of global trade is one of the most widely e-commerce used
sectors. On recent years some important developments rise on internet and e-commerce
applications on the travel agencies providing the connection between customers and
enterprises ( SarııĢık ve Akova,2006:1).
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E-trade effects the way of marketing and delivering of the travel agencies own services
directly. The e-trade applications was first for only getting information but in recent years
it became a work potential power by developing (William, 1999:67-73).
On the other hand some researchers emphasize that, the wide internet usage and directing
customers to shop from internet may threat the future of agencies. It is predicted that the
role of the agencies in tourism will decrease and this might cause they would be closed or
unite with greater agencies (Reinders ve Baker, 2004).
The successful travel agencies using e-trade applications are causing the decrease of
traditional delivery channels. Lots of researchers think that information provider agencies
would be closed in very near future(Marino, 1999; Maselli, 2002). In addition to that the
agencies that have e-trade data bases and use internet effectively would reach broad mass
and by this way their profit and market share would increase (Kotler vd., 1999).
2.4. Performance and Employees Performance
Performance is a concept that states how a person or a group who does that work hits the
target quantitively and qualitatively. Personal or group performance is a measure that how
much the target is hit and reached the standards. The primary goal for the enterprises is the
personal performance of the employees. As much as the personal performance is better the
enterprises performance gets better(Benligiray, 2004:141).
Performance is used as a synonym of productiveness but it is not enough. Productiveness is
the level of realization of the product in time and in the cost boundary to hit the target of
the enterprise but performance includes activity, quality, the quality of work life aim
addition, so productivity can be thought as a measure in performance concept (Kaplan,
2007: 57-58).
3. RESEARCH
3.1. Target of the research
The aim of this research is to exhibit the e-trade use level of the travel agencies working in
Eskisehir and the opportunity and threat e-trade perception of the employees and to
investigate if this perception affects their performance.
3.2. The method of the research
The universe of this research is the 61 travel agencies located in Eskisehir. The sample has
gone all and for the health of the health of the answers 167 answers were taken between
April 04, 2015 – April 25, 2015 and 163 was chosen for assessment.
To reach the aim of the research different surveys that has been done by different
surveyors at different times at the different universes. At this aim, some questions were
taken from the survey produced by Yıldırım (2014) to measure the attendance levels of the
employees of business management about e-trade and from the survey which is done by
Bayekeyeva (2009) and a new survey is produced by the researcher. A 4 item server
performance scale has been used which is developed by Kirkman and Rosen (1999).
363
3.3. The validity and reliabity of the research
To provide the reliability of the data Cronbach alpha reliability factor is used.. reliability
criteria (0,60< α <0,80) is too much reliable (0,80 ≤ α < 1,00) is very reliable.The measure
of the attendance levels of the employees of business management about e-trade is α=0,71,
the employees performance reliability criteria is calculated as α=0, 88.This scale shows us
that the research is too much reliable(YaĢar, 2014).
4. RESEARCH EVIDENCE AND ANALYSIS
The research evidence is as followed below at first the demographic specialties and the
statistical evidences.
4.1. The evidences of the demographic specialties of the participants
As it can be seen at the table below the demographic specialties of the example mass can
exemplify the group in the total sample.
Tab. 1. The statistic evidence of the demographic specialities of the applicants
Sex f % Tourism f %
Male 96 58,9 Education
No 55 33,7
Female 67 41,1 Yes 108 66,3
Total 163 100,0 Total 163 100,0
Education Age f %
Prep school - - Lower than 20 12 7,4
High school 44 27,0 Between 21 –
Associate degree 31 19,0 29
Between 30 – 43 26,4
University 79 48,4 39
Between 40 – 22 13,5
Post graduate 9 5,6 49 and more
50 2 1,2
Total 163 100,0 Total 163 100,00
Experience f % Title f %
Less than 1 year 56 34,4 Management 24 14,7
1-5 year 79 48,5 Departmental 33 20,2
6-10 year 20 12,3 man. manager
Employee 98 60,1
11-15 year 4 2,4 Trainee 7 4.3
16 years and 4 2,4 Other 1 0,7
more
Total 163 100 Total 163 100
In table 1 the evidences are placed that shows the demographic specialities that 163 travel
agencies applied and answered the survey are used. The %58,9‘u of the applicants are
male, %41,1 of them are female. The age separation of the applicants are % 7,4 is less than
20 years old, %51,5 of them are between 21-29 , %26,4 of them are between 30-39 ,%13,6
of them are between 40 -49 and %1 of them are more than 50 years old. The education
level of the applicants are %27 high school degree, %19,0 of them are associate degree,
%48,4 of them are university degree, %5,6 of them are post graduate degree. There is no
primary school degree in the applicants. In addition to that %33,7 of the applicants have
364
never get tourism education %66,3 of them get the education. The titles of the applicants
%14,7 work as management, 20,2 of them work as department managers, 60,1 work as
employee, 4,3 work as trainer and %1is the enterprise owner. Also, the experience level of
the applicants, %34,4 work less than 1 year, %48,5 between 1-5 years , % 12,3 between 6-
10 years , %1,9 between 11-15 years andmore than 16 years.
4.2. Evidence about the General assessment of the enterprise
Tab. 2. The general information about the enterprise

variable f %
Does your enterprise have an Yes 163 100,0
internet site? No - -
An expert working in the
28 17,2
enterprise.
How was your page Consultant from another firm. 55 33,7
produced?
It is produced totally by
80 49,1
experts.
Daily 73 44,8
How often does your site Weekly 58 35,6
updated? Monthly 27 16,6
Yearly 5 3,0
Does your enterprise e- Yes 95 58,2
commerce? No 68 41,8
Total 163 100
All the enterprises that the surveys done have internet sites. The internet sites were
produced by %17,2 by an expert working at the same enterprise, %33,7 by a counselor
from outside, %49,1 by an expert from outsource. The update period of these sites 44,8
daily, %35,6 weekly, %18,4 monthly and %3,9 yearly. The enterprises in the research
%58,2 make e-trade %41,8 of them have done never.
4.3. The evidences about the employees’ e-trade perception
The importance range of the opinions on the advantages of e-trade usage at the enterprises
can be seen at table 3. Applicants Show that the importance of e-trade to the enterprise are
it provides low cost (4, 38) and life is easier and faster (4,33) Other benefits are it provides
more holiday choices and effects shopping and marketing positively. The minimal
attendance is on the decrease of risks. The correlation test due to applicants performance
level , low cost opportunity (r:,188**, p<,05), life is easier and faster (r:,206**, p<,05),
effects shopping and marketing positively. (r:,151**, p<,05),has meaningful evidences.
365
Tab. 3. The advantages that e-trade provides to the enterprise
std.
med Performance
Dev.ma
Serving on internet provides agencies ,188**
1 4.38 1.19
low cost opportunity.
2 Life will be easier and faster by e-trade. 4.33 0.92 ,206**
Service on internet provides more ,104
3 holiday choice opportunities. 4.17 0.76
Service on internet provides selling and ,151**
4 trade positively. 4.11 1.04
Service on internet provides the increase ,079
5 of service quality of the agencies. 4.01 0.58 ,406**
By the help of internet personal service ,123
6 can be done to the customers. 3.94 0.17
Internet is a special area for the agencies ,095
7 by means of their brand image. 3.88 0.88
Service on internet provides customer ,009
8 communication quality. 3.75 0.71
Service on internet provides customer ,119
9 reliability much more easily. 2.65 0.24 ,406**
Service on internet provides the decrease ,062
10 of risks. 2.42 1.23
Note: Assessment has been done by 5Likertmeasure.
Tab. 4. Harms of e–trade for the enterprises

med std. Per
sap ,-
1 Agencies lose their customers because of the technological ma 305
unreliableness of e-trade applications. 4.43 0.67
*
2 Customer perturbation occurs because of not having one to one 4.41 0.85 ,111
3 relationship with the
Too much updates customers.
may cause problems. 4.12 1.03 ,087
If too much advertisement is not done there will not be enough 20.91 ,006
4
demand. 4.07
5 Travel sales from internet may cause the end of the travel 2.10 1.56 ,-
agencies.
Note: Assessment has been done by 5 Likert measure. 106
**
Opinions of the applicants about the harms of e-trade for the enterprises can be seen on
table 4 due to the importance. Agencies lose their customers because of the technological
unreliableness of e-trade applications. (4,43) Customer perturbation occurs because of not
having one to one relationship with the customers (4,41) Travel sales from internet may
cause the end of the travel agencies is the lowest opinion. The correlation test which has
been done due to the performance level of the applicants shows that customer lose because
of the technological unreliableness (r:,-305**, p<,05) and Travel sales from internet may
366
cause the end of the travel agencies risk is (r:,-106**, p<,05),which means meaningful
negative relationship.
CONCLUSION
In this research how the e-trade applications used in the travel agencies located in
Eskisehir is being perceived by the employees and the relationship between this perception
and the employee‘s performance is examined. The result due to this research can be
summarized as below;
The most important piece of the modern trade e- trade is not been used by nearly half of
the agencies in Eskisehir is established. The agencies that all have internet pages have to
place their internet pages that they can e-trade to continue their long term
business.Agencies should make ready their internet pages tu the experts or firms and they
have to update these pages more frequently.
It is an advantage that the agency employees agree on that the internet provides easy
Access to the enterprises, serves support to market targets, increase the competition power,
fast communication with the customers. The positive manner of the employees to internet,
is a useful elementfor the agencies to work on e-trade applications.
When the opinions of the employees about e-trade is asked ‗ proper cost opportunity is
provided by serving on internet‘ is found the most important specialty of e-trade by the
average of (x=4,38) and following this, ‗life will be easier and faster by e-trade by the
average of (x=4,33) The least importantspecialty is ‗serving on internet will lower the risk
that has been perceived by customers by the average of (x=2,42) This result shows that the
employees of the travel agencies think that e trade will provide low cost, speed and
competence but on the other hand, they worry about the unreliableness of the applications
working on internet will not cover the customer expectations. This result is parallel to the
research result of Semiz (2009).
When it is asked to the applicants for their opinions about the harms of e-trade the most
harmful specialty of e trade is chosen as by the average of (x=4,43) ―Agencies lose their
customers because of the technological unreliableness of e-trade applications‘ and by the
average of (x=4,41) ―Customer perturbation occurs because of not having one to one
relationship with the customers.‘ The least averagespecialty is by the average of (x=2,42)
―Travel sales from internet may cause the end of the travel agencies.‘ This result shows us
that the agencies employees believe that the customers shop on internet do not trust the
technology at all and also the agencies that move all their work on internet will probably
lose their customers. The employees believe that customers would like to come to the
agency by their own and also want to communicate by real people. On the other hand,
agency employees do not find e-trade as a threat that makes their enterprises end. The
reason of that is the agencies believe in the musts of this age and keep up with changes and
also it can be the trust problem of their customers feel during travel shopping on internet
and if there is any problem, the fear of not to find the solution on internet.
Meaningful diversity is been found when the relationship between the opinions of
employees and their performances. The employee‘sperformance who believes in e-trade
will provide lower cost for the agencies, fast and easy business, positive effect on shopping
and marketing may increase is emerged. Especially the business which is been done on the
internet fast and low cost may increase the employees performances. Besides, the
performances of the employees effects negatively by the risks of technology unreliableness
of the customers and no need to agencies due to booking on the internet by this no need to
367
the agencies and also affect their performances. It is also an argument in the literature that
there will be no need to the agencies in future because of the direct booking opportunity on
the internet. But it is thought by the employees that a kind of risk will not be seen in short
term because some hesitations on e-trade are not been removed yet.
The most important narrowness of this research is it is done only in Eskisehir area but not
generalize the assessment for all of the agencies. The latter researches should be done at
different areas and it will be useful if the sample should be increased.
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2. AltaĢ, A. (2010). Electronic Commerce. Ġstanbul: Media.
3. Avcıkurt, C., Köroğlu, A. (2013 ġubat). Konaklama iĢletmelerinin pazarlanmasında
internetin kullanımına yönelik bir model önerisi. 9. Mehmet Kemal DEDEMAN
AraĢtırma ve GeliĢtirme Proje YarıĢması, Balıkesir.
4. Banger, G. (2000). EskiĢehir Ticaretinde DeğiĢimin önündeki engellierin kısa tahlili
ETO Dergisi 17, 78 p. 45-47.
5. Bayekeyeva, G. (2009). E-commerce in tourism sector in Kazakhstan: Practice on
hotels and travel agencies. 9 Eylül University Institute of Social Sciences Department
of Tourism Management Tourism Management Program, Master‘s Thesis, Ankara.
6. Benligiray S. (2004). Human Resources Management.EskiĢehir, Anadolu
Üniversitesi.
7. Ekici, M., &Yıldırım A. (2010). E-Commerce. Ankara: SavaĢ.
8. KAPLAN Mehmet (2007) Motivation theories under the application of special
program and equipments to measure performance of employer and a case study,
Atılım University Institute of Social Sciences, Master‘s Thesis, Ankara.
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Consequences of Team Empowerment, Academy of Management Journal, 42(1): 58-
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2nd Edition. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
11. Marino, D. (1999). Internet experts urge development of e-commerce models. ASTA
AgencyManagement, 68(1), 32-34.
12. Maselli, J. (2002). E-ticketing threatens travel agents. Information Week, 881, 28-29.
13. Özbay, A., Devrim, J. (2000). ―E-Commerce Guides‖ .Ġstanbul.
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Tourism Products: The Influence of Information Technology‖, Proceedings of The
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Tourism, Edinburgh, Scotland, 119–127.
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Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi , 12/2 p.128-148.
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18. TaĢlıyan, M. (2006). Elektronik Ticaret, Kavramlar ve Uygulamalar, Kahramanmaras:
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369
CITY BREAK TOURISM IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA – CASE
STUDY OF SARAJEVO AND MOSTAR
Alma Pobrić1
Amra Banda2
Amina Sivac3
Abstract:Urban tourism in general with multi-functional nature has a long tradition. Culture and its
heritage is confirmed as one ofthe most important motivation for city trips. A large number of
tourists are usually attracted by historic city centres. Elements such as the welcoming attitude of
locals and market trends are becoming more important for tourists. Cities in Bosnia and
Herzegovina can offer both culture and an asset of mentioned positive intangible elements.City
break travel has become one of the key drivers of the European tourism growth in recent period.
Nowdays, city break tourism is a very important part of the tourist market in Bosnia and
Herzegovina. However, our knowledge of this important market segment remains relatively poor.
Little empirical data specifically relating to city break trips currently exists. In order to set the
context for the research, this paper first defines city break tourism and analyzes its main
characteristics in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A case study approach is used, with the tourist offers in
Sarajevo and Mostar being the main focus of the research. As a research framework, comparisons
between the mentioned cities and a suggestion for the city break itinerary will be given.
Key words:city break tourism, tourist trends, travel patterns, tourism destinations, Sarajevo, Mostar
INTRODUCTION
Demand for travel to cities has greatly increased overthe last few decades.World‘s cities
which attract major tourism flows, combining culture, leisure, businessare becoming
world‘s greatest tourism destinations. Short-break holidays like city break trips are an
expanding global phenomenon, related to more stressful lifestyles. Bosnian cities don't fail
to impress visitors by their scope.Sarajevo and Mostar have all the necessary conditions for
the development of urban and city break tourism. In this regard, it is necessary to access
the development of above mentioned types of tourism adequately, in order to increase
profits and minimize the negative consequences of uncontrolled tourism development.
URBAN TOURISM
UNWTO refers to urban tourism as trips taken by travellers to cities orplaces of high
population density. The duration of these trips is usually short (one to three days) therefore
it can be said that urban tourismis closely linked to the short – breaks market (Tourism
2020 Vision,UNWTO 2002).Big citiesbecame important tourism destination during the
1980s (Law, 1996).In this period old industrial cities were losing jobs on a large scale and
they started to be aware of themselves as tourist attractions. Cities that reacted to tourism
1
2
3
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phenomenon enjoyed significant economic boost. Tourism potential to regenerate old
industrial as well as undeveloped areas began to be considered and governments started to
recognise its role in urban economic development (Buckley, Witt, 1985, 1989). City break
tourism provided different perspective on the cities. People started to viewthem as
destinations rather than just as generators of travel demand. This dynamic growth has been
supported by the increase in low-cost flights. Big European cities started to adapt their
marketing strategy to attract a new type of tourism and travel product, city breaks.
CITY BREAK TOURISM
Increase of city break travel presents one of the most interesting developments in urban
tourism demand over the past decade. European city break trips have been one of the
strongest growth sectors of the outbound travel market (Dunne, 2009). City trips has been
boom market segment,which have soared by 58% over the five years to reach a 20%
market share. According to World Travel Monitor figures, Paris is the world‘s top
metropolitan destination with 18.8 million international arrivals in 2013, followed by New
York, London, Bangkok, Barcelona and Singapore.
There is no commonly recognised definition of what constitutes a city break travel. This
fact cause difficulties encountered when examining city break tourism phenomenon. Trew
& Cockerell (2002, p.86) point out that the most widely used definition of a city break is,
―a short leisure trip to one city or town, with no overnight stay at any other destination
during the trip.‖ It is generally agreed that city breaks consist of leisure trips, but the issue
of whether this should include visiting friends and family is less clear,beacusethey don't
involve no commercial accommodation and therefore need to be distinguished from
commercial city breaks.
One of the maincharacteristics of city breaks is the short stay nature of the holidays
(usually between one and three nights). However, city breaks are growing in length, with
trips of 4-5 nights or longer (Trew & Cockerell 2002). Growth of Internet usage in the
tourism industry contributed to the expansion of city break travel.Through the internet,
potential tourists can access information and make bookings which facilitated city break
travel.
Also, along with the on-line booking optionstourist can also choose city break package
holidays by tour operators. Diversity of city break travel packages offered by both
specialists and the major generalist operators are constantly growing. Unfortunately for
tour operators, Individual product providers like, hotels, rail networks and airlines are also
offering their own city break packages. Having looked at the characteristics of city break
travel and the main reasons for its growth, the attention now turns to a specific destination
– namely Sarajevo and Mostar – to examine the city break phenomenon in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
SARAJEVO AND MOSTAR AS A PART OF CITY BREAK TOURS
Sarajevo and Mostar are relatively small when compared to other European cities. Over the
past decade, these cities prospered as the city has become increasingly connected into the
global flows of technology, capital and people. The main reasons for including Sarajevo
and Mostar in city break tours are as it follows:
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1. Good geographic position
Geographic positions of Sarajevo and Mostar are perfect for city break tours, as they make
an excellent starting point when taking in the entire region of Southeastern Europe or
Balkan peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital of Bosnia, settled in it's central region and it's
only 125 km further from Mostar – whose symbol, the Old Bridge, is included on
UNESCO‘s list of protected cultural monuments. Both cities are just a few hundred
kilometers away from Dubrovnik and Split, the living museums on the Adriatic coast. All
regional capital cities (Zagreb, Belgrade and Podgorica) are only a few hours of ride away.
2. Crossroads of eastern and western culture
For several hundred years, the borders of two great empires, the Ottoman and Austro-
Hungarian, which represented the two poles of the world at that time – East and West,
Islamic and Christian – met in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This left a big mark on
architecture and the lifestyle of Sarajevo and Mostar, as the places where Orient met
Occident in the heart of the Balkans.
3. Great value for the money
Both cities offer visitors a great value for their money. Whether it‘s accommodation,
visiting attractions, dining, shopping, purchasing souvenirs, taking tours around town etc.,
tourists can enjoy the superb quality for very reasonable prices.
4. An ideal size for city break tours
Sarajevo and Mostar have an ideal size for city break tours, as they are characterized by a
short walk distance between main tourist attractions. Both cities are large enough to
provide visitors a lot to see and experience, yet also small and compact enough to get
wherever they want on foot. For example, during a ten-minute walk, tourists can visit
places of worship for the world‘s biggest monotheistic religions: mosques, synagogues as
well as the Orthodox and Catholic churches.With all of the advantages of urban millieu of
Sarajevo and Mostar, visitors have a chance to visit various protected areas with springs,
waterfalls, rivers, lakes and beautiful nature landscapes within a 10 minute drive or less
than an hour's walk on foot from the city centers.
5. Hospitable and kind people
If the beauty of a city is determined by its inhabitants, then Sarajevo and Mostar definitely
rank among the most beautiful cities in the world. The hospitality and kindness of their
residents are something that these cities are known for, and their inhabitants will do their
best to make a visitor‘s stay in their town special.
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Tourist traffic in Sarajevo and Mostar
The development of urban tourism in Sarajevo and Mostar can be clearly evident from the
statistical indicators referred to the number of tourists arrivals and overnight stays,
presented in Tab. 1. and Tab. 2..
Tab.1.Tourists traffic in Sarajevo in the period of 2011-2014

Year Tourists arrivals Overnight stays of tourists
2011 127.620 249.619
2012 139.796 281.315
2013 170.597 338.877
2014 169.895 334.819
Source:Federal Office of Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2015
By analyzing thedata listed in the Tab.1., it can be concluded that the number of tourists
arrivals and overnight stays in Sarajevo has a tendency to increase in the period 2011-
2013. This is especially emphasized in 2013with the increase of tourists arrivals of 22%, in
camparison to the year 2012.In the year 2014, there has been a slight decline of cca. 1% in
the number of tourists arrivals and overnight stays, compared to the previous year. The
primary reason for this decrease are anti-government demonstrations that took place in
February 2014, which had a negative impact on the tourists image of Sarajevo. However,
for the first nine months of 2015, the arrival of 162.274 tourists and 322.512 overnight
stays has been recorded, with an increase of 27,3% compared to the first nine months of
the previous year, indicating that the number of tourists increases again.
Tab.2. Tourists traffic in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton in the period of 2011-2014

Year Tourists arrivals Overnight stays of tourists
2011 103.651 251.686
2012 111.676 260.291
2013 123.715 274.640
2014 135.538 277.859
Source:Federal Office of Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2015
Data listed in Tab.2.refers to the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton.However, Mostar is the

carrier of the tourismdevelopment of this Canton andtherefore, the listed data is
consideredrelevant for the analysis of tourism in this city.The number of arrivals and
overnight stays in Mostar is constantly increasing.An annual increase in the number of
tourist arrivals has averaged about 8.7%, while the number of overnight stays is slightly
smaller, amounting to average of 3%. In order to increase the number of overnight stays, it
is necessary to enrich the offer with the additional amenities, and the potential for that
isoutstandingly wellin this area. Some suggestions will be given in the next chapter.
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AN EXAMPLE OF CITY BREAK ARRANGEMENTS
Sarajevo city break arrangement
Day 1 - SARAJEVO – arrival
Arrival to Sarajevo. Transfer from the Sarajevo international airport to the hotel.
Depending on arrival,refreshment in the hotel and panoramic sightseeing of Sarajevo will
be provided. Overnight.
Day 2 - SARAJEVO – loco
After breakfast the group will visit all of Sarajevo famous places starting with the Sarajevo
war tunnel museum(800 m. long and 5 m. deep digged with hand tools in 1993. – Sarajevo
gate); VreloBosne: The Spring of Bosna, with its natural beauty, emerges at the gate of
Sarajevo. A three kilometer long avenue, bordered by plants and sweet chestnuts leads
from Ilidţa to the source of Bosna. The rest of the tour includes the visit to old Baščarsija
Square, Old Orthodox Church, GaziHusrev-Bey‘s Mosque, Old Sephardic Synagogue,
Catholic Cathedral, Old City hall, Kazandţiluk street, Sebilj, Old Jewish Synagogue,
Bosnian writers park, Latin Bridge (World War I starting point). Duration of the tour is cca
4 – 5 hours.Lunch or dinner at some of the attractive restaurants, or in a typical Bosnian
restaurant with an oriental ambience.Sightseeing of Sarajevo during the sunset and evening
is recommended, as well as shopping in and other activities that visitors would like to
implement.
Day 3 - SARAJEVO – departure
Breakfast.After breakfast and checking out in the hotel, depending on the timing of
departure, transfer from the hotel to the Sarajevo Airport. In the case of having some spare
time, some additional attractions that might be interesting for visitors would be offered.
1 Vijećnica National Library

2 Old Orthodox Church
3 Emperors Mosque
4 Sebilj
5 Brusa Bezistan Museum
6 Gazhusrev-bey's Mosque
7 Orthodox Cathedral
8 Catholic Cathedral of Sacred
Heart
9 Sepahrdic Synagogue
10 Academy of Fine Arts
11 Kazandziluk Street
12 Ferhadija Mosque
13 Turskih Hammam
Fig.1.Top-rated tourist attractions in Sarajevo
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Mostar city break arrangement
Day 1 - MOSTAR – arrival
Arrival to Mostar. Transfer from the Mostar international airport to the hotel. Depending
on arrival, refreshment in the hotel and panoramic sightseeing of Mostar will be provided.
Dinner by the Old Bridge.Overnight.
Day 2 - MOSTAR – loco – BLAGAJ – STOLAC – MOSTAR
Visiting all important cultural and historical landmarks in Mostar downtown, such as The
Old Bridge, Bišćevića corner, Koskin Mehmed-Pasha Mosque, Old part of Mostar,
Kujundţilukstreet, Kajtaz house, KaraĎoz -Bey‘s mosque, The Museum of Hercegovina
and much more.Visit to Blagaj, which is 12 km away from Mostar. After the visit toBlagaj,
visit to Radimlja necropolis, recognized as one of the most ornate cemeteries in Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Free time.Dinner with live music. Overnight.Duration of the tour is cca5 – 6
hours.
1 Bišćevića Corner
2 Kajtaz House
3 Karađoz Bey's Mosque
4 Koskin Mehmed-Pasha
Mosque
5 Brusa Bezistan Museum
6 Kujundžiluk street
7 Old part of Mostar
8 Old Bridge
Fig. 2.Top-rated tourist attractions in Mostar
Day 3 – MOSTAR – POČITELJ – HUTOVO BLATO – ETNO VILLAGE HERCEG –

MEĐUGORJE – KRAVICE – MOSTAR
Visit to Počitelj - Fortress and the Old Town. Visit to Hutovoblato, a nature reserve of
wading birds,with boat ride included. Afterwards, visit to MeĎugorje, one of the most
famous Roman Catholic shrines in the world.After MeĎugorje, visit to Kravice Waterfalls,
stretching over 100m across and tumbling down from the height of 25 meters. Kravice is
one of the largest waterfalls in Herzegovina and certainly the most impressive one. The
waterfalls have a natural ool dug out at the base of the falls from the constant rush of
water. Drive back to Mostar, dinner; Overnight stay.Duration of the tour is cca6 –7 hours.
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Day 4 - MOSTAR – departure
Breakfast.After breakfast and checking out in the hotel, depending on the timing of
departure, transfer from the hotel to the Mostar Airport. In the case of having some spare
time, some additional attractions that might be interesting for visitors would be offered.
CONCLUSION
City break tourism has recorded an increasing growth in the global tourism market. An
involvement of a number of cities in city break arrangements guarantees a revenue growth,
both for the development of tourism and the development of cities in general. The
inclusion of cities in city break arrangements should certainly be in accordance with the
principles of sustainable development, and access to them should be planned in such
manner in order minimize the negative consequences of touristic development. Sarajevo
and Mostar have an exceptional conditions for the development of this type of tourism. In
fact, both cities have elements of attractiveness (in the field of rich historical and natural
heritage), receptivness (numerous capacities for the accommodation of tourists), and
communications (good road network and international airports). In addition, advantageous
geographical position allows the inclusion of Sarajevo and Mostar in the international
tourist routes. The number of tourists in these cities is constantly growing.However,
Sarajevo and Mostar haven‘t so far capitalised on their significant potential as they
combine a very rich historic heritage with all the trappings of pulsating, youthful cities.
Since both cities have all necessary conditions for better development, their better
valorisation and terms of city break tourism is an imperative in the future period.
REFERENCES
1. Buckley, P.J. & Witt, S. (1985) Tourism in Difficult Areas: Case Studies of
Bradford, Bristol, Glasgow and Hamm, Tourism Management, 6(3), pp.
205-13.
2. Buckley, P. & Witt, S. (1989) Tourism in Difficult Areas II: Case Studies of
Calderdale, Leeds, Manchester and Scunthorpe, Tourism Management,
10(2), pp 138-52
3. Dunne, G. (2009) Motivation and decision making in city break travel: The
case of Dublin. VDM Publishing, Saarbrucken, Germany, pp. 33-36
4. Law, C.M. (ed.) (1996) Tourism in Major Cities, London: International
Thomson Business Press
5. Trew, J. & Cockerell, N. (2002) The European Market for UK City Breaks,
Insights, 14 (58), pp. 85-111.
6. ITB WORLD TRAVEL TRENDS REPORT December 2014
http://www.itb_berlin.de/media/itb/itb_dl_de/itb_itb_berlin/itb_itb_academ
y/ITB_2015_WTTR_Report_A4_4.pdf (accessed 20.08.2015.).
376
AN APPROACH TO CULINARY TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN
TURKEY
Alev Dündar1
Abstract: Cuisine and foodways play a vital role as part of the living culture of each destination,
attracting masses of cultural travelers. Mediterranean countries like Italy, Greece and Turkey as well
as several Asian countries like Thailand and Korea are considered prominent culinary tourism
destinations.Culinary tourism is considered to be a new niche that is a precious tool to contribute to
economic, community, social and intercultural development. Culinary tourism helps to build and
sustain regional and local identities, may enhance the local agricultural resources as well as food
and beverage supplies. At the same time it provides opportunities to create new tourism products
and experiences. Many studies also have shown that culinary has a great impact on travelers‘
decisions when choosing their vacation destination. Therefore, unique cuisines not only build
popular travel destinations but also improve the culinary cultural image of a country, which makes
the culinary culture a major attraction within the travel destination.Sports, health, cultural, religious
and culinary tourism are also the new emerging tourism products in Turkey. As a synthesis of east
and west, the culture of Turkey is reflected very much in its culinary tradition. Turkey‘s traditional
cuisine has had a double identity, by which the tastes of east and the traditions of west create a
pleasant mix and experience. Turkish cuisine picks up everything which is worth taking from
different cultures and cuisines and adds to the local styles of cuisine that makes the experience
unique for visitors. The traditional flavours and ingredients have been playing an important role in
the Turkish culinary heritage for centuries. In this paper the relationship of the culinary heritage
with the tourism development in terms of sustainability is discussed. Suggestions are made for
possible implications for marketing, promotion and development of culinary tourism in Turkey.
Key words: Culinary Heritage, Culinary Tourism, Destination Development, Turkey.
INTRODUCTION
According to Timothy and Nyaupane (2009) one of the five prevalent forms of cultural
tourism, which are important constituents of the cultural tourism product globally, is
―Culinary Heritage‖. Culinary tourism has been defined as an experience part of cultural
tourism, including consumption of food and drink that represents the local, regional or
national cuisine, culture, heritage and tradition. It draws an image of the heritage, the
inhabitants and the landscape of a geographic area. Culinary tourism is considered to be a
new niche that is a precious tool to contribute to economic, community, social and
intercultural development. Furthermore, cooking is observed as a certain kind of medium
in terms of tourism (Scarpato, 2002).
The term Culinary Tourism or Food Tourism was developed by Lucy Long in 1998 (Wolf,
2004). ―Whether you go to food or food comes to you, the nature of the encounter is what
defines a food experience as culinary tourism‖ (Long, 2003). It is apparent that there is a
relationship between food, beverage, travel and attractions at any tourist destination. The
International Culinary Tourism Association defines culinary tourism as, ―the pursuit of
unique and memorable eating and drinking experiences.‖ Culinary tourism occurs when
visitors seek to experience cuisine and culture together. Examples of culinary tourism
include wine tourism in California, cheese sampling in Wisconsin, maple syrup tasting in
1
Assistant Professor Dr., Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Faculty of Tourism,
Anadolu University, EskiĢehir, Turkey.
377
Vermont, and Cajun food experiences in Louisiana. A diverse range of businesses
including farms, restaurants, gourmet or specialty food stores, cooking schools, tour
operators, breweries, wineries, historical attractions and many other related businesses
across the country have capitalized on their regions‘ culturally unique cuisines to attract
visitors. Culinary tourism is a new trend that unites the food, beverage and travel
industries. While culinary tourism can be looked at as a tool for economic and community
development, it's a new concept that celebrates unique and memorable culinary
experiences as an integral part of a tourist's experience(www.culinarytourism.org.).
Culinary tourism helps to build and sustain regional and local identities, may enhance the
local agricultural resources as well as food and beverage supplies. At the same time it
provides opportunities to create new tourism products and experiences. It can become a
way of sharing memorable stories and telling them with pride to the visitors. As Robert J.
Harrington (2005) states ―classic wine and food examples illustrate many of the
similarities and contrasting characteristics in components, texture and flavours. An
understanding of these concepts can be valuable when defining gastronomic tourism
strategies and local restaurant concepts‖.
Cuisine and foodways play a vital role as part of the living culture of each destination,
attracting masses of cultural travelers. Mediterranean countries like Italy, Greece and
Turkey as well as several Asian countries like Thailand and Korea are considered
prominent culinary tourism destinations. Many researchers revealed tourists spend almost
40% of their budget on food when travelling (Boyne, Williams, & Hall, 2002). Culinary
tourism can thrive in relation of agriculture, which consists of farm holidays, farmers‘
market and fruit orchards and highlights the exploration and delight of prepared food and
drink.Gastronomy in tourism is more than just dining out while being on holiday; it is an
experience focusing on local culture and traditions including the 5 senses (Wolf, 2004).
Gastronomy has a significant connection to the edible world, whether it is about travelling
to a destination or consuming a gastronomic product at a certain place, the neighbourhood
and the experience is what classifies the term culinary tourism. Where food is the centre of
motivation as in culinary art and gastronomy, there must be a certain place for cooking
schools, wineries, restaurants and festivals (Long, 2003).
Recent economical, social, technological and political developments in the world, ledto
changes in consumptionpatterns in tourism sector.Murphy, Pritchard and Brock (2000)
argue that visitors consume the products of a destination; therefore, the products must be
something that the visitors want and need. Therefore for the sustainability of the tourism
industry,new products for the special interest travelers has to be developed. Until recently
tourism has only seen as a sea-sun-sand fun or cultural activity, the contribution of food to
tourism has been largely ignored in spite of its apparent importance and potential (Tellfer
& Wall, 1996; Handszuh, 2000). Culinary tourism can also generally refer to travel in
which the goal is exploring and enjoying local delicacies and gaining memorable culinary
experiences(Wolf, 2004). Furthermore, culinary, gastronomic and cuisine oriented tourists
also tend to be perceived as high yield (Hall & Sharples, 2008).
As gastronomy and regional food add value to a destination, also they contribute to the
sustainable competitiveness of a destination (Crouch & Ritchie). The importance of food
and drink in tourism development plays a significant role in many countries, destinations,
tourism organisations, tour operators, travel agents and stakeholders (UNWTO, 2012).
According to the International Culinary Tourism Association, culinary tourism is growing
exponentially every year. With the steady increase in interest of food channels, travel
shows featuring local and regional cuisine, food documentaries and online culinary travel
378
shows, more consumers are traveling to various destinations just to enjoy a new food and
wine experience.Culinary heritage holds big potential to enhance sustainability in tourism
industry.
CULINARY HERITAGE IN TOURISM
Levi Strauss (1966) states that, as there no societies in the world without a language, also
no society without a culinary tradition.From purpose point of view the people travel
throughout the world for business or pleasure. In both cases you will have a lot of
opportunities to taste the local food and beverage. It is regarded as part of the change and it
is considered to be a general habit that you can't wait to see and discover something new in
life. Food and drink have recently become an important aspect of recreational travel. At
present the culinary tourism tends to become an own industry within an industry, and a lot
of special organizations appear to provide resources for such programs and develop best
practices at the same time. This is a segmented business, a very special niche market of the
tourism industry, which is growing rapidly and the outlook for growth seems to be bright
in the future as well, however, it is usually combined with other cultural tours, cycling,
walking, visiting museums, adventure, medical tours etc. Consequently, this is a segment
that appeals to a broad range of consumers.
The consumers pursue to be aware of the benefits of economic and healthy local products
and they deliberately seek to sample and enjoy local dishes, foods and drinks. This strong
desire has led to the emergence of local food and drink festivals, which constitute a good
instance where the decision to travel is taken solely on the grounds of the gastronomic
experiences. And now these events are becoming more prevalent in Europe. The variety of
these supplies reflects the differences and similarities in the traditions of the various
regions. These attractions typically combine a wide range of different programs at the
destination, like visiting farmers' markets, gastronomic museums, confectionery shops,
geographic sight-seeing components, tasting at wineries, breweries, dining and/or fruit-
pricking at farms, participating in pig slaughter and on the other side the tourists seem to
appreciate them (Bujdosó, Kerekesné Mayer, & Ujvári, 2012).
Culinary tourism has the potential to bring local people and visitors closer together. The
rapid development of modern technology, which shapes and dominates every aspect of
human life, has positive impact on the culinary tourism, too. Tourists tend to plan their
trips using online as well as print media, which provides wide options and choices,
resulting in severe competition in the industry. In addition we have the media popularising
eating trends, recipes, cooking blogs, and we have TV shows like "how to cook", "kitchen
chefs" etc. All these serials obviously create the interest of people in experiencing another
culture through its cuisine in the existing and emerging culinary tourism destinations and
result in appearance of conscious culinary tourist. In response, private entrepreneurs are
widely using technology to innovate and differentiate their business to withstand the
massive competition in the industry. Web coupons, iPad wine-lists or restaurant interactive
multimedia order terminal, which helps create innovative dishes, are good examples of
technology adoption in food industry (Yeoman, 2008).
Any person who travels to a destination for any reason consumes the local food.
Researchers state that gastronomy is a part of tourism experience and in some cases can be
the basic motivational factor (Horng at.all. 2012). There is a certain correlation betwen the
tourists interested in wine and food and tourists interested in museums, shopping, festivals,
shows and recreational events (Kesici, 2012). The basic motivational factors of
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gastronomy tourism are; to taste a special local delight, watch the production process of
special foods, visit the restaurants, festivals, food producers, observe the different
production tecniques of food or taste food prepared by a famous chef (Yüncü, 2009). The
travelers enjoy indegenous food, particularly items of localor ethnic nature (Wagner,
2001). In the modern globalized world, people are interested about local, regional and
national cuisine. Local food is a fundamental component of a destination‘s attributes,
adding to the range of attractions and the overall tourist‘s experience. Food is an attraction,
is a product component, is an exprience, and is a cultural phenomenon (Tikkanen, 2007).
Many studies also have shown that culinary has a great impact on travelers‘ decisions
when choosing their vacation destination. Therefore, unique cuisines not only build
popular travel destinations but also improve the culinary cultural image of a country,
which makes the culinary culture a major attraction within the travel destination. It shows
that there is a symbolic relationship between food and the tourism industry.
Culinary tourism has an important potential to enhance tourist attractions and helps the
marketing and the sustainability of tourism. Tourists travel for pleasure and want to
experience and enjoy the host culture‘s food. The increasing interest in local cuisine is a
pull factor in the tourism promotion of the destinations. To implement this, local and
regional food needs to be researched, studied and applied to modern cuisine in balance.
Local ingredients, and flavors should be used. In many countries, regarding food tourism is
that local food in the form of regional cuisine is rarely present as an important resource in
publicity material and promotional messages prepared for mainstream tourism (Handszuh,
2000).By promoting local cuisines and the cultures that created them, regional tourism
markets can bolster their revenues while preserving local customs and heritage, catering to
the increasing demands and desires of culinary tourists (Blakey, 2011). Destinations
nowdays understand that food and cuisines represent a core element their invisible
heritages, demonstrating their national cultural characteristics and local features- which
can even be developed into an international brand (Horng, J.S. & Tsai, C.T., 2010).
In addition, a new lifestyle in the 21st century has become widely recognised and
supported. It is about the health conscious eating. Nowadays, most people aim to improve
their body confidence in the long run, desire a well-shaped figure and tend to be more
serious about making changes to their lifestyle and prefer to have a healthy, proper
metabolism and digestion (Cousens, 2000).Other factors like the demographical changes in
Europe, which means the rapid and continuous growth in number of elderly people, and
the general economic development, which results in the increasing disposable income of
people, all these factors will boost the demand for culinary services and different food
tastes (Shenoy, 2005).
CULINARY HERITAGE IN TURKEY
Mass tourism has been the leading engine of tourism industry in Turkey for many
years.Until 1990‘s almost all of the marketing efforts has been oriented towards the
beaches of Eagean and Mediterranean‘s sea, sand and sun tourism. In recent years
alternative tourism activities has attracted the attention of travelers as new tourism
products. Sports, health, cultural, religious and culinary tourism are the new emerging
tourism products.
As a synthesis of east and west, the culture of Turkey is reflected very much in its culinary
tradition. A rich and diverse blend of cultural influences accumulated over the years, the
cuisine of Turkey offers travelers a sumptuous spread of the traditional Turkish dishes. All
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different regions of the country have their own culinary heritage. It‘s very important to
study, search and explore the possible opportunities to promote culinary heritage like
Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman cuisines and culinary tourism for sustainability.
Turkish cuisine is one of the living oldest and richest cuisines in the world. If we study the
development process of Turkish cuisine, it goes back to Central Asian cuisine which
blended with Anatolian cuisine. As the Ottoman Empire extended its lands, the richness of
its cuisine also increased with new lands and cultures. The meat and fermented milk
products from Central Asia, spices from South Asia and Middle East, Mediterranean fruits
and vegetables were combined and formed rich Turkish culinary culture. The range of
ingredients used is similarly vast, with recipes incorporating every kind of meat, fish,
vegetable, and fruit,besides a myriad of spices. Spices are also important products of
culinary tourism. Their use are closely related to cultural identities at local, regional and
national levels. Spices are key to making a dish a national symbol, as for example with
paprika and goulash for Hungary. Cuisines that cross cultures, such as Mediterranean diet,
rely on spices (Jolliffe, l. 2014).
Dishes based on seafood, beef,lamb, goat, chicken, goose; casseroles combining meat and
vegetables: cold vegetable dishes cooked in olive oil; stuffedvegetables, salads, fruit
compotes and drinks; milk puddings are some examples of what Turkish cuisine has to
offer.Halva has several flavors, is mixed with walnuts, peanuts and pistachios, and also
comes in different variaties. Turkish delight, or lokum, comes in dozens of variaties and
color combinations. Rimmington and Yüksel (1998) found that the majority of travelers
revisited Turkey for its cuisine, and food was the fourth factor that would contribute to
travelers overall satisfaction (Hu & Ritchie, 1993). According to the TURSAB (Turkish
Travel Agencies Association) Gastronomy Tourism Report 2015, 88.2% of tourists declare
that ―food is very important in destination preference‖. A destinations culinary heritage is a
touristic product and its importance rises in recent years.
Turkey‘s traditional cuisine has had adouble identity, by which the tastes of east and the
traditions of west create a pleasant mix and experience. Turkish cuisine picks up
everything which is worth taking from different cultures and cuisines and adds to the local
styles of cuisine that makes the experience unique for visitors. The traditional flavours and
ingredients have been playing an important role in the Turkish culinary heritage for
centuries. Turkish cuisine uses basic, fresh ingredients in a simple way. The most common
ingredients are probably: herbs and spices, onion, garlic, green peppers, tomatoes, paprika,
potatoes, and wide range of meats and last but not least the famous ground red pepper.
Paprika powders can differ in granulation, colour, and aroma and most significantly in
taste from sweet to tremendously hot. The natural abundance of fruits and vegetables make
eating in Turkey a delight.
In 2008 the Ankara Chamber of Commerce (ATO) and Ankara Patent Bureau have
conducted research on Turkey's various cuisines and prepared a taste map covering
hundreds of meals peculiar to 81 provinces of the country. The results of the research
indicates that Turkey is a ―delicious country‖ with its rich cuisine composed of more than
2.205 local meals and drinks. While the province of Gaziantep has the richest cuisine
comprising 291 different types of meals, sweets and drinks altogether, the province of
Elazığ is home of a rich cuisine with a total of 154 types of meals, desserts and drinks.
Another province, Ankara, the capital of Turkey, also has rich cuisine with 93 different
types of food.
Among the traditional desserts all around Turkey, Bolu's ―kedi batmaz‖ (cat will never
sink), ġanlıurfa's ―Ģıllık‖ (gaudily dressed woman), Kocaeli's ―otur Fatma‖ (sit down
381
Fatma), and Tokat's ―bacaklı çorba‖ (soup with legs) are just a few examples of sweets
with striking and absurd names. Central Anatolia is Turkey's richest region in terms of
cuisine thanks to 455 different types of food and drinks. Çiğ köfte (raw meatballs)
and künefe (sweet cheese pastry) are two types of food that is not peculiar to a single
cuisine but to cuisines in a number or provinces (http://www.
Hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438& n=turkish-press-scanner-2015-10-8).
On the South part of Turkey, Antakya (Antiocheia) is now a candidate UNESCO ―World
City of Gastronomy‖. Until now only three cities have been granted this title: Popayan in
Columbia, Chengdu in China and Ostersund in Sweden. The cuisine of the city with its
multi-religious, multi-cultural background and dishes is defined by a mixture of Anatolian,
French, Arabic and Nomadic cuisines. There are more than 600 dishes in Antakya where
three major religions and different cultures have coexisted for centruies. There are more
than 150 foods only for breakfast. The Antakya cuisine, defined mostly with
Mediterranean foods like, oil, butter, graines and legumes, mainly include bulgur (cracked
wheat), meat, spices, pomegranate syrup, pepper paste and salty yoghurt. Vegetable dishes
are cooked with lots of tomato paste and pepper. Naturally grown healing herbs like
kömeç, mint, parsley and thyme are used in dishes (TÜRSAB, 2015).
Although it‘s very important to have goods registered by geographical indication for
national and international promotions, Turkey only have 124 geographically indicated
nourishments. Traditional Ceremonial Keskek (2011), Mesir Paste (2012), Turkish Coffee
and Tradition (2013) are in the UNESCO‘s Intangible Cultural Heritage List. Central
Anatolia Region 455, South Eastern Anatolia Region 398, Black Sea Region 397,
Mediterraneanand Marmara Regions 184, and Aegean Region have 162 different types of
food and beverages. There are so many diverse cuisines in Turkey which have totally
different features from region to region have a big potential for culinary tourism. It only
needs positioning and effective marketing to be worldwide brands in international tourism
market (Kalpaklıoğlu, 2015).
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Cultural tourism is one of the largest and fastest-growing global tourism markets. Culture
is increasingly being used in order to promote destinations and improve their
competitiveness and attractiveness. Many destinations are now actively developing their
tangible and intangible cultural resources as a means of developing comparative
opportunities in an increasingly competitive tourism industry. According to the World
Tourism Organization, cultural tourism is growing globally at a rate of 15 % per year, and
at the same time 37 % of all trips nowadays contain a cultural component. Culinary
tourism, as part of the living culture of each destination, attracts masses of cultural
travelers and provides opportunities to create new tourism products and experiences.
Nowadays, two trends are fighting each other, namely internationalization of cuisines and
regionality. Local and traditional events and festivals are getting to be more valued and
appreciated. Therefore, people partly want to preserve their culture and taste, the flavours
and recipes of good old times, on the other hand they are also willing to try out something
totally new and unfamiliar like a guest when they are not at home. Food festivals and
events are considered to be large tourist attractions, are powerful tools for sharing culinary
experience, cultural and natural resources and developing the rural tourism market. In
addition, rural regions can be part of sustainability efforts and initiatives. Rural regions
could be defended, preserved, protected from risks of urbanization. They should be
382
properly managed in order that they could remain available for the visitors and an
economic use of all those living in the territory.The length of stay of travellers at the
destination could be extended and accordingly the expenditures. Collaboration between
locals and institutions could be maximized for regional advantage. The coordination of
public and private institutions to promote culinary tourism should be encouraged. (Milllan,
G. and et. all. 2014). Meetings between public and private entities should also be promoted
to coordinate the actions to be carried out to develop culinary tourism in Turkey.
Development of new visitor attractions related to culinary heritage and products like
farmers market, cookery schools and courses, cultural gastronomy tours, wine or olive oil
tasting and educational farms are possible alternatives. Travel agents and tour operators
that specialize in culinary tourism may offer insider tips and recommendations for creating
a custom itinerary based on the traveler's goals and budget. Travelers can choose from self-
guided tours, food demonstration events and cooking-lesson packages based on their
budget and destination. For example,there is increasing interest in olive oil products,
particularly in the health, beauty and leisure sectors. Many rural farms are combining their
production activities with tourism hospitality, offering guest accommodation and on-site
beauty centres, using their own olive-based cosmetic products and oils (Croce, E. & Perri,
G., 2011).
Regarding the marketing tools one must aware that the internet has become the main
channel of collecting travel information and booking recently. Nowadays travelers tend to
use it while they look for unique and fun dining venues and share later their experiences as
well. Therefore, the culinary service-providers, owners of restaurants and wine-cellars
must be familiar with the modern tools in order to evoke interest with the prospective
guests, provide the necessary information to them and allow them to make use of online
booking and purchase.
Farms could accept guests to experience the farming process and providing meal with the
local products directly from the farm. Travelers can have guided tours and meetings with
the food producers. They can also learn about the local coffee or tea culture by
participating in local people‘s houses. Activation of local culinary heritage, such as
traditional food fairs should be organised. A well-planned culinary tourist product can
respond to all the needs and offer excellent opportunities and experiences for the families
with children(Croce, E. & Perri, G., 2011).
For the development of culinary tourism in Turkey, a gastronomy map and tour routes can
be developed. Gastronomy routes can contribute the sustainability of tourism in different
regions. Round trips for gastronomy tours in the country can be organized like
archeological and cultural tours. These tours can be regional or round trips. The tourists
can taste and experience different delicacies from different regions. These tours can also be
backed with archeological and historical sites, like visiting Ephesus in the morning and
joining a workshop with lectures about old Helenistic or Roman cuisine or vegetable
dishes of Aegean Region. The fruits, vegetables, herbs, spices of the region can be tasted.
Ottoman cuisine can be experienced after visiting Topkapi Palace and other Ottoman
relics. Gastronomy tours with special themes can be organized like ―Tour of Ottoman
Cuisine‖ or ―Tour of Vegetable Dishes‖ (Kalpaklıoğlu, 2015).
In general culinary tourism can be regarded as a good way and as a niche market which
deserves key attention of the organizers and program developers because it increases
tourism generated and municipal tax revenues, maintains employment and creates new
jobs, contributes to growth potentials, economic and community developments of the
383
regions, diminishes regional economic disparities, induces local people to remain in their
region and finally looks for strategic partnerships.
Culinary TV programmes and films could support the culinary promotion of the country.
Education through documentation and preservation of the culinary heritage must be the
task of the locals and governmental bodies. In order to develop a culinary heritage product,
it is necessary to establish consequent services of the tourism industry, planned and
systematic marketing support provided not only by local bodies but also by regional and
country authorities.
The key success factors in culinary tourism are to continuously stimulate reactions of the 5
senses meaning sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch, to keep a diverse array of product
offers appealing to guest, to create memorable experiences and surprises, to have an
ongoing interactive communication with the guests in order to find out their future
expectations. As Sanches, et al. (2012) mention, culinary heritage provides a business card
from anywhere in the world and must be constantly reviewed and maintained by the local
community to make it a sustainable heritage.
Culture and tourism are two strongly interrelated notions, since the modern tourist –better
educated and cultured, with high demands- attempts to gratify new needs, among which is
the acquaintance with new cultures, customs and traditions on places of interest. In
parallel, the touristic exploitation of culture through its enhancement and promotion,
contributes significantly to the development of each cultural destination. Therefore, in the
recent years cultural tourism is one of the largest markets with rapid growth. Within this
tourism context, Turkey constitutes one of the classic tourism destinations of the
Mediterranean, by combining unique natural diversity and exceptional cultural heritage. In
the last years the need to develop alternative forms of tourism, especially sports, health,
cultural, religious and culinary tourismbecome apparent, where Turkey has an indisputable
advantage.
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REVITALISING COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM – CRITICAL
SUCCESS FACTORS
Nor Haniza Mohamad1

Zainab Khalifah2
Abstract: Community-based tourism projects are often criticised for its high rate of failure but
some are very successful.The primary aim of this study is to investigate the Critical Success Factors
(CSF) of a community-based tourism (CBT) project from the perspective of local community. This
study used a qualitative approach through a single case to investigate a CBT project in BatuPuteh,
Kinabatangan in the state of Sabah. Five fieldwork trips were made to collect data between the years
2010 to 2012. Multiple instruments were used to collect data; in-depth interview (main research
instrument), and direct observation and document analysis (supporting instruments). 54 respondents
that were/are employed by MESCOT on a full-time and part-time basis were identified through non-
probability purposive sampling technique and subsequently interviewed. Recorded interviews were
transcribed and then analysed using thematic analysis. The findings revealed that there are
prominent CSF attributable to the success of CBT at the study site; iconic natural resources, external
initiator, systematic planning, local champion, community participation, local CBT organization,
gestation period, partnership with external agencies, and business model. Partnerships between CBT
and government or non-government agencies are crucial throughout the lifecycle of CBT. Equally
important, this study shows that CSFs are presentable in temporal form; each factor exists / occurs
at a particular stage of the development path of CBT. However, a few critical factors are ubiquitous
throughout the different stages of the product life cycle. Although the case study referred to a single
CBT organization in Malaysia, the findings substantiate that an effective model for CBT is
achievable, replicable and applicable to other places with similar enabling environments.
Key words: community-based tourism, critical success factors, iconic natural resources, external
initiator, systematic planning, local champion, community participation, local CBT organization,
gestation period, partnership with external agencies, and business model
INTRODUCTION
RevitalisingRural Economy through Community Based Tourism
In many developing countries, community-based tourism (CBT) is commonly chosen as

a‗low-capital, high yield‘strategy to revitalize rural economy (Gunduz and Hatemi-J, 2005;
Briedenhann and Wickens, 2004; MacDonald and Joliffe, 2003; Sharpley, 2002; Tooman,
1997; Hjalager, 1996) by tapping on tourists desire to see the haves not. CBT can be
generally described as profit-oriented tourism activity, project or enterprise that is based on
local socio-cultural/heritage, natural resources and attractions located on the local
community‘s land or its vicinity, which involves local community as managers or/and
operators.
More often than not, Community Based Tourism (CBT) is regarded as a panacea for rural
poverty given that CBT is often perceived as being small scale, low density, low impact,
controlled by the local community and generates direct economic benefits to the
community. What is becoming standard practice especially in developing countries is the
1
Principal Lecturer, Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Politeknik Ibrahim Sultan, Pasir
Gudang, Malaysia.
2
Professor, Faculty of Management, University Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia.
387
almost uncritical acceptance of CBT as the source of livelihood for local communities
living within or surrounding protected areas. However, several researches have revealed
that CBT despite the nature of the project is relatively easy to start but difficult to sustain
and sometimes fail to generate significant economic benefits for the local people
(Friederike Luck, 2010; Ghasemi and Hamzah, 2010; Hamzah, 2010; Goodwin and
Santilli, 2009; Hamzah and Khalifah, 2009; Goodwin, 2006).
In a nutshell, previous studies have discussed critical factors that contributed to the failure
or success of CBT programmes particularly from the perspectives of CBT managers and
experts. However, the views of the local community on what makes a CBT successful
were understudied despite them being a central component of CBT. The lack of insights
from the locals‘ point of view as the main driver of any CBT could lead to premature
interpretation of CSF and thus a mismatch with strategic planning efforts. This paper
explains why and how CBT projects in Malaysian can succeed by investigating the critical
success factors using a successful conservation-based CBT called Miso Walai Homestay
(MWH) located in Kinabatangan, Sabah for contextual setting.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Some researchers have criticised community-based tourism for failing to deliver

significant economic, socio-cultural or environmental impacts (Goodwin and Santilli,
2009; Harrison, 2008; Blackstock, 2005; Clauzel, 2001; Brockelman, 1988). A few
researches have revealed that CBT are unsuccessful due to local community‘s over
dependency on donor agency (Kiss, 2004); rivalry with dominant forms of tourism
development (Renard, 2001);overwhelming negative impacts (Moscardo, 2005); low
tourist arrivals (Responsible Travel.com and Conservation International, 2006); over
dependency on donor fund (Mitchell and Muckosy; 2008); propagation of a handout
mentality, lack of adequate markets, and vague definition of CBT (Goodwin and Santilli,
2009); absence of genuine CBT local champion (Federico, 2009); and narrow income
distribution among community members (Blackstock, 2005;Belsky, 1999).
METHODOLOGY
Five fieldwork trips were made to collect data between the years 2010 to 2012. Multiple
instruments were used to collect data; in-depth interview (main research instrument), and
direct observation and document analysis (supporting instruments). 54 respondents that
were/are employed by MESCOT, the team which manages MWH, on a full-time and part-
time basis were identified through non-probability purposive sampling technique and
subsequently interviewed. Recorded interviews were transcribed and then analysed using
thematic analysis based on the critical success factor themes gathered from literature
review.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Broad-based Local CBT Organization
Local CBT organization refers to a body,which manages and operates the CBT programme
on a daily basis.Community cooperative is a form of a broad-based organization that can
be used as a business model to run a CBT project. It is deemed as better able to protect the
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interests of its members through the provisions of a supportive legal framework. MWH is
run by a broad-based local CBT organization/community cooperative which is closely
associated to its success. A cooperative business model has several merits which fit into
the nature of the CBT project: enables the local people who are its shareholders to decide
the future of CBT;ability to curb potential manipulation from local elites; ensure
accountability and transparency of CBT‘s operations and in redistribution of income;
‗legalising‘ a CBT initiative by putting it as a cooperative‘s business unit.Thisgradually
pushesthe outright resistance from the local peopleto the background and subsequently
expedites the ‗buy-in‘ processfromthe local community.However, continuous
communication to the local community through various means (community leader,
meeting, CBT bulletin, social conversation) proved to be effective in expediting
community buy-in, although the process is slow.
Fig. 1. Strengthening CBT organization through community cooperative

Source: Researcher, 2014
It is cautioned that adopting cooperative business model does not promise sustainable
success. When a community establishes a cooperative, its board of directors is obliged to
create economic activities that benefit its members. However, running a business may be
quite challenging for a rural community. Sometimes community cooperative is established
but the cooperative is not ready in terms of capital to finance its economic activities. In
addition, rural communities tend to have higher composition of older people who naturally
389
have limited capacity due to the age factor and this can undoubtedly limit their
commitment in any economic ventures. The various conditions related to the establishment
and sustainability of a community cooperative are probably overwhelming which have
resulted in the sluggish adoption of a cooperative business model by CBT communities.
Therefore, it is not overemphasizing to say that CBT project demands people with the right
vision, mind-set, attitude, knowledge and skills; sound planning and implementation
blueprint; strong financial assistance;and viable CBT economic activities.Fig. 1.shows the
interactions between a community cooperative and its CBT business unit based on MHW
experience
CBT Leaders
Another important finding of this study revolves around the roles of CBT leaders. The
findings of the study contribute insights towards a better understanding of laudable traits
and values of CBT leaders, local or non-local, who manage a CBT project.
The importance of CBT leaders and leadership is evidenced by APEC study that focussed
on best practices of ten modelsof community based tourism projects in Asia-Pacific
regions (Hamzah&Khalifah, 2009) which surmised that almost all successful CBTs were
initiated by outsiders such as donors/NGOs, government agencies and the private sector,
and championed by local leaders. The finding in MWH concurs with the APEC study. The
development of the physical aspects of CBT projects must go in tandem with the
development of CBT leaders/local champions. The presence or the lack of leadership
decides the fate of the project. In MWH case, respondents‘ emphasized on the role of
external project initiator in the success of the MWH CBT program which underlines the
importance of visionary and capable leaders particularly in the early stage of CBT
development. If the leader is an outsider, it is essential that his personal characteristics,
leadership orientation, knowledge and skills are compatible with the community‘s values
and needs. These enable the external leader to be generally accepted by the local people
into their community and culture.
In cases where external leaders prominently lead CBT during incubation period, local
champions have to be groomed as second line of leaders to eventually take the baton from
the external leaders. External leader will leave the project when his/her contract expires
which makes the presence and role of a local champion imperative. The mere presence of a
local champion in a CBT project is not enough. A local champion must demonstrate
leadership attributes and values that can professionally bring the CBT project forward.
Hamzah and Khalifah (2009) who studied ten successful CBT projects in Asia Pacific
region pointed out in their study that attributes of a ‗local champion‘ include
trustworthiness, perseverance, selflessness, patience, good communicator, disciplined,
resourceful, visionary, proactive, courageous, and sensible. MWH leaders possess these
traits and values. It is worth pointing out that social capital, social hierarchy and
knowledge are useful assets to a local champion. A local personwho is prominent, has
higher social hierarchy and extensive blood ties within the local community, and
knowledgeablecan usually be a strong leader.
Incubation Timeframe
Another interesting finding that can be considered as practical contribution is pertinent to

the issue of gestation period of CBT projects. UNDP recommends a five-year gestation
390
period for community-based projects to achieve maturity (Moeurnet al. 2008) but this
duration is refuted by some quarters claiming that it is inadequate.MWH experience
reveals the necessity to have a stretched incubation period to accommodate the learning
curve of the local people who were directly involved in the process of developing MHW
CBT project.
In CBT practise, it is common for donor agencies to initiate, develop and fund a CBT
project in a rural area for duration of three to five years, after which the donor agencies or
management team will leave the projects due to expired contracts or dried up funds. This
‗incubation‘ period serves as a trial period for the local community to learn all the ropes of
the trade so that they are able to take up the project on their own when external agencies
leave. The three to five-year duration of incubation period, common to other non-CBT
businesses, is deemed to be adequate to prepare the local community to run CBT project
on their own when the donor agencies leave. However, many CBT projects have shown
that such incubation period is inadequate to prepare the local people with the knowledge
and skills to manage and operate a CBT project. Many communities needed a longer
incubation period. For example, the incubation period for a CBT project in Simango,
Zambia was ten years (Sakala, 2004). MWH took almost fourteen years to break away
from being highly dependent on donor agencies for financial support and technical
assistance.
Donor/charity agencies, government agencies, and corporations need to revise their
involvement in CBT projects. Communities involved in CBT projects are known to have a
long learning curve, exceeding the usual three to five years incubation window. Sometimes
what happen is that all the necessary ingredients for a successful CBT recipe are there such
as the potentials anddesire to succeed. However, there is just a huge gap between NGO
thinking, corporate thinking, government thinking, and what the needs of the community
are. Stakeholders must thoroughly listen to the local people, consider the local
community‘s relationship with the land and their development agenda. The shortcoming of
involving NGO, government, or industry sometimes stems from their need for publicity.
Therefore, instead of imposing ideas on the local community, external agencies should
believe that the local people have some wisdom on the ground. Perhaps, the new thinking
that should be adopted by donor agencies is to grow with the local community, and
acknowledge that the learning curve of a community differs from one another. Donor
agencies that want to commit to a community project have to follow through the
community‘s learning process. A longer gestation period will have a better impact on some
local communities who may need an extended learning curve.
Capacity Building
Another practical contribution of this study concerns the capacity building process.
Continuous capacity building process that takes place throughout the CBT life cycle is
essentially significant. MWH experience contributes to the understanding of capacity
building in CBT project.
It is emphasized that the development of the physical aspects of CBT projects must go in
tandem with capacity building programmes for the local community to participate
effectively in CBT projects. Capacity building enables rural communities to participate in
rural tourism activities (Forstner, 2004). In many instances, CBT projects gradually falter
after the donor agencies left. This is associated with the local community‘s over reliance
on the donor agency/NGO for financial support and technical assistance which resulted in
391
underdevelopment of tourism related knowledge and skills among the local community.
Due to the over reliance on outside help, the local community‘s limited capacity could not
prepare them to take over the management and operation of their own CBT projects. This
issue was poignantly evident as in the case of CBT projects in Cambodia, where economic
crisis in Europe had forced the Dutch donor SNV to abandon their projects due to the
abrupt termination of funding (Baromey et al., 2011).
The failure of local community to take part in CBT project at managerial level or
operational level is their over-reliance on donors for financial support and technical
expertise which resulted in a ‗hand out mentality‘ (Hamzah&Khalifah, 2009). This can
negatively affect the local community‘s ability to plan, monitor and operate their CBT
project when the donor agencies leave. Hall (2005) associated the failure of community
members to capitalize on the opportunities arising from the development due to the lack of
awareness and understanding the cause for the tourism development. However,
contradictory to common practices in unsuccessful CBT projects, MWH puts great
emphasis on building the capacity of the local people from the start of the project to make
sure they can meaningfully participate in CBT activities.MWH had taken a dynamic
approach in building the capacity of the local people through a systematic plan. The first
three years was deemed as the most crucial period of capacity building process. The
management team built the capacity of its members for three years from 1996 until 1999 to
increase awareness, knowledge and skills of the community. The success ofMWH has
always been associated with this long process of capacity building that had empowered the
local people with the needed attitude, skills and knowledge to embrace change.
At the beginning of the project, MWH management team painstakingly invested
substantial efforts in strengthening community‘s awareness, knowledge and skills, built
through formal and informal learning activities, which enable those directly involved in
CBT to understand and appreciate quality tourism product and services. Experiential
learning process was used where CBT employees went on trips to visit top-ranked tourism
attraction sites and service providers to experience these products and services so that they
can understand the meaning of quality tourism products and services. The participants
claimed that these activities were significant; they were ‗eye-openers‘ particularly for those
who had never had the opportunities visiting well-known attraction sites and outstanding
services. Gradually, their understanding and appreciation of quality, knowledge, and skills
improved through continuous capacity building programmes.Similarly, other CBT projects
should also adopt experiential learning in their capacity building programmes. Fig.
2.depicts the process and main components of capacity building programme.
Despite efforts and resources allocated for capacity building, the outcomes take time to
transpire (Moscardo, 2005). Due to some limitation associated to rural communities,
particularly economic and socio-cultural aspects, it is appropriate to expect that donor or
state agencies may have to take a long time to develop a community in term of capacity
building. The question is whether donor or state agencies are willing to venture into
capacity building partnership with the local people when they know it would take a long
time thus imminent failure.
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Fig. 2.Main components of capacity building programme
Local Participation
Literature suggests that the sustainability of CBT project is associated with many factors;
one of them is local community‘s participation in the project. The finding of this study
supports the claim because this study reveals that sustainability of CBT project in
BatuPuteh has much to do with the willingness of the local community to get involved
directly and indirectly in the CBT programme.
Given that the majority of CBT projects initiated by international donors/NGOs are driven
by the conservation agenda, the economic performance or livelihood of the local
communities are often not given adequate attention (Hamzah, 2010; Butcher 2007).
However, MWH has proven that conservation-based CBT project can generate substantial
economic benefits for the local people. At MWH, an employee who earned a monthly
income of RM460 in the 1990s was earning RM2000 a month in 2013.Over the years, the
amount and number of recipients of CBT income has continuously increased. This was the
main reason why local people continue to be supportive of CBT activities at MWH.
Another interesting finding that contributes to the understanding of local participation is
motivation. In the case of MWH, the motivation of the local community particularly the
pioneers to establish a CBT project in 1997 were intrinsically driven. The motivation to
participate in CBT stemmed from shared values and similar life experience. The economic
difficulties faced by the local people in the 1990s were part of the daily dialogue that the
local youths became aware of the hardship that their community was facing.
393
Understandably, the youths of this close-knit community that is bound by blood ties and
marriage,and formal and informal social hierarchical structures was hooked to the sense of
responsibility to improve the livelihood of the local community. This sense of
responsibility later transpired in a CBT project. Fig. 3.shows the types of local
community‘s participation in CBT project.
Fig. 3. Types of local community‘s participation in CBT project
Effective Partnership
Partnership with external agencies has commonly been instrumental in the early stage of
CBT development (Hockings, et. al., 2000). Hence, developing a strong partnership with
state agencies, donor agencies, and tour operators would help mitigate problems that may
arise along the supply-demand value chain such as lack of knowledge and skills, lack of
capital, and lack of tourist supply.
A lot of lessons on partnership can be learnt from MWH. Firstly, donor agencies are
usually more responsive compared to government agencies in helping to establish CBT
project. Due to flexibility in organizational procedures NGOs would be able to respond to
394
financial, technical and advisory needs of local communities at a much faster rate
compared to government agencies. However, sometimes these forms of supports especially
financial assistance are not sustainable because they are tied to funding ‗timeframe‘. Seed
fund is usually adequate to carry out only during preliminary research or initial
groundwork, but not the subsequent development activities that demand larger amount of
money.
Secondly, efforts to establish partnership with relevant parties may be hampered by
historically strained relationship between the local community and external agencies.
MWH faced this problem with the forestry state agency. In the attempt to enforce
conservation policy, the latter restricted entry into the jungles which has been a source of
livelihood for the local people. What ensued was illegal entry by the local people into the
forested areas, which in turn compelled the authorities to take action against these
offenders, and created further detestation on both sides. However, this issue was finally
resolved when a mediator was brought in to facilitate communication between both parties.
Thirdly, establishing amicable partnership that pivots on national agenda to turn a forested
area into a protected area is a formidable task for state agencies and demands adequate
enforcement capacity. A forested area can be gazetted but its enforcement is more difficult
to translate on the ground. Some major barriers to enforce conservation policy usually
come from the enforcement agencies that are often shorthanded with manpower to cover a
large area. This usually gives the local community, who has an upper hand in terms of
knowledge about their forest and escape routes, the opportunities to continue entering the
forest illegally without being caught by the enforcement unit. Another barrier towards
effective implementation of protected area is the lack of resources to finance expenses
related to enforcement activities. The distance of the enforcement unit base that is far from
the protected area requires substantial logistics and monetary support to pay for fuel and
salary for over-time / outstation forestry staff.
Fourthly, conservation effort is difficult when there is little ‗buy-in‘ from the local
community; to them it makes little sense how protecting a forest can save humankind when
their own livelihoods are at stake. Preserving biodiversity becomes a mockery for its
superiority over preserving community‘s livelihood. Trust in external agencies and their
conservation effort is compromised unless the local community can see the substitutes for
their lost sources of incomes. However, many cases have shown that gradually, locals‘
trust can be reinstalled when the local people can see that there is a synergy between the
conservation and benefits distribution to the local community. However, overtime many
agencies have realized that the interface from non-protected to protected forest can be
expedited, and conflict between agency and local community can be minimized through
community forestry, as evident in BatuPuteh.
Finally, establishing strong and dynamic partnerships with other key stakeholders are
essential in moving up CBT along the value chain (Hamzah&Khalifah 2009). Such
partnerships will pave the way for CBT to gradually become a mainstream rather than
remain a niche tourism product. Partnership is essential in building the capacity of the rural
communities which often lack resources, skills and knowledge to adapt to the changing
economic landscape. Prior to establishing a partnership, the first impetus towards change
should come from the community itself, not from an external organization. This
demonstrates that the community is ready to embrace change because learning and
capacity building have been proven to take place effectively when the local community is
ready. Partners who are willing to commit to the partnership have to be true to the
engagement and they have to address the local community‘s needs and concerns.
395
Of late, more agencies, public or private are gradually learning and accepting that the
approach to develop the rural community has to change. While some policies and systems
may be rigid, there is room for innovative partnership that allows flexibility for the benefit
of the local community. Stability in partnership is needed in order to create real change and
therefore partnership has to be sustainable until the job is completed. In a partnership,
emphasis should be placed on promoting sustainable ecological co-existence through
engagement with local communities, government, donor agencies, the general public, and
industry. In the process, it is imperative to build meaningful and effective partnerships and
collaborations that are transformative yet able to balance the needs of all stakeholders. In
short, when partnership involves a local community, the wisdom should come from the
ground because the local community with their indigenous wisdom can expedite learning.
It is more organic compared to stipulating what the community needs to do base on what
outsiders viewed as good for them.
CONCLUSION
Any community involved in CBT would have the upper hand to plan, strategize, monitor,
and evaluate their CBT programmeif they know and understand the CSF of CBT.
Subsequently, they would be better-able to plan and strategize actions to develop the
programme at an appropriate juncture throughout the CBT life cycle. In essence this shares
several critical success factors that are instrumental in ensuring that a conservation-based
CBT project such as MWH is economically successful. The critical success factors for
MWH have been modelled by investigating and linking their achievements to either
exogenous or endogenous factors. Based on the findings, the critical success factors could
be presented in a temporal form, meaning that each factor occurs at a particular stage of the
development path of MWH. Motivation to establish a CBT project is paramount because it
gets the project going. However, community participation will continue so long the
community get what they expected from the project. Where critical factor is concerned,
each factor acts as a catalyst or trigger for the next stage of development or evolution. Fig.
4.shows the framework for CSF of CBT project based on MWH experience.
396
Fig. 4. The framework for CSF of CBT project
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EVALUATION OF TOURISM POTENTIAL IN DOGANKENT DISTRICT
IN GIRESUN
Işık Sezen1
Emine Patan2
Abstract: Tourism is defined to be the combination of events and relationships resulting from the
travels and accommodation for temporary human activities lasting from at least two days to two
years with the aims of performing activities like work, recreation, entertainment, experiencing
different cultures and living styles and sport. There is absolutely a significant relationship between
tourism and natural-cultural source values. Tourism can gain a shape in an area depending largely
on natural and cultural source values there.
Turkey has multi-form and colored landscape diversity changing from city to city and region to
region due to its natural characteristics like vegetation cover, climate, topography and soil structure
and its cultural richness caused by the factors such as traditions and customs, folkloric and
settlement features.
Color and form offered by the landscape in Blacksea region change into different colors and forms
in East Anatolia and Aegean regions. Such diversity in landscape can offer possibility for also
tourism.
In the present study, the district of Doğankent in the province of Giresun located in Blacksea region
is evaluated. In the scope of the study, surveys were conducted in study area between 2011 and
2014 and natural and cultural values tried to be evaluated. It was determined according to the field
surveys on natural and cultural reserves of Doğankent that the area may offer important
opportunities for culture, gastronomy, flora, winter, nature and 3plateau tourism and should be
evaluated for these tourism types.
Key words: Tourism, Doğankent, Giresun, East Blacksea Region, Turkey
INTRODUCTION
Derived from Latin word tornus, tourism expresses any type of travels, going around and
moving from one location to another. Since travel and sightseeing require some expenses,
tourismis an area creating possibilities of employment and bringing foreign currency for
countries. Therefore, growth performed in any size in tourism sectordirectly affects
national economies. In this respect, a need to diversify touristic activities has been on the
agenda in order to increase the attractiveness and sustainability of tourism and its share in
inter/national market (Kasalak, 2015).Tourism was defined by United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP) in 1963 to be all the events and relationships resulting from
the travels and temporary and not income generating accommodationsfor at least 24 hours
(Tolungüç 1999).Formation of different cultures at different locations can create points in
the world combining culture and geography and developing tourism. The simplest and
basic definition of tourism is the travels and accommodations performed for the formation
of different cultures, knowing these cultures, recreation and entertainment, sightseeing and
seeing and learning different cultures and locations (Emekli, 2006).
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Design,
University of Atatürk, Erzurum, Turkey.
2
Research Assistant, Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Ġstanbul
Technical University, Ġstanbul, Turkey.
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For Turkey, active international (incoming) tourism has been improving since especially
1980s. With the economic program put into effect in 1985, tourism was included in the
financially supported and promoted sectors and through the increased amount of
investments in the field the sector turned out to be one of the sources contributing greatly
to national economy (Çil Yavuz, 2006).
Depending on globalisation as in the other sectors in the world tourism also faced some
gradual changes. Some new trends in the world based on demands are history, health,
nature, culture and rural tourism. Countries or regions supplying such touristic potentials
can achieve socioeconomic development in especially rural through the policies they made
depending on touristic demand. Turkey can be counted among such countries since it can
offer several alternatives due to its geographical location for history, health, culture and
rural tourism (Çeken et al., 2007).
It is known that increasing trend of sought for alternative tourism activities from 1990s all
over the world and the challenges for the diversification of tourism types confirmed that
Turkey shelters potentials for nearly all tourism types to develop based on natural,
historical and cultural attractiveness (Emekli, 2005).Turkey is rich in the existence of
historical, cultural and natural beauties. The number of countries is not much where four
seasons can be seen in the world. When all the factors are combined, a unique and
excellent diversity is created in the country. In such richness and diversity, rural areas are
the combination area of cultural and natural beauties (Gökalp and Yazgan, 2013).In the
present study, the district of Doğankent in official border of Giresun province in East
Blacksea Region of Turkey is evaluated and it was determined according to filed surveys
carried out between 2011 and 2014 that natural and cultural resource values the district
owns can offer possibility for especially plateau tourism, history and culture, flora,
gastronomy, winter, sports and water based tourism activities and some suggestions were
proposed for the sustainability of tourism activities in the area.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Main material of the study dealing with the determination of tourism and recreational
potentials of Doğankent (Giresun) district and its close proximity according to landscape
planning principles is the district itself (Figure 1).
Total surface area of the district Doğankent, located in official border of Giresun province
(40°46′N 38°55′E), is nearly 123 km2 and its elevation is 190 m.In the scope of the present
study, first, natural and cultural landscape inventory of the study area and a database were
prepared. After that, distribution of existing tourism destinations, touristic possibilities,
infrastructure and related problems were evaluated to determine present tourism potentials
of the study area. Method of the study includes the determination of the aim, choosing
study area, literature review, data collection, inventorying natural and cultural source
values in the area, determination of existent tourism potentials and after all the evaluations,
the determination of proposed tourism types.
401
Fig. 1. Study material
FINDINGS
Thissection will mention about the source values and suitable areas existing in the study
area for history and culture, gastronomy, winter, nature, plateau and sport tourism, touristic
infrastructure and possibilities and the regions declared to be tourism centre.
1. Plateau Tourism
Plateau festivals are held in Doğankent in summer months, which have great contributions
to the development of tourism in the area and are evaluated to be the time period and
events when people away from their homeland can have opportunity to meet their
relatives. A number of people participate in the summer festivals (Table 1).Harmancık
Plateau Festival is among such festivals held in summer months with high participation
(Figure 1).
Tab. 1. Social activities performed in summer months in the area

Name of the festival Month Area
Summer festivals August Doğankent
Güvenlik Village Spring Festival June Doğankent-Güvende Village
Harmancık Plateau Festival August Doğanken Harmancık Plateau
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Fig. 1. Harmancık festival
Traditional life style examples from Doğankent plateaus are given in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. Traditional life in Doğankent plateaus
KayabaĢı is the closestplateau to Doğankent and at an elevation of 2000 m. It has the

largest plain area among East Blacksea Plateaus and unique beauty. It also attracts
attentions with its floristic characteristics (Figure 3) and offers suitable areas for
excursions, picnic activities, grass skiing, mountaineering and climbing and shelters steep
cliffs, strong and carpet – like turf surface surrounded by rhododendrons, spruce, fir and
hornbeam trees.
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Fig. 3. Overviews from KayabaĢı plateau
YaĢmaklı–AğaçbaĢı plateau, 25 km south of Doğankent district centre, is at an elevation of

1900 m and used by locals staying there in nearly 200 houses from May to October and
occupying small scale livestock breeding. The area is covered with hornbeam tree,
redwoods and pine trees (Anonymous 2011).
Dandi Tepealan plateau, 17 km south of Doğankent district centre, breaking point in the
old days for locals going up plateaus and now used as picnicand recreation area by people
living in SüttaĢı neighbourhood (Anonymous 2011).
Bonyurt plateau is hidden in a forest and used by people living in Güvenlik village and
Yeni Mahalle neighbourhood. It has borders with several other plateaus and is used by
people not only staying in plateau but also living in other areas.
The plateau gets sun early in the morning but in the afternoon it is densely foggy and a
summer day may turn into an autumn day. When fog disperses it leaves its place a
fascinating beauty(Figure 4).
Fig. 4. Overview from Bonyurt plateau
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2. History and culture tourism
The study area full of various types of historical remains and cultural elements belonging
to various civilisations attracts attentions for history and culture. The area contributed to
Turkish cultural life both in Seljukians and Ottoman and Republic periods.
Fortresses (e.g. those called Dandi, ġadı and Tıngır) located in the border of Doğankent are
accepted to be potential source values for history and culture tourism.
In the 1st World War years, the area witnessed the defence of Turkish army and great
number of soldiers were killed in the war. In recent years, during the construction of a
road, bodies of these soldiers were found and some martyrdoms have been constructed.
These martyrdoms (e.g. Akdoğan, Kabaktepe, Abadan Plateau, Turna Hill, Güvende,
Masur Plateau, HarĢit and Aslancık) are visited by tens of people each year and counted
among the important sites for history tourism.
Historical Russian Road with a length of 6 km and paved with stones is 22 km away from
Doğankent city centre, at an elevation of 1383 m and a view of north west. It was once
used to reach mines and carry the materials to the coast.
Due to geographical conditions, settlement type is dispersed housing. People growing plant
and animal have transformed the suitable areas into field to produce plant and basement
level of their houses were also used for animal shelter. Animal breeding is only performed
limited to meet the need of a family. Since urban people did not disconnect with their
relatives in rural / villages, most of the traditions are alive today in cities. Figure 5
represents the samples from traditional life.
Traditional village wedding Rope weaving Traditional village kitchen

ceremony
Women carrying woods Moving to plateau Weeding meal

Fig. 5. View from traditional life
Traditional clothes for men are typical of Blacksea region involving a kind coat, shirt,
pants, black cap, and specially designed boats and some accessories such as belt, knife or
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gun while for women, under-shirt, shirt, three folded skirt, breast cloth, cloak, a type of
pants, belt, cap, head cover, wool socks and leather shoes.
3. Gastronomy Tourism
Nut is grown in Doğankent and used in various types of food. Pastries (salty and seweet)
take place in the cusine culture of the area. The most famous dish called ―Siron‖ is made of
phyllo dough (thin dough plates). Deserts made of dough (burma and baklava) are also
traditionally most consumed. Fried pickled grape and other pickle types, boiled and filled
black mustard and corn bread are unique to the area (Figure 6).
Siron Burma dessert and baklava Fried grape pickle
Filled black mustard Pickle Corn bread

Fig. 6. Traditional dishes of Doğankent
Cherry and cheese are saved for winter use while some fish can be saved for summer by
salting. Beet soup, filled corn, fired cherry pickle, bean pickle and corn bread are among
the famous and unique dishes.
4. Winter tourism
Snow depth increase due to the elevation and climate of the area. Some climatic
parameters like snowy period and depth of snow cover show the suitability of the area for
winter tourism. However, the area has no winter tourism facilities.
5. Water based tourism
Several waterfalls and creeks are present in the area. Water based activities like fish
hunting can be performed in creeks. Çatalağaç Waterfall, Erik creek and DoymuĢ waterfall
are among the important water sources. Karagöl at the end of DoymuĢ waterfall on HarĢit
creek is suitable for swimming and its surrounding is used for recreation activities.
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6. Flora Tourism
The area is very rich in plant diversity by representing the plant cover prevalent in East
Blacksea Region. Between the elevations of 800 to 1200 m, tree species take place like
oriental spruce (Picea orientalis), Scotch pine (Pinus silvestris), fir (Abies nordmannian),
ash (Fraxinus orientalis), oak (Quercus robur). Above 2000 m, alpine belt species can be
seen like Laurocerasus officinalis, Rhododendron sp, daphnia(Laurus nobilis), boxwood
(Buxus sempervirens).
Grassy plants mostly seen in plateaus are Ajuga orientalis, Colchichum sp., Anthemis sp.,
Daphne glomerata Lam., Primula elatior L., Rhondodendron ponticum L. and Taraxacum
sp. (Figure 7).
Fig. 7. Some plant species in the area
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7. Source values for the sport tourism
Hunting is an indispensable hobby for wild animal diversity, vast hunting areas, long
winters and people‘s interest. Study area, 89% of which is made of mountains and plains
offers periodic or permanent hunting possibility.
7.1. Trekking:the area is suitable for people who desire to run away from crowded and
noisy urban life and spend a day in nature and share beauties in nature.
7.2. Orienteering:It requires finding direction using a map in a certain tie period.
Although it is possible to make this sport under different surface conditions forests are
preferred more. Study area is rich in forest area.
7.3. Mountain marathon:This sport type requires walking or running for long in steep
land, resistance and finding direction. Study area offers suitable areas for this sport with its
topographic features.
7.4. Flatwater motorboat races and other water sports:Such races can be performed on
flatwater or slowly running water surfaces, which can be offered by lakes deeper than 80
cm and facing windless weather. Windless, calm, protected bays or slowly moving rivers
can be used for this sport. In the area HarĢit creek and Kavraz stream meet these criteria.
7.5. Mountaineering:The area offers suitable routes for mountaineering with the
roughness beginning from 190 mclimbing up to3320 m.
7.6. Jeep-Safari; the area owns important value sources for jeep-safari with bent, narrow,
exciting and steep roads passing through the plateaus.
RESULTS
Existent and proposed tourism potentials were determined in the study as the results of the
observations and data evaluated. Doğankent attracts attention with its plateaus. Therefore,
plateau tourism is in the first row among the tourism activities in the area. Due to the
festivals frequently held in plateaus festival tourismis also forefront.
Historical and cultural diversity and traditional dietary habits present possibilities for
history and culture and gastronomy tourism. Cold winter conditions are prevalent in
plateaus and temperatures are very low and the number of snowy days is large. These
conditions are accepted to be potentials for winter tourism. The area also shelters high
biodiversity rate and therefore has potentials for flora tourism, plant, bird and butterfly
watching and photo -safari.
For the water based activities the area offers potentials with its natural structure for the
sportive activities e.g. hunting fish with line, nature sports, hunting, trekking, orienteering,
paragliding, mountain marathon, motorboat races and other water sports, mountaineering,
jeep-safari, horse riding in nature and mountain biking.In addition, the area is suitable for
camping and caravan tourism and agro- tourism.
REFERENCES
1. Anonymous (2011): Giresun Çevre Durum Raporu, Ankara.

2. Çeken, H., Karadağ, L., Dalgın, T. (2007). Kırsal Kalkınmada Yeni Bir YaklaĢım
Kırsal Turizm Ve Türkiye‘ye Yönelik Teorik Bir ÇalıĢma. Artvin Çoruh
Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 8 (1), 1-14.
408
3. Çil Yavuz, N., (2006): Test For The Effect Of Tourism Receipts On Economic
Growth In Turkey: Structural Break And Causality Analysis, Dogus University
Journal, 7 (2): 162-171.
4. Emekli, G., (2005): The Policies of the Tourism in European Union and Cultural
Tourism in Turkiye. Aegean Geographical Journal, 14: 99-107.
5. Emekli, G., (2006): Geography, Culture and Tourism: Cultural Tourism. Aegean
Geographical Journal, 15: 51-59.
6. Kasalak, M.A., (2015): Ecotourism Market In The World And Contributions To
The State Income Of Ecotourism, Journal of Recreation and Tourism Research,
2(2):20-26.
7. Gökalp, D.D., Yazgan, M.E., (2013): Rural Landscape Planning in Agro-
Tourism and Agri-Tourism. Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey
UniversityJournalofSocialand Economic Research, 15 (24): 25-29.
8. Tolungüç, A., (1999): Turizm Olgusu ve Türk Turizmi. Ankara: Mediacat
Yayınları
409
ABSENCE OF RATE PARITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES IN HOTEL
INDUSTRY
Naci Polat1
Abstract:Rate parity is one of the most important questions of hotel industry in different countries.
It is described as a strategy which offers same rate with same conditions for a certain room category
in all sales channels at the same time. In this study, positive and negative characteristics of rate
parity will be explored. Before this process, marketing instruments and general characteristics of
marketing will be underlined. Especially, price policy has an important position in marketing mix.
Price strategies such as high price strategy, low price strategy and market price strategies will be
examined where price differentiation has a crucial role. Price policy targets are consisted of
financial, volume and customer objectives and rate parity can be found within the rate stability
under customer objectives. Shortly, rate stability consists of sum of rate unity, rate transparency and
rate parity. Here, the absence of rate parity is questioned and described which is the main discussion
topics of hotel industry with qualitative methods. As a result, pros and cons of rate parity will be put
in order with the findings of this study and recommendations will be made for the hotel sector. Rate
parity will be more understandable for young researchers in order to increase their interest about this
special topic.
Key words: Marketing Instruments, Price strategies, Rate parity, Hotels
1. INTRODUCTION
The issue of room pricing over several distribution channels have been discussedfor a long
time but it did not become main research topic under the rate parity (Rutherford; O‘Fallon
2007). There have been long discussions and legal decisions about rate parity in Europe
since online bookings gained important role in the hotel industry. Ever changing
environment and decisions makes this study ready for qualitative search. In this study, the
position of pricing policy with similiar aspects theoretically will be underlined. After this
process, the practical discussions in Europe about rate parity will be introduced and it will
be analyzed how rate parity affects hotels and customers. Large companies are mostly
active on the web and their size allows them to have technical expertise and financial
resources(Rutherford; O‘Fallon 2007). Small hotels do not have same advantages and they
are mostly unarmed against big companies. It is now possible to understand whether rate
parity is a protection wall or barrier for customers and hotel.
2. GENERAL FEATURES OF MARKETING MIX
In 1960, E. Jerome McCarthy introduced marketing mix first time with four Ps
classifications. It showed companies how they bring their services to the market.
According to Kotler, marketing mix is set of controllable variables that the company can
use to influence the customer‘s feedback. Here, pricing policy as the part of marketing mix
will be introduced within traditional and new Ps (Kotler; Bowen;Makens 1996).
1
Assist. Professor, Tourism Faculty, University of Pamukkale, Denizli, Turkey / Visiting
Researcher at Hasselt University, IMOB, Diepenbeek, Belgium.
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2.1 The traditional 4 P’s and new 3 P’s
The four P‘s can be showed as follows (Freyer, 2004):
Fig.1. Marketing Mix
3. PRICING POLICY WITHIN MARKETING MIX
Pricing policy is finding the price of selling with the help of marketing targets and
strategies. Policies are plans for the future direction of the business. Marketing encourages
price in order to influence the market (Halloway 2004).
An isolated price policy is not the part of strategic marketing-mix. As marketing was seen
as a pricing instrument, this brought only price competition with destroying effects such as
price wars. At mature markets, certain price inflexibility can be observed. In strategic
marketing, there is a trend of different instruments such as product, distribution and
communication policies.
4. PRICE STRATEGIES
The most important target of price strategy is to position level of price between certain
price levels. More or less, all price policies are aiming to find a place in low, middle and
high price segments(Kotler; Bowen; Makens 1996):
• High price strategies

• Low price strategies
• Market price strategies
These basis price strategies have more complex structures than it is assumed. These are
mostly related to following structures:
Cost structures: These build the basis and lower segment of price strategy.
Price of competitors: This gives possibility for hotels to see at which price level
they are finding themselves such as high, middle or low price levels.
From the perspective of demand: It also allows room to move and gives another
perspective instead of competitor‘s comparison because of internal cost-
performance structures.
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The cost-performance relationship: It is important to know what is offered for
the paid price.
Now it is possible to put different price strategies together.
4.1. High Price Policy
High price policy depends mostly on product quality and exclusivity. Prices are relatively
high when it is compared with competitors from the perspective of consumers. It depends
on price-performance advantage or creating of customer preferences. There are some
competition advantages and monopoly situation which are used as price policy. The most
important point is to absorb the monopoly rent. Here are some high price strategies:
4.1.1. Prestige Pricing
High price policy is mostly used on a long term as a reward strategy. It tries to build and
keep lonely position at this level. Club Med can be mentioned as an important example.
Customers are not sensible about the price and they value very much different product and
prestige.
4.1.2. Market-Skimming Pricing
It is as long as possible to have it after getting temporary and necessary consumer earnings.
By the time, price will be stabilizing itself at the market level. On the other hand, it is only
possible to use high prices as a price policy for a certain period of time with new products
or in attempt to get in new markets with the possibility of competitive advantage.
4.2. Low Price Strategy
Low price strategy has lower price level than normal market prices. Low prices help to
increase sales volume with high sales and earnings when it‘s compared with other high
level prices. This strategy has its own problems. The success of this strategy is mostly
related with price flexibility of demand. If price flexibility is over 1, price cut can bring
long term success (Halloway 2004). Here, there is a discussion about the consideration of
capacity: More demand can be satisfied with existing or easily created capacities. It is
difficult to change to new position if the company is in the position of low-price segment.
It could be possible if it is used effective communication (Palma de Mallorca and NUR
Touristik)
4.2.1 Market-penetration Pricing
If the company tries to enter a new market, there will be a possibility for low prices with
the help of high volume of sales and low prices. After successful market entrance, it is
possible to increase prices to the level of market. This is explained as penetration policy
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4.2.2 Product-bundle Pricing
Different products are combined with low prices. It desensitizes the customer to the price
such as in all-inclusive resorts.
4.2.3 Volume discounts
There are low price offers for buyers who can buy big numbers.
4.2.4 Discounts based on time of purchase
Low price policy can be varied, depending on time or place. Especially, in the high season
there is high price policy and in the low season there would be low price policy.
4.2.5 Discriminatory Pricing
It is also called as gender based pricing. Ladies Night would be a good example. The
product is served with various prices even if it has same costs for men or women.
4.2.6 Last-Minute Pricing
Empty capacities are sold with low prices at late dates which are very much used by travel
industry.
4.2.7 Pyschological Pricing
Prestige, reference prices and prices such as 6.99 or 59.99 are used very effective in order
to attract customers.
4.2.8 Promotional Pricing
When low prices are seen and used as long term price strategy, there is a promotional
pricing strategy. This kind of companies needs cost and production advantage in the long
term. These prices can be given with objective approaches or they are seen at low level
from the perspective of customers. NUR Touristik is a good example which has low-cost
image but its prices are at the same level of its competitors.
4.3 Market Price Strategy
Price is not used as an active marketing instrument. A sufficient price structuring is also
very important strategic and operative measure. This strategy is offering for all markets
with wide middle level and there is very little playground for up and down.
5. TARGETS OF PRICE POLICY
It is important to focus on 4 different domestic factors. These factors can focus on

finances, capacityand consumers (Halloway 2004).
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5.1 Price formation with focus on finances
There are monetary-quantitative targets which are followed by certain price policy such as
profit, sales and returns.
5.2 Price formation with focus on capacity
-Increasing of market share with competitors, products, service with high quality
-Increasing the use of scale of the hotel rooms
5.3 Price formation with focus on consumers
Price formation with focus on costumers can be created with rate stability, rate parity, rate
unity.
5.3.1 Rate stability
Price stability was not seen as a priority in the hotel industry for a long time (With some
budget hotel exceptions). Increasing of internet and other distribution channels raised
awareness of many hotels about price stability. Rate stability can be understood as rate
unity, rate transparency, rate parity and rate cannibilization.
5.3.1.1 Rate parity
It is described as a strategy which offers same rate with same conditions for a certain room
category in all sales channels at the same time. Internet offers customers price transparency
and it is an ideal place for price comparison.
5.3.1.2 Rate unity
Customers do not believe that they can find more cheap prices for the same product. Many
hotels reach this level of price with the help of internet.
5.3.1.3 Rate transparency
Customer knows best price for the product with the help of internet shopping.
5.3.1.4 Rate cannibilazation
It exists with increasing price transparency without rate parity. Even if customers are ready
to pay more, they are mostly attracted to different channels for buying products with lower
prices. It causes income loss before the demand arises.
Consequences of Rate Parity Absence in Hotels
Hotel managers started to use to live with rate parity.Thisis written nearly in every contract
between hotels and internet reservation systems. But it was unfair that hotels cannot decide
alone about their room prices. Since three years, there is juridical tendencyin Europe that
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the rate parity is prohibited: German Monopoly Agency (Bundeskartellamt) made a
decision and prohibited this best-price clause (Taylorwessing 2015). In France, macron law
passed in this year. It gives French hotels freedom to decide their own prices on their
websites or other booking channels.Turkish Competition Agency has also started
investigation about rate parity (booking.com) after the application of Turkish Travel
Agencies Association (Türsab 2015).
In the beginning, there was a common sense between hotels and online booking agencies
about rate parity. Hotels were ready not to give low prices other than contract partners.
This pushed more or less hotels into laziness for being not so effective in sales. Online
booking channels became very efficient and powerful with their focused
advertisementandbrand development activities. Balance between hotels and online booking
channels could not exist anymore. There are positive and negative views about rate parity:
Positive Views:
- There is a transparent and credible price structures for hotel customers.

- Small and family hotels have their own standart rates and they can control them in every
booking portal and channel.
- If there is no price parity, there will be price war within the sector. Internet booking
channels must develop their business model and adapt themselves changing conditions.
HRS-Manager Ragges mentions that there are two different scenarios (Kwidzinski 2012):
Firstly, price parity can become the main listing model of portals or secondly portals can
buy big amount of contingents from hotels.Two of these scenarios can ruin small hotels
and increase their internal costs.
-Rate parity can stop decrease of brand‘s price and it gains more importance with
alternative bookings in different channels.
Negative Views:
- Rate parity for different targets restricts the price flexibility of hotel managers.
- To have different number of rates without concrete differentiation between products can
confuse customers. They can still have no idea what they get for the money that they pay
for (Rutherford 2007).
- German Hotel Association was against the rate parity and insist that this would ruin the
competition and the hotel market. Der Hotelverband Deutschland, German Hotel
Association (IHA) was against HRS (Hotel Reservation System) at this process. Markus
Luthe from IHA says that there will be a real competition between portals and there will be
big play ground for hotel managers if there is no rate parity (Kwidzzinski 2012).
- If there is no rate parity, there can be more discounts at hotel web pages or there will be
certain upgrades for direct bookings.
- Hotels started to loose the control on their own prices.
Alternatives:
There are alternatives for bookings beside hotels and booking channels such as meta-
search engines. TripAdvisor (Instant booking) made possible to book thousand hotels on
its page. Google‘s hotelfindermakes it possible to make reservation with different channels
415
after hotel is found in its web-page. Bookassist is also offering anoher method of solution
for hotels. It creats search engine, digital marketing, web design and distribution.
There are alternative online booking portals such as Betandsleep (D) or Priceline.com
(USA) as well (AHGZ 2012). At these web pages, customers suggest price of the room and
they receive a list of hotels which are ready to accept the price offer. Hotels must not take
care of rate parity and they can decrease their prices at that moment without decreasing
prices anywhere else. This is an individual process between customer and hotel and the
result is not seen anywhere. Hotels can fill their rest capacity and increase their utility. But
these bookings cannot be cancelled.
6. CONCLUSION
It is mostly clear that pricing is a very complex marketing instrument and it must be made
either customer-based or customer-related. When hotels get to be more independent from
booking channels-with or without rate parity-, they have to strengthen their direct sales.
Here are some recommendations:
Hotels must revalue their websites with special content. Most of thetime, hotel‘s own
web pages are not ideal to get interacted if they are compared with distribution channels
web-pages. Hotel web-pages must be designed by professionals in order to reach
customers emotionally and personally with fewer procedures.
Customers are thinking whether it is useful to spend time and energy for searching.
Hotels can offer better packages such as up-grade, free-in house services or some
promotional codes within their web-page.
There will be some implications because of different prices such as it gives freedom of
selection for customers but it can be also contra-productive if customers are tired of
looking more reasonable prices. It would be useful to present very strict number of
rooms with certain prices. Some of web pages are offering reasonable prices from all
channels. But best prices with extra packages are stayed hidden. Rankings are mostly
based on pure prices such as without breakfast or other extras. There must be more
transparency within mega booking channels (Holidaycheck.de).
It is also interesting that some lowest prices are introduced by different channels but
with high transaction costs with no concrete price strategy. This must be changed in
order to have certain standarts.
Real hotel evaluations, customer‘s datas must be collected and evaluated by hotel
managers and these have to be used for effective marketing with direct e-mailing or
social media campaigns.
Customer loyalty can be created with different loyalityclub and programmes.
Different customer segments give different reactions for prices. It is sure that hotel
willbe evaluated with different perspectives. Price differences between channels must
not be at high level. For that,different segments must be defined and these can be priced
within a developed system.
Hotels compete with each other. Online channels have important influence on this.
Hotels can stay competitive in the future if they combine booking channels and their
own web pages with a strategic pricing.
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All hotels must develop collaboration for common solutions for rate parity. Hotel
chains can loose profits because of rate cuttings and small hotels will not exist because
of deadly price competition beside to talk about Airbnb which will be one of the biggest
challenges of the hotel industry.
REFERENCES
Freyer, W. (2004).Tourismus –Marketing (4th Ed.). Munich: OldenbourgVerlag.
Halloway, J. C (2004), Marketing for Tourism (4th Ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Kotler, P.; Bowen, J. T.; Makens C. J. (1996). Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism (4th
Ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Kwidzinski, R. (2012, Mai). HRS-Chef Tobias Ragge verteidigt

Ratenparitaet. AHGZ.Retrieved from http://www.ahgz.de/unternehmen/hrs-chef-tobias-
ragge-verteidigt-ratenparitaet,200012195902.html
Kwidzinski, R. (2012, June). HoteliersstreitenüberRatenparitaet.AHGZ.Retrieved from

http://www.ahgz.de/unternehmen/hoteliers-streiten-ueber-
ratenparitaet,200012196608.html
Rutherford, D. G.; O‘Fallon M. J. (2007). Hotel Management and Operations (4 th Ed.).

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
http://www.ahgz.de/unternehmen/bei-betandsleep-bestimmt-der-gast-den-
zimmerpreis,200012199791.html (17.10.2012)
http://united-kingdom.taylorwessing.com/newsletter/commercial/newsletter-commercial-
maerz-2014/best-price-klauseln-untersagt.html (08.09.2015)
http://www.tursab.org.tr/tr/tursabdan-haberler/genel-duyurular/onemli-duyururekabet-
kurulu-bookingcom-hakkinda-sorusturma-acilmasina-karar-verdi_13134.html
(08.09.2015)
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THE TREATMENT IS WITHIN THE DISEASE: TOURISM PARADOX,
TOURISM EQUINOX AND TOURISM DETOX
Irfan Arikan1
Ilker Ünsever2
Abstract: Having the tourism industry as the only development model for a country with its natural
and cultural resources could not only destroy the social life but also the tourism industry itself.
Although the equation ―more tourists=more tourism income‖ is so simple, it is not a sustainable
approach for the development plans of the destinations. This process leads to overuse of natural and
cultural attractions and places pressures on tourism earnings. ‖Tourism paradox‖ is the name of this
concept. Tourism paradox is the name given to this phenomenon where tourism industry destroys
natural and cultural environment that is necessary for tourism activities. The growth of tourism
cannot be always considered as having a positive impact for destinations.The balance, which does
not change and disturbs the social and economic relations at the destination is called ―tourism
equinox‖. New projects and approaches to solve the problems caused by the growth of urban
populations and establish healthy sustainable tourism destinations are becoming more important
than ever. Tourism detox is a treatment that is intended to remove harmful substances from the
destination. Detox is a radical decision and it is not an easy process. Therefore, spatial
reorganization and urban regeneration play a crucial role for the marketing of destinations and this
transformation action affects all infrastructure facilities, restorations of old buildings, reorganization
of historical zones, and revitalizing the architectural style of the destinations. This paper investigates
the influence of tourism paradox and equinox on destinations in relation to tourism activities and the
protection of natural and cultural resources with the help of tourism detox. It primarily relies on
qualitative research to understand the main futures of tourism paradox, equinox and detox taking the
negative impacts of tourism into consideration. As research methodology a literature review and the
sources of secondary data were used.
Keywords: Tourism Paradox, Tourism Equinox, Tourism Detox, Tourism Development,
Sustainability.
TOURISM PARADOX
When looking at the increase of tourism in a destination, it can be said that tourism is a
valuable part of the economy.The proposal offered by today‘s competitive paradigm that
higher the number of tourists visiting a destination, the higher will be the income for the
destination sounds good at first. Parallel with the increased tourism activities, new
buildings, new lifestyles, foreign capital and new socio-economic relationshipsappear
rapidly at the destination and replace the traditional ones. The increased number of tourist
arrivals gives the appearance of increasing desirability of the destination. However, there
will be huge amount of social, cultural, economic and environmental problems faced by
the local people as well as tourists at the destination; socially, by disturbing the socio-
cultural balance of local communities,culturally commoditization of local cultures and
overcrowding ofheritage sites, environmentally increasing carbon footprint, pollution of
water resources and destruction of ecosystems, economically prices inflation and land
speculation (www.exofoundation.org/the-paradox- of-tourism).
1
Professor Dr., IMC FH Krems, University of Applied Sciences, Krems, Austria.
2
Lecturer, Department of Tourism Administration, Boğaziçi University, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Having the tourism industry as the only development model for a country with its natural
and cultural resources could not only destroy the environment and social life but also the
tourism industry itself. Although the equation ―more tourists = more tourism income‖ is so
simple, it is not a sustainable approach for the development plans of the destinations.It is
obvious that tourism generates beneficial outcomes as much as it produces negative
impacts in the conservation of traditional settlements and historical destinations with their
natural and cultural resources. Therefore the relationship between culture and tourism has
been defined with terms such as: ―paradox, contradiction and conflict, dynamic and
complex‖ (Kılıç&Aydogan, 2015).The growth of tourism cannot be always considered as
having a positive impact for destinations. Because of the increase of the tourism industry,
many historic destinations started to lose their historical identity and suffer from
overcrowding (Diekmann&Gillot, 2010).
―The tourism paradox‖ begins to appear at this stage since the natural and cultural
resources that are worth seeing are consumed by the travelers. Tourism paradox is the
name given to this phenomenon where tourism industry destroys natural and cultural
environment that is necessary for tourism activities. Tourism paradox is also the name of
unsustainable tourism. Projects that focus on and emphasize the economic and social
benefits should be undertaken in order to protect these values in the end. Besides the
economic aspect of conserving cultural and natural heritage it is also very important to
protect the destination from the negative effects of tourism.Heritage is not only something
that people wish to pass on generation by generation, it is also something that has become
increasingly scientific so that preservation and survival is something that is created through
a number of principles, processes and practices (Timothy&Boyd, 2003).
Tourism is like fire,it can cook the meal or, burn the house. This famous Asian saying
underlines the fact tourism is indeed a double edged sword, and that tourism impacts
highly depends how it is being developed, managed and consumed. Attractive landscape
sites, such as sandy beaches, lakes, riversides, and mountain tops and slopes, are often
transitional zones, characterized by species-rich ecosystems. The threats to and pressures
on these ecosystems are often severe because such places are very attractive to both
tourists and developers. The ecosystems most threatened with degradation are ecologically
fragile areas such as alpine regions, rain forests, wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs and sea
grass beds. Increased construction of tourism and recreational facilities has increased the
pressure on natural resources and on scenic landscapes. Direct impact on natural resources,
both renewable and nonrenewable, in the provision of tourist facilities can be caused by the
use of land for accommodation and other infrastructure provision, and the use of building
materials. Forests often suffer negative impacts of tourism in the form of deforestation
caused by fuel wood collection and land clearing. Often tourism fails to integrate its
structures with the natural features and indigenous architecture of the destination. Large,
dominating resorts of disparate design can look out of place in any natural environment
and may clash with the indigenous structural design. Lack of land-use planning and
building regulations in many destinations has facilitated sprawling developments along
coastlines, valleys and scenic routes (http://www.gdrc.org/uem/eco-tour/envi/one.html).
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TOURISM EQUINOX
Destinations have suffered from uncontrolled tourist development and tourism paradox
during the last decades, having as consequence the destruction of natural eco-systems, air
and water pollution, the shortage of water, problems of waste disposal, or the
transformation of small villages into centers of urbanization. Fortunately tourist‘s
mentalities are changing and the slogan of ―non-destructive or sustainable tourism‖ is
becoming important for travelers and for authorities. New positive kinds of holidays are
being developed; they deal with the problems of mass tourism, caring for cultural, social,
and natural features of the destination (http://www.karl.aegee.org/oem/articles/oe8/t-
freedo.htm).
Presenting a balance between the sustainability of cultural and natural heritage and
marketing for tourism purposes forms an important aspect of planning and managing
cultural and natural heritage sites (Teo&Huang, 1995).Can we protect the destinations
from tourism paradox? New projects and approaches to solve this problem and to establish
healthy sustainable tourism destinations are becoming more important than ever.The
balance, which does not change and disturbs the social and economic relations at the
destination is called ―tourism equinox‖. The name ―equinox‖ is derived from the Latin
aequus (equal) and nox (night), because around the equinox, night and dayare about equal
length.
Tourism has become a significant future of the economy and structure of the destinations
around the world and also has played a major role in the transformation and re-
development of industrial districts within destinations that have traditionally
accommodated commercial activities.
Sustainable tourism has been promoted as a way of moderating the disadvantages
of tourism, at the same time as make best use of the benefits in a way that is suitable
for the greatest number of people (http://www.karl.aegee.org/oem/articles/oe8/t-
freedo.htm). Tourism equinox encourages the development of cultural and rural tourism to
sustain local cultures, traditional lifestyles and industries, it seeks to utilize resources and
the environment in a sustainable way, and it aims to generate the local economy by
providing opportunities for employment and economic development. Also it demands an
awareness of the needs of local people, respect and appreciation for culture and the
environment and achieves a balance between development and conservation.
One of the best examples of tourism equinox for worldwide is Yamaguchi, located on the
periphery of Honshu, the main island of Japan. After the rural areas of Yamaguchi lost
32% of its population, the local people of this destination understand that tourism equinox
can be used to bring together a range of activities, products and experiences to useful
economic advantage. The Yamaguchi tourism policy aims to satisfy both residents in rural
areas, as well as visitors from urban areas (Murayama&Parker, 2012).
According to Hermann Hinterstoisser, Head of the Nature Protection Department,
Salzburgerlandthe great variety of beautiful landscapes in Austria offers many different
aspects of multifunctionality. The protection and sustainable development of landscapes
has to be a joint task for spatial planning, agriculture, forestry, nature conservation and
tourism as a whole in order to maintain the diversity of the landscapes.Local communities
need to control andself-regulate their tourist industries, and tourism offers the best options
in terms of environmental protection and long-term, sustainable economic growth in these
communities (Wearing,Wearing&McDonald, 2012). It is expected that domestic and
foreign visitors will in the future prefer greener, more serene, and more natural destinations
420
where they can easily find the values stated in the basic principles of sustainable tourism,
where they feel healthy, relaxed and securewith tourism equinox.
On the other hand, the growth of rural tourism have to be totally diverging with that of
seaside tourism development that, without control could create huge holiday resorts and
artificial villages with no identity. Many coastal regions in Portugal, Italy, Greece and
particularly in Spain, have suffered this problem, and coast line has been completely
destroyed by blocks of apartments and huge hotels, without green or natural
areas(Randelli,Romei,Tortora&Tinacci, 2012).For a tourist destination the promotion and
the image are fundamental and must be carefully constructed in order to get benefits.
Tourism is a form of conspicuous consumption and tourists exhibit their identity and social
standing by the destination they choose to visit and the image it presents. The social and
economic impact of tourism, and consequently its effect on culture, is enormous in areas of
mass tourism (http://www.karl.aegee.org/oem/articles/oe8/t-freedo.htm/). For that reason,
tourism equinox try to solve this problem by advocating that the image presented should
meet the needs of the local community and express their cultural heritage.
In Mallorca however, in the tourism sector the damage is caused by sheer numbers and by
the fact that tourists are notoriously unconscious of their environmental behavior when
away from home. Tourism is a consumer industry and it is difficult to impose better
environmental standards on a transient population. For a long time Mallorcans have
bemoaned the degenerative impact tourism has had on society, language and environment
but have been happy to accept the considerable economic benefits. Many commentators
advocate an expansion of ‗new‘ tourists at the expense of ‗old mass‘ tourists through a
policy of diversification. Highly laudable providing total income from tourism remains
constant or rises (Buswell, 2011).The objective is not denying tourists‘ access to the
beaches and enjoy sun and party, but it should be controlled. The quality of the product has
to be improved, because more and more tourists are becoming demanding and look for
quality and for new experiences, new activities, new ways of enjoying their holidays
(Segui, 1995).
Quality tourism is a form of soft tourism. The term soft tourism represents environmental
and social compatibility as its priorities. In terms of environmental protection this means
the creation of a balance between tourism and natural structures and resources, in other
words tourism equinox. Consequently soft tourism is only practicable with a limited
number of visitors. The most important measures to ensure a balance between tourism and
environment could be a strict regulation of the flow of visitors, a proper signposting of
hiking trails and cycle paths, the integration of the native population and an increased offer
of guided tours. Soft tourism, agro-tourism and rural tourism arepossible solutions for
sustainable form of quality tourism (Kılıç&Aydogan, 2015), and also for tourism equinox
at the destinations.
TOURISM DETOX
We have previously analyzed the issue of tourism paradox that was mainly about the
negative progress of the tourism industry. The aforementioned tourism paradox affects the
tourism destinations, where relations of tourism industry have dominated roles over its
unplanned and uncontrolled economic and social structure with unbalanced funds. In
tourism urbanization, cities or urban areas are commoditized for the consumers of the
tourism industry; and tourists go to tourism cities to consume not only the facilities of the
city but also to consume the whole city(Kaya, 2014).
421
The concept of distortion through tourism followed by spoilage of tourism could be better
observed in touristic resorts such as KuĢadası, Alanya and Fethiye in Turkey. It is clearly
noticed that the nature, environment, social structure in the province and dominant cultural
elements are speedily decreased. Consequently, some destinations that have become
favorite resorts with their unique touristic attractions have lost their characteristics, some
of them have become extinct and most of them have lost the identity. The people involved
in tourism in these regions where the economy of the society is based on tourism, were in
search for ―more tourists‖ in order to satisfy their economic profit in a very addictive
manner like drug addicts.
Is antisepsis possible? Dialectics are the reality: the treatment is within the disease! Just as
in the case of drug addiction, it is possible to be cured from the addiction. Tourism paradox
is toxidation of destinations with the negative effects of the tourism industry. The period of
tourism paradox can be seen as an opportunity to protect the natural and cultural resources
of the destination which is called tourism detox. Detox is a radical decision and it is not an
easy process. Tourism detox is not the same as detox tourism, digital detox or unplugging
from technology during holidays. Tourism detox is a treatment that is intended to remove
harmful elements of tourism development from the destination. Therefore, spatial
reorganization and urban regeneration play a crucial role for the marketing of destinations
and this transformation action affects all infrastructure facilities, restorations of old
buildings, reorganization of historical zones, and revitalizing the architectural style of the
destinations. However, the implications and tourism interventions will be different from
one destination to another in order to reflect local context and identity such as architecture
style, cultural heritage and local lifestyle (Kaya,2014). Similarly, it is also possible for the
regions with tourism paradox to disengage from this paradox, yet it is not quite easy as it is
expected. Tourism destinations can be disengaged from this paradox to reach to the
natural, historical, economic and ancient social positions through consistency in the society
and with the help of scientific methods.
Mallorca Island in Spain is maybe the first resort that experienced the tourism paradox.
They destroyed the natural environment as well as traditional architecture for the sake of
tourism development. However to disengage from tourism paradox they tear down the
huge hotels and reconstructed them with respect to nature on the island. Naturally the bed
capacity in Mallorca declined. With the growth of the natural environment tourism income
on the island has increased. This shows that tourism income has a tendency to increase,
ifthe quality of the natural environment is improved.Tourism detox requires decreasing the
demand of the number of beds in order to increase the income per bed and to disengage the
region from dominant tourism activities.
CONCLUSION
Sustainable tourism should help define cultures, not reinvent them. Tourism frequently
means the occupation of free space, the destruction of natural eco-systems, and the re-
establishment of everyday life at the chosen destination.This activity is connected with the
damage to the environment and to the local population. Many of the problems associated
with tourism development arise from the fact that tourism providers are not sensitive to
tourism equinox, local pressures and needs. To be successful, sustainable tourism has to
rely on the local population and on its participation in development of tourism
activity(Lopez&Palomino,2003).
422
Tourism itself is not an environmentally and socially ―negative‖ activity that should be
avoided. The tourism industry is worth developing and investing in and brings about
negative impacts which sometimes outweigh its associated positive economic impacts if
you do not care for tourism equinox. But the remarks about the negative impacts of
tourism are intended to demonstrate and explain the tourism paradox.A sustainable tourism
with tourism equinox is the only type of tourism that can offer an authentic countryside
lifestyle area, where it is possible to relax and enjoy nature and countryside atmosphere,
like in Tuscany, Provence andWachau,without compromising the other local
specialization, first of all agriculture.Tourism equinox should be substantiated through
policy and legislation and should be primary objective in all decisions regarding tourism.
This covers a multitude of areas of study and implementation ranging from, but not limited
to, environmental, social, economic and urban development and design.
In the first place, the best way to start to reconstruction of tourism is to prepare a
participative Tourism Development Plan.
Tourism legislations should be ―directive‖ rather than ―compulsory‖.
Common sense should prevail over policy, lessons learned from mistakes of other
destinations should direct destination development.
Most importantly tourism should not be conceptualized as a finite stream of
revenue where profit maximization is the logical course of action, but as a
renewable resource that requires care and attention in its utilization.
Based on an understanding that is distinct from mass tourism, a new tourism
destination where the cultural and historical heritage is utilized needs to be created
through investment, promotion and marketing that is focused on sustainability.
Activities necessary for strategic planning should be carried out, and the
cooperation of public and private sectors should be ensured after determining the
applicability of tourism equinox approach.
Rural tourism must be promoted as a key driver of rural tourism development, and
funds must be devoted to supporting the development of rural lodging
establishments.
The awareness of locals and visitors should be raised in order to prevent damage to
the historical and cultural environment.
Local population should be encouraged to participate in the new tourism strategy.
The carrying capacity of the region should be determined under sustainable
principles.
Local authorities should be informed very clearly that it is not possible to achieve
sustainable tourism development without respecting natural environment.
Local governments, non-governmental organizations, universities and professional
organizations should cooperate against adverse environmental effects caused by
tourism.
The success of this tourism approach depends on effective destination management
and marketing involving the principles of tourism.
Holiday is no longer a luxury but has become a way of life. The freedom to travel is
regarded as an unquestionable right nowadays. According to the theory discussed in this
paper, the impact of tourism can be tragic for some tourist areas and even if more and more
sustainable policies are being implemented, only the future will show if the damage caused
423
by tourism can be erased by a new sustainable tourism (Lopez&Palomino,2003) or with
the help of tourism detox.
It is very hard to tear down the huge buildings like big hotels. The stakeholders of the
tourism industry can be convinced by giving tax deductions and explaining the long term
benefits of tourism detox. When succeeded, there will be a more balanced and controlled
tourism development which is in harmony with natural and social environment. The best
thing to do is to achieve ―tourism equinox‖, then we don‘t have to worry about ―tourism
detox‖.
REFERENCES
Buswell, R. J., (2011).Mallorca and Tourism History, Economy and Environment. Bristol:
Channel View Publications.
Diekmann, A. &Gillot, L., (2010). Heritage and Tourism: A Dialogue of Deaf? The Case
of Brussels. Led Online E-Journals, Rivista di Scienze del Tourismo Ambiente Cultura
Diritto Economia (in English), Vol (3), pp.263-280.
Kaya, E., (2014).From Industrial and Residential to a Tourism Precinct: The Rocks of
Sydney, University of Western Sydney,Australia.
Kılıç, S.E. &Aydogan, M., (2015).Sustainable Tourismand Heritage in Sigacık/Seferihisar.

International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic and Management
Engineering, Vol(9), No(1), p.310.
Lopez, L. & Palomino, B., (2003).Impacts of Mass Tourism on Local Communities and
the New Phenomenon of Colonization-Case Study: Majorca. MA Thesis, Bournemouth
University, England, p.76.
Murayama, M. & Parker, G., (2012). Fast Japan, Slow Japan: Shifting to Slow Tourism as
a Rural Regeneration Tool in Japan. S. Fullagar, K.W. Markwell and E. Wilson (Ed.) Slow
Tourism: Experiences and Mobilities, Bristol: Channel View Publications, pp.170-185.
Randelli, F., Romei, P., Tortora, M. &Tinacci, M., (2012). Rural Tourism Driving
Regional Development in Tuscany. The Renaissance of the Countryside, Department of
Economic Sciences, University of Florence.
Segui, L., M., (1995). Les nouvellesBaléares. La Rénovation d‘un Espace Touristique
Mythique in L‘Harmattan, ed. Paris, p.65.
Teo, P.& Huang, S., (1995). Tourism and Heritage Conservation in Singapore. Annals of
Tourism Research, 22(3), pp.58-615.
Timothy, D.J., &, Boyd, S.W., (2003).Heritage Tourism, Pearson Education.
Wearing, S., Wearing, M. and McDonald M., (2012).Slow‘n Down the Town to Let Nature
Grow: Ecotourism, Social Justice and Sustainability. S. Fullagar, K.W. Markwell and E.
424
Wilson (Ed.) Slow Tourism: Experiences and Mobilities. Bristol: Channel View
Publications, pp.36-50.
http://www.gdrc.org/uem/eco-tour/envi/one.html. (18.01.2015)
http://www.karl.aegee.org/oem/articles/oe8/t-freedo.htm/p. (21.02.2015)
www.exofoundation.org/the-paradox- of-tourism.(29.12.2014)
425
IMPACT OF ONLINE TRAVEL AGENCIES ON HOTEL BUSINESS IN
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Lejla Ahmić1
Almir Peštek 2
Lejla Turulja3
Abstract: New online trends have been changing the global tourism market, making it highly
competitive and complex, and therefore hotels are faced with many challenges in doing their
business and attracting guests. Online travel agencies (OTA) as intermediaries on the tourism
market have a huge impact on operations of hotels worldwide. The aim of this study was to explore
the impact of OTAs on hotel business in Bosnia and Herzegovina. An online study was conducted
on a sample of 58 hotels (out of 100 planned to be involved) in November 2014. A structured
questionnaire based on studies of Caliskan et al. (2013) and Sisko (2013) was used. The results of
the study show that the hotels in Bosnia and Herzegovina have adapted to global tourism trends and
cooperate with OTAs, especially with Booking.com and Expedia.com. Most hotels simultaneously
cooperate with more than one OTA. Although the costs of cooperation with OTAs were considered
to be high, they generate most of bookings for the hotels. Therefore, OTAs are recognized as
generators of sales and revenues from standard hotel services and creators of their competitive
position. At the same time, cooperation with OTAs does not lead to a significant decrease of costs.
Key words: hotels, online travel agencies, Bosnia and Herzegovina
INTRODUCTION
As a trend characterizing the modern society, globalization is reflected in the increasing

interdependence and connectedness of all parts of the world. Most authors argue that
globalization is a result of the impact of the development of information and
communication technologies (ICT) (Sagi, 2004), above all the Internet. Trends of business
globalization and internationalization, development of infrastructure and modern
technology affect the development of tourism industry.
The development of tourism industry directly affects the increase of opportunities for the
business of service enterprises, where hotels have a significant position. Over the past few
years, product distribution over the Internet has become one of the fastest-growing
distribution methods. Since the introduction of online booking with payment in 1996,
when the first online booking and air ticket payment was made, the Internet has introduced
a revolution in the tourism distribution system (Gursoy, 2010). Despite hotels' initial
hesitation about adopting information technologies, they have made great efforts over the
past few years in order to implement electronic distribution in their own distribution
systems. This strategy allowed hotels to make use of strengths of the two main directions:
1
Graduate student, School of Economics and Business Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
2
Associate Professor, Department of Marketing, School of Economics and Business Sarajevo,
3
Senior Teaching Assistant, Department of MIT, School of Economics and Business Sarajevo,
426
1. The Internet gave hotels the opportunity to market their services, as well as to
advertise online, thus using a cheaper distribution system (Morosan and Jeong,
2007) i
2. The Internet created possiblities for hotels to reduce investment into mass
advertising and allowed them to concentrate on the tailored marketing messages.
New trends in online booking are changing the online tourism market and the hotel
industry is daily becoming increasingly competitive and complex. New technologies allow
users to visit websites of hotels and intermediaries and thus get many benefits, such as:
comparison of various destination prices by different criteria, possibility to combine offers,
rating services and hotel facilities by guests, etc.
Based on the above-described, and taking into account the theoretical framework of the
paper, which clearly points to the increasing significance of online distribution channels in
contemporary hotel industry and to the cooperation with online intermediaries, the subject
of this research includes the analysis and identification of online travel agencies'
contribution to the business and profitability of hotels in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The paper is structured as follows. First, we analyze the concepts of distribution channels
in tourism. Thereupon, we propose and test hypotheses on the correlation between the
cooperation of hotels and online travel agencies and their business performance. Finally,
we discuss our findings and implications, and give suggestions for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Determining the best approach to product delivery to the market was one of the greatest
challenges merchants faced since early days of market establishment (Connolly, 1999).
Distribution is part of the marketing function in the organization, which makes products
and services accessible and available to consumers and provides a link between supply and
demand. Together with the other three components of the marketing communication mix,
i.e. product, price and promotion, distribution is a critical aspect of the strategic marketing
management, with the general aim of satisfying consumers' needs. Distribution is one of
the most important factors and one of the fundamental company activities, which affects
the competitive ability of any business.
In tourism, distribution is a link between suppliers, destination and consumers in the
market. In tourism organisations, as opposed to manufacturing ones, the focus is on
service, as a non-material product. The travel products, as well as packages, are not always
marketed by the product producer, and therefore intermediaries play a significant role in
the distribution system, since they are a link between suppliers and consumers. Since
products in tourism are non-material, consumers buy only expectation, since products
cannot be shown to the consumer, and we can thus say that companies market only
information. Traditionally, hospitality industry products were distributed through direct
sales, as well as through intermediaries such as travel agencies, global distribution system,
central booking system, etc. (Gursoy, 2010). However, market trends such as continuous
consolidation, globalization together with ICT development created new possibilities for
the distribution of hospitality industry products (OĆonnor and Frew, 2004). Tourism
distribution can be understood at two levels, i.e. as basic and expanded distribution. The
basic distribution refers to the intermediary activity, which includes linking buyers to
sellers. The expanded distribution, on the other hand, besides the basic intermediary
activities, also refers to additional creation of value by intermediaries. Providing value in
terms of service, price, availability, information or security is crucial for attracting
427
consumers and their retention (Bigne, 2011). For this reason, we can list the following
primary functions of distribution in tourism: information, combination and travel arranging
services (Pearce, 2007). Many tourism distribution channels provide information for
potential tourists, a group of tourism products and also allow customers to make and pay
for bookings (Buhalis i Laws, 2008). Present studies have shown that various attempts
have been made to define the concept of tourism distribution channels. Buhalis (2000)
defines distribution channels as „any organized and service system, created or used for
providing suitable points of sale and/or approach to consumers, far from the place of
production and consumption.―
RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
The described theoretical framework served as basis for establishing the main aim of the
reserach, which is reflected in determining the impact of online travel agencies on the
business and profitability of hotels in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
With respect to the main aim of the research, the following hypotheses were defined:
H1: Hotels' cooperation with online travel agencies contributes to a decrease in
hotels' costs.
H2: Hotels' cooperation with online travel agencies contributes to the
improvement in hotels' revenues.
Research methodology
The first step in defining research is determining the target population. Accordingly, it was
determined that the research should cover all the hotels in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The
empirical research made use of the survey questionnaire which was developed based on the
questionnaire for identifying the impact of online travel agencies that provide online
booking services on hotels‘ profitability, by Caliskan (2013) and Šiško (2013). An
appropriate sample was used during the research. A sample of 100 hotels was defined.
The questionnaire consisted of 14 questions, grouped in three appropriate groups:
1. Information on hotel's characteristics – size, category, number of rooms (Šiško,
2013);
2. Use of the Internet for distribution and cooperation with online travel agencies by
the hotel – own website, questions on the cooperation with OTAs, the most
popular OTAs, sources of booking, share of bookings by OTAs in the total
bookings in the past year, criteria for the selection of OTA (Šiško, 2013);
3. Impact of cooperation with OTAs on the structure of hotel's costs and revenues, as
well as on total effects achieved by hotels through cooperation with OTAs
(Caliskan et al., 2013). This group of questions actually includes research
questions of this paper that should be checked and tested.
The questionnaire was mostly conceived based on close-end questions, where the
respondents chose one of the offered responses that best suits their actual view. The
questionnaire mostly included ordinal (Likert) scales.
By means of the drive.google.com application, an online questionnaire was created and
sent to the collected e-mail addresses of hotels. In order to collect hotels' e-mail addresses,
names of towns were entered in the Internet search engine Google.com and the word
'hotels' next to the name of the town (e. g. Sarajevo; hotels). Search results mostly included
the hotels' websites, where it was possible to find their e-mail address and contact data.
428
In this way, the planned 100 different hotels' e-mail addresses were collected. Online
questionnaires were sent to the collected e-mail addresses. The final results of the sent
questionnaires included 58 usable questionnaires, which is the return rate of 58%. As an
explanation of why the return rate is not higher, it can be said that the return rate is
generally lower in case of online surveys than in other ways of collecting data.
The structure of sample by the number of rooms, number of beds and category is presented
below.
Tab. 1: Number of rooms in hotels
Respondents
Number of rooms in hotel
No. %
from 10 to 59 rooms 31 53,4

210 and more rooms 4 6,9
TOTAL 58 100
Tab. 2: Hotel size by the number of beds

Respondents
Hotel size
No. %
Up to 100 beds 25 43,1

Up to 300 beds 27 46,6
Up to 400 beds 6 10,3
TOTAL 58 100
Tab. 3: Hotel category based on the number of stars

Respondents
Hotel category
No. %
1 star 0 0
2 stars 2 3,4
3 stars 27 46,6
4 stars 27 46,6
5 stars 2 3,4
TOTAL 58 100
429
Out of the 58 collected responses, 55 hotels replied that they cooperate with online travel
agencies, while three responded that they do not. Respondents who do not cooperate with
OTAs are included only in the analysis of research sample, while they are excluded from
further analyses.
Results and Discussion
In order to test the asked research questions, the hypotheses on the impact of cooperation
with OTAs on the structure of costs and revenues, and on the total effects achieved by
hotels were tested using the descriptive analysis.
H1: Hotels' cooperation with online travel agencies contributes to the decrease in hotels'
costs.
The text below analyzes responses relating to the research question: „Impact of hotels'
cooperation with online travel agencies on the decrease in costs?― To this purpose, a scale
was constructed that consisted of four questions where hotel managers were supposed to
give their opinions on the level of agreement with the offered statements relating to the
decrease in costs due to their cooperation with OTAs, with the help of Likert scale
consisting of five levels of agreement.
Results of respondents' estimates about the OTAs impact on the structure of hotels' costs
revealed that most respondents believe that their hotels have not yet experienced
significant effects of decreasing their business costs as a result of work with online travel
agencies. This is proven by the data that the average rating of the agreement with the
statement that costs per room decreased amounted to 2.05, that labor costs decreased
amunted to 1.98, and that costs of personnel training decreased was 2.00. The average
rating of the agreement with the statement that advertising costs in the hotel decreased
amounted to 2.16.
Fig. 1. Mean value of the response to question about the effect of OTAs on the structure of
hotel costs
Based on the above shown, we can claim that the first hypothesis was not supported by the
research, i.e. that cooperation with OTAs does not contribute to decrease in costs. It is
interesting to note that the highest rating pertains to the decrease in advertising costs,
which indeed is the service that hotels get from OTAs. In other words, we can claim that
the total costs do not decrease significantly, but that advertising costs certainly decrease to
an extent.
430
H2: Hotels' cooperation with online travel agencies contributes to the improvement in
hotels' revenues.
The text below analyzes responses relating to the research question: „Impact of hotels'
cooperation with online travel agencies on improvements in revenues?― To this purpose as
well, a scale was constructed consisting of five questions, where managers were supposed
to provide the level of their agreement with offered statements pertaining to the increase in
revenues due to their cooperation with OTAs, with the help of Likert scale consisting of
five levels of agreement.
Fig. 2. Mean value of responses to the question about the impact of OTAs on improvement
of revenues
Results of respondents' estimates in the context of OTAs‘ impact on the structure of hotels'
revenues revealed that most respondents believe that the contribution of work with OTAs
is reflected in the achieved increase in revenues from the sales of rooms. Other sources of
revenue, such as restaurant services and additional hotel contents are not necessarily
related to hotels' partnership with OTAs. This is proven by the data that the average rating
of agreement with the statement that the annual revenue per room increased amounted to
3.51, while the average rating of agreement with the statement that annual rates of room
occupancy increased amounted to 3.56.
On the other hand, with respect to revenues from restaurants and additional hotel contents
inside and outside of the hotel, the average rating of agreement with the statement that
revenues gained by restaurants amounted to 3.18, while average ratings of agreement with
the statement that revenues from sales of additional hotel contents outside the hotel and
revenues from sales of additional hotel contents inside the hotel increased amounted to
2.51 and 2.55 respectively.
Based on the above we can conclude that hotels' total revenues increase due to hotels'
cooperation with OTAs, which in turn supports the second hypothesis, that hotels'
cooperation with OTAs contributes to the improvement of hotels' revenues.
CONCLUSION
This research, which has the character of exploratory research, established that hotels'
cooperation with online travel agencies does not conrtibute to the overall decrease in costs,
but does contribute to the increase in total revenues. Online environment related to travel
services creates possibilities for new players as intermediaries. Customers, hotels, as well
431
as intermediaries can gain many benefits from this fruitful environment. The effect that
OTAs achieved with their network makes them a good channel for consumers to buy travel
products at a single central point. Besides, through cooperation with OTAs hotels achieve
greater competitiveness and advantage related to reaching a larger consumer base and
creating greater visibility in this environment.
It should be noted that there are not sufficient studies on this topic in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and it can be expected that this paper will open the door for further research
and motivate other researchers to contribute to the development of relations between OTAs
and hotels in Bosnia and Herzegovina. As a recommendation for further research, one can
mention research into the dynamism of link between these subjects on the continuous
basis, so that the win-win scenario between them could be developed in the future.
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9. OĆonnor P. and Frew A. J. (2004), An evaluation methodology for hotel electronic
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10. Pearce D.G. (2007), A needs-functions model of tourism distribution, Victoria
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11. Šiško, A. (2013), Analiza utjecaja on-line putničkih agencija na poslovanje van sezone
u RH, Ekonomski fakultet Split, pp. 71-75
432
INVESTIGATION OF ALTRUISTIC VALUE PERCEPTION OF
TOURISTS THAT IMPACT ON THE PRO - ENVIRONMENT BEHAVIOR
Öznur Bozkurt1
Murat Göral2
Funda Kul3
Abstract: Environmental protection and efficient use of environmental resources is made possible
by the efforts of state or other institutions to show.But take it to individual and connect to the efforts
of people living in the community is also important that they show an individual.Especially
environmental protection service industry in the tourism sector, which is of particular
importance.One the one hand while taking advantage of the holiday in nature green act must take
care to protect the environment for other generations.Altruistic values (altruism) should have to
exhibit the behavior of individuals to be effective in protecting the environment were examined in
this study.Pro-environmental behavior was observed that the positive effects of altruistic values. As
well as to active movement within environmental behavior and have exhibited their low trend in
terms of research participants take part in any organizations support. More effort is spent on an
individual basis.
Key words: Altruism, Green Consumer Behaviour, Green Activistic Behaviour, Green Citizenship
Behaviour,Pro- Environmental Behavior, Tourism
INTRODUCTİON
Tourism (especially natural-based tourism) highly depends on environment. Tourism is

particularly sensitive to environmental quality. The degradation of environmental quality
of a destination (e.g. air and water pollution, environmental noise, vegetation loss and
wildlife displacement) will reduce its attractiveness and competitiveness compared with
other destinations, and will negatively affect its further development of tourism (Lee, Jan,
& Yang, 2013). In other words, the environment is often regarded as the major pull factor
of tourist movements, contributing to the desirability and attractiveness of a tourist
destination, and it is an indispensable asset to the tourism industry (Lim & McAleer,
2005).
Protect the environment and while consumed environmental resources, which is a very
important issue to think about the need for these resources in the future. In particular, the
increased world population and industrialization impact on environmental pollution also
this rates are increasing day by day. Institutions and organizations for the protection of the
environment is a great responsibility. But it is very important for the individual to
demonstrate pro-environmental behavior as to pave the way for the widespread adoption of
such a culture in society. Values influence environmental behavior indirectly, via behavior-
specific beliefs, attitudes, and norms. Values may also affect the extent to which people are
aware of environmental problemsassociated with their behavior (i.e., awareness of
consequences). Awareness of consequenceswill increase if important environmental values
are threatened, and people may adjust theirbehavior in accordance to reduce this threat.
1
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Management, Düzce University, Düzce, Turkey.
2
Lecturer, Social Sciences Vocational Schools, Bingöl University, Bingöl, Turkey.
3
Graduated School of Düzce University, Tourism and Hotel Management, Düzce, Turkey.
433
Many researchers (e.g., Rice, 2006; Schwartz, 1994) have examined value system in an
effort to explain pro-environmental behavior. Post-materialist values typically are held by
more affluent citizens who have fewer worries about the basic materials of life; they tend
to be concerned with ―higher-level‖ goals and actions such as self-improvement, personal
freedom, and providing direct input to government. Among students, holding moral
principles is a better predictor of environmental actions, whereas among community
residents, tangible possessions (such as material economic rewards) are better predictors of
environmental actions (Axelrod & Lehman, 1993).
The aim of this study was determine whether the tourists have altruistic values and they
show pro-environmental behavior. The main question of the study, determine the tourists
who have altruistic perception of value the impact on the pro- environment behavior. In
addition the study has sub-objectives that pro- environmental behavior whether changed
according to demographics features of tourists.
ALTUIRISTIC VALUE
Relationships between values, behavior-specific beliefs, and environmental behavior have

been studied extensively in social and environmental psychology (Corraliza & Berenguer,
2000; García, et al., 2003). A large number of studies concerning values in environmental
research are based on Schwartz‘s Value Theory (1992). Schwartz(1992) defines value as
―a desirable trans-situational goal varying in importance, which serves as a guiding
principle in the life of a person or other social entity‖ . Values not only represent a
society's most central cultural features (Hofstede, 2001; Schwartz, 2004) but are also
fundamental factors influencing individuals' attitudes, beliefs, worldviews, norms and
behaviors. The two most widely used value constructs to predict pro-environmental
behaviors may be Schultz's value scale(1998) and Stern's value scale. Stern's scale has
three dimensions: social-altruistic value, egoistic value and biospheric value. altruistic
values prescribe that adverse consequences are likely to occur to others and that an
individual can, by the appropriate action, prevent or ameliorate those consequences (Stern
& Dietz, 1994) Some studies about pro-social behavior have not supported a distinction
between biospheric and altruistic values; But Han(2015) cites that is generally believed to
be effective to differentiate altruistic from biospheric value orientations (De Groot & Steg,
2007; Klockner, 2013). Since the ecological problems are more visible in recent years, a
separate biospheric value is emerging and considered to be a critical aspect of value in
explicating one's pro-environmental decision-making process and behavior. Altruistic
value in that altruistic behaviors are based on the perceived benefits and costs to others.
Altruistic values are exhibited when someone makes an environmental decision based on
the benefits/costs to others, as opposed to oneself, whether the decision involves the
society. ( Lee at al., 2014).
Based on prior research, we explore the role of altruistic value in predicting pro-
environmental behavior. We assume people with altruistic orientation care about other
people and species and, therefore, they are more likely to engage in activities that will help
protect or preserve the environment than those with less altruistic orientation (Schultz et
al., 2005). Thus, we anticipate a positive relationship between altruistic value orientation
and the pro environmental behavior.
434
PRO – ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVİOR
Many studies on environmental behavior have been conducted without carefully defining
environmental behavior. Often environmental behavior is assumed to be an
undifferentiated class of behaviors (Stern, 2000). By doing so, it is implicitly assumed that
various types of environmental behavior are dependent on similar factors, which is not
always the case (Stern et al).
In using the term pro-environmental behaviour, we are not implying that the behaviour has
a positive benefit on the environment, but rather that it has less of a negative impact than
an alternative behaviour. We question whether such measures are meaningful given the
likely heterogeneity between behavioural dimensions of the extent to which an individual‘s
behaviour tends to be proenvironmental. We evaluate whether a simple sum of behavioural
indicators from multiple dimensions provides a good summary measure of the extent to
which a person tends to act in an pro- environmental way. We do this by comparing it to an
empirically-derived weighted sum with respect to an internal validity criterion.
Furthermore, we assess the extent to which such measures explain the overall variability in
behaviour across a range of relevant behaviours. The solutions about environmental issues
have been producing and increasing day by day (Çabuk et al, 2003; 41). Formerly,
environmentalism means protection of nature and natural life, nowadays; it means a range
of activities which is supported wide masses and including more fields and meaning
(BaydaĢ, et al, 2000;468).
Pro environmental behavior is such behavior which is generally (or according to
knowledge of environmental science) judged in the context of the considered society as a
protective way of environmental behavior or a tribute to the healthy environment.
Environmentally protective option is to write a letter by handwriting instead of using a
computer, a tribute to the healthy environment is e.g. a disposal of illegal dumping .The
following terms can be used as equivalents for pro environmental behavior ―environment-
protective behavior‖ , ―environment-preserving behavior‖, ―environmentally responsible
behavior‖( Kaiser et al., 1999). To be exact, people are likely to become engaged in pro-
environmental behaviors to the extent that environmental problems have threatened
various objects they value, and they are aware of the harmful impacts (Stern and Dietsz,
1994).
Term ―green‖ is typically used interchangeably with pro-environmental. However, because
of differences in definitions of environment, the term is necessarily imprecise. We use term
―green‖ simply to indicate concern with physical environment (air, water, land)
(Schrum,1995). Green purchasing is to prefer purchasing green product to others (Schrum,
1995). In general, green product is known as an ecological product or eco-friendly product.
It is defined green product as the product that will not pollute the earth or deplore natural
resources, and can be recycled or conserved. It is a product that has more environmentally
sound content or packaging in reducing the environmental impact. In other words, green
product refers to product that incorporates the strategies in recycling or with recycled
content, reduced packaging or using less toxic materials to reduce the impact on the natural
environment (Chen & Choi, 2010)
Autio & Heinonen (2004, 138) added ethic term in green purchasing literature and stated
firstly, consciousness of environmental problems and social injustice, and secondly, a
degree of self-discipline and desire for knowledge. Thirdly, the consumer must believe that
an individual person can make a difference in the struggle against environmental
degradation through private consumption habits. Responsible consumers, who aim at
435
lowering their level of personal consumption or even buying fairtrade products, need
information to play an active role as consumers.
Unlike green purchase behavior which is limited to purchase of a green product, good
citizenship behavior is viewed in this study as a non-purchase-related activity to have a
positive impact on the environment. Examples may include participation in recycling and
taking part in a community clean-up drive. Good citizenship behavior seems to have a
more direct effect on the preservation or protection of the environment than green purchase
behavior because the effect of green purchase is not usually materialized through the
purchaser but through the business processes and practices employed by manufacturers and
their suppliers. One of the discerning characteristics that separate green purchase behavior
from good citizenship behavior may be their underlying motives. While purchasing of a
green product may be motivated by both personal (e.g., purchasing and consuming organic
produce for personal health) and public reasons (e.g., purchasing an eco-friendly product in
order to support the pro- environmental business), the motive for engaging in good
citizenship behavior is usually rooted in the public reasons. For example, making efforts to
avoid using aerosol spray cans can be costly to the person due to the inconvenience
associated with search and purchase of an alternative.
A person engaging in this behavior bases his decision on the potential benefits for the
environment and the society. Thus, we view good citizenship behavior as a purer and more
active form of pro-environmental behavior than green purchase behavior because it
requires some extent of personal cost or sacrifice and has a more direct effect on
environmental protection or preservation (Lee et al, 2014).
The final dimension of pro-environmental behavior is environmental activist behavior.
Environmental activism has been defined as a function of specific behaviors. Examples of
activists‘ behaviors include the following: being part of environmentalist movement
(Herrera,1992; Walsh& Warland, 1983);taking action on a particular environmental
problem or conservation issue; identifying strongly with a social group; signing a petition
or donation Money to a group; being committed to solve environmental problems; being an
active member of an environmental organisations (Edwards &Oskamp,1992). In majority
of cases, environmental activism is defined as function of associations of an environmental
organization (Segun et al, 1998).
Activists have a number of tactical weapons in their arsenal. Some tactics, such as civil
suits, may impose a direct financial obligation on the firm if successful, not to mention the
time and effort necessary defending oneself in court. Others, like protests, boycotts, and
letter writing campaigns may impact consumers‘ willingness to pay for firm products and
services and impact stock market valuations of the firm (Pruitt & Friedman, 1986)
Because environmental activist behavior is concerned with actions that are aimed at
making changes at the institutional level through political process, rather than at the
individual level, we view this as the most collective form of behavioral solutions to the
environmental problems. We believe all these three types of pro-environmental behavior
have a common effect, that is, to have a positive influence on the environment. While these
three types of behavior may be related to each other, and thus, discerning one from the
others may be challenging, we believe that an attempt to categorize the behaviors and
examine their antecedents will be helpful for advancing our knowledge in this field (Lee et
al, 2014).
436
PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF STUDY
The altruistic value perception of the main objectives of the research was to determine the
impact of tourists on pro-environmental behavior. First of all, they have been investigated
as a priority to pro-environmental behavior altruistic values and perceptions of those
surveyed and after altruistic perception of value has been determined that affect pro-
environmental behavior. Also studied the diversity of environmental behavior in terms of
demographic characteristics. Environmental protection and efficient use of environmental
resources will be faced in the coming years are very important for the prevention of severe
environmental damage. State government and individuals will have to treat sensitive for
protect the environment. In this study, the environmental behavior of altruistic values were
based on the assumption of a positive impact.Emphasizing the importance of altruistic
values and perceptions of individuals concerted effort to be placed in the family and school
either this perception is emphasized.
METHOD
Tourists altruistic value perception of pro-environmental behavior conducted this study to

determine the impact of quantitative research methods were used in survey techniques.
Düzce of Akçakoca district were collected by 110 tourists who visited easily from the
sampling method. There are eight questions on the scale that measures the value of
altruistic.These questions are taken from a study conducted by Stem and others(1994). 13
questions that measure pro- environmental behavior is taken from a study conducted in
2014 by Lee.Question 8 has also been added to determine the demographic characteristics
of survey participants.The reliability and validity of the scale was examined by three
academics.It conducted a pilot study on 30 people after application.It made the final
analysis the scale reliability coefficient alpha's pro- environmental behavior 81%, while the
altruistic values were 91%.basic statistics analyzed by SPSS 18 program in order to
identify research questions after this analysis was conducted.
FINDINGS
Demographic Characteristics of Participants
Demographic characteristics of the respondents in the survey are as follows. 38% are over
the age of 35, 61% were married, 68% were male, 86% is composed of graduate and post-
graduate degree. 62% have get over 2000 TL 60% work in public and 30% work in the
private sector, 10% are unemployed. The majority live in cities and the most common
leisure travels weekly then as they do daily.
The Altruistic Value Perceptions of Participants Research
There are eight questions, prepared to measure the altruistic values. The responses of those
surveyed are as follows. Does not matter a farthing, It's not important, Neither important
nor unimportant, Important, Very important
437
Tab. 1. Altruism Value
Altruistic Value Variables
Neither important nor

matter
It's not important
Very important
unimportant
Does not
Important
farthing
Mean
Adaptation to the environment (people, - - 5 5 4 4
buildings, production, consumption, etc.) . 0 4 .
5 . 3
5 9
Environmental protection - - 2 3 6 4
. 0 7 .
7 . 6
3 4
Prevention of environmental pollution - - 1 2 7 4

. 8 0 .
8 . 6
2 7
Respect the Earth (pollution, conservation, - - 3 3 6 4

save, development, etc.) . 2 3 .
6 . . 5
7 6 9
World peace - 1 2 7 4
. 1 6 .
8 . . 7
8 4 2
Social justice (in the standard of living of the - - 3 2 7 4

different segments of society, the balance of . 5 0 .
income subject) 6 . . 6
5 9 6
Helpfulness - 1 - 2 7 4
. 7 0 .
8 . . 6
3 9 6
Equality (equal sharing of resources, equal - 3 3 6 4

responsibility to protect, etc.) . 4 1 .
6 . . 5
5 8 7
Research shows that the respondents have altruistic value perception in general. The
highest trend is that world peace is very important. This charity is pursuing
helpfulness,social justice and environmental protection.
438
Environmentally Behavior Trends of Participants
Pro-environmental behavior consists of green consumer behaviour,green activistic

behaviour, green citizenship behaviour. General trends for these variables is as follows.
Tab. 2. Pro-Environmental Behavior

Environmentally Behavior Variable(3.74) Mean
Green Consumer Behaviour 3.90
Green Activistic Behaviour 3.13
Green Citizenship Behaviour 4.17
Study participants exhibit po-environmental behavior. tendency to become responsible

citizens is highest. The lowest average size is about the act of actively.
Altruistic Value Impact on Pro- Environmental Behavior
The following table related regression, about altruistic values of tourists impact on pro-
environmental behavior
Tab. 3. Effect of Altruism on Pro-Environmentally Behavior

a
Coefficients
Model Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) ,137 ,521 ,264 ,792
Altruism ,780 ,112 ,556 6,946 ,000
a. Dependent Variable: environmental friendly behavior
R ,556a, R Square,309, F:48,241,
According to regression analysis altruistic values affects demonstrate environmental

behavior (P = 000 <.05).This was the main question of the research and it turned out as
expected.The value of this altruistic effect is positive.These results demonstrated the need
to focus on the altruistic value which placed society.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Conducted to examine the effect of the tourists perception of altruistic values in pro-
environmental behavior over altruistic values to act according to the results of this study
are a positive influence on environmentalists. To create environmental awareness in the
community to that effect and should contribute to the preservation of environmental
resources. Protection of environmental resources consumed or damaged every day for
various reasons is a major issue. Pro- environmental behavior, which is a multi-
disciplinary subjects in this study were examined individually. tourists altruistic values and
perceptions of trends in environmental behavior were examined. those surveyed were
higher perception of altruistic values and behaviors it has been shown to exhibit green.
439
To compare these results with literature or common belief the following studies results are
to be presented. Cameron, Brown & Chapman (1998) concluded that altruistic value
orientation may lead to differences in environmental behaviors, primarily because of
differences in perceptions of the personal costs incurred from engaging in these behaviors.
This result is similar to (Garling et al, 2003) concluded that altruistic consequences were
more and egoistic consequences less salient. However, according to Joireman et al ‗ study
results (2001): egoistic expressed stronger pro-environmental intentions and stronger belief
in the social consequences of environmental conditions.
Environmental behavior showed actively involved in an organization or an organization
supporting the trends are lower. namely in terms of showing unity as individual attention
on environmental protection of research participants are showing positive behavior. exhibit
altruistic behavior trends indicate any difference in terms of gender differences in terms of
demographic characteristics. women tend to have more green behavior than men. As a
result of this work should be related both to individuals and organizations in the
community who are advised to work to protect the environment. And also made a small
resort in the area that has less environmental pollution in this study is recommended for
areas that have more environmental pollution. by region and thus preferred
environmentalists determined that the differences in altruistic behavior. also advised to
research will take place in the cultural factors that affect pro- environmental behavior, the
researchers will be working in this field.
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SESSION: SUSTAINABLE TOURISM, TOURISM PLANNING AND
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
A RESEARCH UPON THE SUSTAINABLE NATURE-BASED TOURISM:CASE OF

WESTERN BLACK SEA REGION OF TURKEY .......................................................... 445
THE APPLICATION OF GIS IN TOURISM PLANNING AND SUSTAINABLE
TOURISM DEVELOPMENT........................................................................................... 456
THE POTENTIALS FOR TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN THE MUNICIPALITY OF
BUGOJNO BASED ON THE HILLARY DU CROS METHOD OF VALORIZATION463
SUSTAINABILITY METRICS: MEASURING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FOR
TOURISM ......................................................................................................................... 474
CHANGES IN PATTERN OF SECOND HOME DEVELOPMENT IN COUNTRIES
ARISING FROM SOCIALIST FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF YUGOSLAVIA ................. 484
THE IMPACT OF CHEFS‘ NATIONAL CUISINE PERCEPTIONS ON THEIR
INTENTION TO PURCHASE LOCAL FOOD ............................................................... 495
REGIONAL AND LOCAL HAZARDS IN TOURISM – CASE STUDY OF
MINEFIELDS IN THE PROTECTED AREAS OF CANTON OF SARAJEVO ............ 509
DETERMINATION OF TOURISM ACTIVITIES OF THE WORLD‘S BEST TOURISM
DESTINATIONS WITH MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION MAKING METHOD .......... 521
PROPOSALS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE RURAL TOURISM IN
VILLAGES OF BOLKAR MOUNTAIN, EXAMPLE OF MADENKÖY ...................... 539
INVESTIGATING THE IMPACT OF THE AGE, GENDER AND YEARS LEARNING
ENGLISH ON LEARNING STYLES PREFERENCES .................................................. 553
ARE UNIVERSITY EMPLOYEES READY TO BE AN ―INTRAPRENEUR‖? A NEW
PERSPECTIVE OF STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCES FOR UNIVERSITIES ....... 563
DEFINITION, TYPES, SUSTAINABILTY AND RELATION OF TOURISM WITH
ENVIRONMENT, LANDSCAPE PLANNING AND RECREATION ........................... 571
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPORTS, RECREATION AND ADVENTURE TOURISM
IN TOURIST-GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ..... 579
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GREENING THE ECONOMY IN
TRANSITION COUNTRIES IN SE EUROPE: A CASE STUDY OF BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA .............................................................................................................. 593
VERNACULAR REGIONS AS A DETERMINANT FOR DEVELOPMENT OF
CREATIVE TOURISM IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ........................................ 601
443
444
A RESEARCH UPON THE SUSTAINABLE NATURE-BASED TOURISM:
CASE OF WESTERN BLACK SEA REGION OF TURKEY
Mehmet Keskin1
Orhan Akova2
Abstract: Natural and cultural assets are among the most important resources that generate the
tourism supply. Tourism trends are changing rapidly from mass tourism to alternative tourism and
in recent years there have been significant initiatives concerning sustainable and environmentally
sensitive tourism in Turkey. The Western Black Sea Region has a great potantial for nature-based
tourism with its biodiversity, unspoiled nature, lakes, waterfalls, National Parks and Protected
Areas. National Parks, Nature Parks, Natural Areas are under the responsibility of the Ministry of
Water Affairs and Forestry in Turkey. Many types of tourism and activities such as ecotourism,
nature tourism, hunting, trekking are carried out under the control of the General Directorate of
Nature Conservation and National Parks.The aim of this study is to evaluate the strategy of General
Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks for sustainable nature-based tourism and to
reveal sustainable nature-based tourism strategy for the Western Black Sea Region. For this
purpose, "Master Plan of Nature-Based Tourism of Sinop " examined by document analysis method
which was prepared by 10th Regional Directorate for the Province of Sinop. And also In-depth
interviews conducted with the 10.th Regional Director of Forestry about their activities and
strategies about sustaniable nature-based tourism. Findings show that Forestry has many activities
and practices sush as ―Enhancing Forest Protected Areas Management System‖,and ―Disabled-
Friendly Accessible National Park Project‖.
Keywords: Sustainable tourism, Nature-based tourism, General Directorate of Nature Conservation

and National Parks, Western Black Sea Region,
INTRODUCTION
Tourism has been expanding and diversifying so fast that it becomes one of the largest and
fastest growing economic sectors in the world over the past six decades. According to
United Nations World Tourism Organization, with over 1.1 billion tourists taking an
international trip every year, tourism continues to be an unstoppable force and a key driver
of the global economic recovery. Yet tourism´s record growth is not merely absolute
numbers. Tourism´s continued progress and expansion represents an effective solution for
many of the world´s greatest challenges. Indeed, few sectors are as strategically positioned
as tourism to contribute decisively to job creation, poverty alleviation, environmental
protection (UNWTO, 2015: 2). Many new destinations are introduced to get more share
from tourism benefits that are challenging the traditional tourism destinations of Europe
and North America (UNWTO 2012:2). As tourism industry develops implementation of
sustainable tourism principles has become increasingly important for tourism businesses,
tourists and local communities (Bride et al., 2010; Curto, 2006; Gursoy and Rutherford,
2004).
Especially after the Second World War, tourism industry developed in the form of mass
tourism and this has led to several negative impact on the natural and cultural environment.
1
Lecturer, Department of Tourism and Hotel Management, Gerze Vacational School, Sinop
University, Turkey.
2
Associate Professor, Department of Tourism Management, Economics Faculty, Istanbul
University, Turkey.
445
Negative factors can lead to the deterioration of the environment and resulting to lose of
the attractiveness of the region.Negative affects caused by the mass tourism on the
environment, changing expectations of tourists and number of different tourism seeking
and wanting to have high levels of interaction with nature (Kerr, 1991: 248) . Since the
beginning of humanity people intertwined with nature.Today‘s urban people tends to move
away from a variety of adverse effects such as traffic, pollution, noise, nature and natural
longing. These trends has revealed the use of sustainable tourism concepts, such as agro-
tourism, alternative tourism, ecotourism, soft tourism, slow tourism, rural tourism etc.
Turkey has several unique opportunities for different types of tourism compiled under the
category of alternative tourism however, it is yet hard to say that this potential is used in a
rational manner. In order to wiser use of natural, cultural, historical and geographical
assets that Turkey has, some strategic plan made bygovernment.In Tourism Strategy of
Turkey-2023 (Culture and Tourism Ministry,2007) instead of the mass concentration of the
Mediterranean and Agean Coastal areas its aimed to the tourism spread to the whole year
and to all regions by diversifying tourism activities. Additionally in Turkey Tourism 2023
Strategy Action Plan 2007-2013 (2007), sustainable tourism is referred as one of the
tourism development principles. As it is pointed out in the tourism vision of Turkey,
defined by Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism, tourism sector should be handled as
one of the leading sectors which contribute to regional development. Therefore, in this
Action Plan various tourism development corridors designated in relation to the features of
regions with the purpose of differentiating tourism development potentials, so that;
maximization of tourism benefits will be maintained through attracting different tourist
profiles. Western Black Sea Region declared as ecotourism oriented zone.
Forests and other natural areas are among the most popular ecotourism destination.
Therefore it is important to adopt a sustaniable development approach in the management
of natural areas. The Western Black Sea Region has a great potantial for nature-based
tourism with its biodiversity, unspoiled nature, lakes, waterfalls, National Parks and
Protected Areas. National Parks, Nature Parks, Natural Areas are under the responsibility
of the Ministry of Water Affairs and Forestry in Turkey.And the Black Sea region where
forest vegetation has a very important place in Turkey with biodiversity and natural
protected areas. A wide variety of tourism activities in natural areas located in Western
Black Sea Region being performed and maintenance of these areas, in order to protect
nature conservation and national parks are maintained by the regional offices. The aim of
this study is to examine the sustainable nature conservation and national parks for nature
tourism district directorate of operations.
SUSTANIABLE NATURE-BASED TOURISM
In the 1970s and 1980s, environmental issues (e.g., air and water pollution and endangered
species) sparked public concern and government intervention in the United States and
Europe (Ceron & Dubois, 2003; Choi & Sirakaya, 2005; Huayhuaca, Cottrell, Raadik, &
Gradl, 2010; Liu, 2003)During this same period, sustainability discussions attempted to
provide solutions to the most pressing environmental issues (Butler, 1999; Liu, 2003).
Although consensus on the definition of sustainability had not yet been reached (Valentin
& Spangenberg, 2000), the Brundtland Report asserted that sustainable development
―meets the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs‖ (World Commission on Environment and
Development, 1987, Conclusion section, para. 1). The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de
446
Janeiro, Brazil expanded on this definition by creating principles for sustainable
development (Cottrell, van der Duim, Ankersmid, & Kelder, 2004) that operationalize the
concept of sustainability and its application to development. With human societies moving
into the 21st century, sustainability and sustainable development have become increasingly
important, and the concept of sustainable development has been widely used as an
organizing framework in political agendas (Dymond, 1997; Cottrell, Vaske & Roemer,
2013).).
As the tourism industry continues to grow, applying sustainable development principles
becomes increasingly important for tourism stakeholders (Brida et al., 2010; Curto, 2006;
Gursoy &Rutherford, 2004). Over the last few decades, expansive and uncontrolled
tourism development is accompanied by manyundesirable environmental, social and
cultural implications that impose the need for tourism to be under the concept of
sustainable development. Sustainability of tourism development depends on environmental
opportunities to ensure a stable and lasting basis.
Conventional mass tourism, which is the most common form of tourism development, has
generally accepted as an unsustainable form of tourism because of it is being opposite to
sustainable development principles and objectives. Therefore, the concerns about tourism
development have risen up. The need of approaching tourism in sustainable development
context has become one of the main concerns of tourism theorists and practitioners since
1990s‘. As Hunter (1997) indicated, the paradigm of conventional tourism development
has substantially shifted to a new way of development, which is, namely, sustainable
tourism development.
The first definition of sustainable tourism has been declared by the United Nation World
Tourism Organization in 1996: "tourism which leads to management of all areas, in such a
way, that the economic, social and environmental needs are being fulfilled with the cultural
integration, ecological processes, biodiversity and supporting the development of
societies". In addition, with reference to the concept of sustainable development, be
considered not only in relation to specific categories of tourist activity, but also in relation
to the framework for creating all forms of tourism, including mass tourism and its types.
The concept of sustainable development based on environmental, social and economic
grounds, which are also basis for sustainable tourism.
Some of the sustainable tourism activities should be characterized by (Buckley 2009):
- Optimal use of natural resources, proper environmental management processes and
efforts to preserve, biodiversity,
- Respect for socio-cultural attitudes of the local community, the preservation of cultural
and traditional values, as well as taking action to intercultural understanding and tolerance,
- Ensuring real and lasting economic processes enabling to benefit society by all actors
involved, includingstable employment and income-earning opportunities.
The natural environment has long been utilized as are source for tourism development
(Maher,2012). Particularly,tourists are attracted by breathtaking landscapes in protected
areass. Nature-based tourism is considered an important component of sustainable tourism
development, particularly in remote areas. However, ―nature-based tourism‖ is a
controversial term with no coherent definition(Goodwin, 1996). An early explication of
Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) describes nature-based tourism's direct dependency on natural
resources in a relatively undeveloped state, including scenery, water features, vegetation,
andwildlife. Since the late 1980s, nature-based tourism and ecotourism, which requires an
explicit contribution to nature conservation(Boo,1990; Job & Paesler, 2013), The concept
of nature based tourism is broad and encompassing. It is therefore unsurprising that
447
establishing an exact definition has proved to be both difficult and is a source of ongoing
debate among researchers (Fennell, 2000; Higgings, 1996; Mehmetoglu, 2007). Despite
this, particular elements are common among many of the definitions, namely that learning,
recreation and adventure take place in natural surroundings (Laarman & Durst, 1987;
Laarman & Gregersen, 1996; Wurzinger & Johansson, 2006).
Nature based tourism is frequently used synonymously with other terms such as
sustainable tourism, green, rural, alternative, adventure and responsible tourism (Higgings,
1996; Luzar et al., 1998; Priskin, 2001; Roberts & Hall, 2004; Weiler & Hall, 1992).
Valentine and Cassells (1991)have argued that nature based tourism experiences
(activities)can be classified into three distinct types: experiences dependenton nature,
experiences enhanced by nature, and experiences inwhich the natural settings are
supplementary.In this study, we define nature based tourism astourism activities in which
the focus is upon activities that takeplace in a nature area and where the tourism activities
are directlyor indirectly dependent on the natural environment.
There are many studies in the literature related to sustainable tourism that has become an
important issue for tourist destinations. Some studies are available in a book form such as;
Sustainable tourism (Mowforth and Munt, 2003), marketing approach to sustainable
tourism (Middleton and Rebecca 1998) and some studies examined the sustainable tourism
by the perspectives of tourists (Beguma, et al., 2014), local governments (Selvi and Sahin,
2012; Delgado and Palomeque, 2014), local community (Cottrell, et al., 2013). Howewer
there is not enough studies about the role and plans of the forestry. Therefore, in this study
we determine the activities and strategy of General Directorate of National Parks and
Nature Conservationrelated to sustaniable nature based tourism
NATURE CONSERVATION AND NATIONAL PARKS GENERAL

DIRECTORATE’ RESPONSIBILITIES
General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parksresponsible for managing

the national parks, nature parks, natural monuments and other nature conservation area.
Nature Conservation and National Parks some substances contained in the regulations
relating to the duties of the General Directorate as follows:
National parks, nature parks, natural monuments, separation of nature conservation

areas and adequate recreation ares, conservation, planning,organization,
development, promotion, management, operation and carry out activities releated
to processing by.
To make open space arrangement, landscaping projects, infrastructure project

according to the changing and developing conditions, make revision work that
would be needed .
To carry out the implementation plan for nature based tourism activities at the
national parks, nature parks, natural monuments and in accordance with the nature
conservation areas.
Develop policies for the protection of nature, related to the sustainable use of
biological resources, protection of biodiversity and landscape strategy, criteria and
principles of doing business and operations
448
General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks (DCM) national parks,
nature parks, natural monuments, is a general manager responsible for managing the area
more attractive compared to other woods in terms of ecotourism as nature protection areas.
This field of general manager responsibility carries more opportunities for ecotourism but
in terms of the potential adverse effects of ecotourism plays a greater risk. As can be seen
in action in the National Forestry Program 109, coordination and leadership role in
ecotourism belongs to the General Directorate of Nature Protection and National Parks.
This mandate is a mandate of the nature of the business should be considered correct.
Indeed, tourism, eco-tourism, the industry leader in the recreation issue should be the
General Directorate of DCM.
The sustainable use of natural and cultural assets is increasing the need for ecologically
based land use planning. This requirement is increased by the ongoing pressures on the
natural and cultural environment (land speculation, population growth, environmental
issues, legal inadequacies and gaps, improper resource management, etc.) It has become a
necessity to the cause. Determining the promotion and use of important natural and
cultural areas of planning criteria, with tourism and recreational potential will increase the
attractiveness of this region. Many of the tourism and recreational activities take place in
rural areas. Recreation plan for the development of rural areas can provide opportunities
for the economic development of rural areas (Yesil, 2010).
Turkey has many natural and that constitutes an important and rich in potential for
alternative tourism and recreation and cultural resource values have the opportunity.
However, this potential due to lack of proper planning and rational approach can not be
used effectively for nature based tourism and conservation. In this study we examined the
activity and plans of the General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks
for the environmental protection and nature-based tourism.
METHODOLOGY
Research data were collected by using document analysis method of qualitative research
techniques. Document analysis, analysis of written materials contain information about the
subject of research (Yildirim and Simsek, 2005: 188-189). Document analysis is a
technique for using the pre-existing or occurring materials (Scott and Morrison, 2005;
Ozkul and Demir, 2012). For this context ―Nature Tourism Master Plan‖ was examined
which prepared by 10th. Regional Directorate of Forestry for the five province of Western
Black Sea Region of Turkey. Also qualitative research methods, interview, used for data
collection. In this context semi-structured questionnaire form used and interview was
conducted with Oguz BAYAZIT, 10th Regional Director of Forestry.
Forestry and Water Affairs Ministry has 15 Regional Directorates and 81 Provincial
Directorates. 10th Regional Directorate is responsible for 5 provinces (Bartin, Karabuk,
Kastamonu, Sinop and Zonguldak) of Western Black Sea Region of Turkey. There are 2
national parks 12 natural parks and 5 nature monument in the region
(http://sinop.ormansu.gov.tr/). Sinop is headquarter of regional diroctorate so that was
chosen as the sample frame forthis study.
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FINDINGS
1. Strategies for the Development of Nature Tourism at the National Parks, Nature
Parks and Similar Fields
Tab.1. National parks, nature parks and similar fields of Sinop

Name District
Hamsilos Natural Park Sinop
Tatlıca Waterfall Nature Park Erfelek
Topalçam Nature Park Boyabat
Basalt Cliffs Natural Monument Boyabat
Çatak Kanyonu Tabiat Parkı (bid field) Türkeli
Çangal Tabiat Parkı (bid field) Ayancık
Akgöl Tabiat Parkı Ayancık
Sarikum Nature Reserve Sinop
Bozburun Wildlife Development Field Sinop
According to finding at Sinop Nature Tourism Master Plan some of the strategies for
nature parks and similar fields (Tab. 1.) are as follows:
Natural parks and other tourism assets of Sinop has not yet reached the carrying
capacity Therefore, with marketing activities and other arrangements can be attract
more visitors.
In order to ensure the drinking, eating and navigation of the visitors, convenience
facilities such as restaruant, cafe and walking path and bike path need to be done at
Hamsilos Natural Park
Sarikum Nature Reserve should be converted to a nature park and this area should
be planned as Outdoor Nature Education Center. This nature education should be
planned for the summer and winter periods with individual education programs.
Implementation of nature will bring additional mobility training is foreseen in
nature tourism.
Erfelek Tatlica Falls Nature Park is cuitable for picnic and trekking concept. In
addition, visitors should be provided to leave more income for the local people by
adding their gastronomic value of Erfelek County. Erfelek County natural products
such as walnut, pickles, nuts, molasses, dried vegetables, dried fruits, canned
foods, jam, etc. assessment of the tourism market will be additional value-added to
local community.
It is necessary to be done a Stone Museum at the Basalt Cliffs Natural Monument
to attraction of more visitors.
Catak Canyon in Turkeli Town and Cangal Forest in Ayancik Town should be
registered as a Natural Park for beter conservation and planned nature tourism
activitity. At Cangal Forest and Akgol Lake Youth camps, summer schools should
be made here. The old plant was demolished obsolete construction of new facilities
will be provided.
Sinop has great potantial for nature-based tourism with its wildlife observation
fields, hiking, mountain haking, nature and authentic villages trips, highlands etc.
450
if deemed necessary, field development plans and plan changes should be done to
made beter facilities.
2. Strategies for the Geological Formations and Waterfalls
Tab. 2. Cave, Canyons and Waterfalls of Province of Sinop

Caves District
Inaltı Cave Ayancık
Buzluk Cave Durağan
Canyons
Inaltı Canyon Ayancık
Catak Canyon Turkeli
Waterfalls
Tatlica Waterfalls Erfelek
Poyracık Waterfalls Gerze
Sorgun Waterfalls Gerze
In the same document strategic decisions for the development of nature-based tourism for
the canyons, caves and waterfalls value (Tab. 2.) are as follows:
In the use of the cave, attention should be paid to ecological sustainability and
necessary measures must be taken to prevent damage.
Canyons in the area should be mapped, walk and vehicle road should be detailed
and walkways and marking deficiencies to be remedied.
In order to promotion of all karstic value and to eliminate the lack of
accommodation and other infrastructure facilities cooperation should be made with
the Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate.
For the rural development purposes and to benefit from tourism income of the
work should be done in collaboration with other institutions.
3. Activities and Strategic Plans of 10th Regional Director of Forestry for Sustaniable
Nature- Based Tourism
Since the aim of the study is to understand and reveal the activities and plans of Regional
Directorate of Forestry on sustaniable nature-based tourism in depth, an interview was
conducted on May 2015. The interview was recorded and fully transcribed in order to
guarantee rich data. The interviews were based on a semi-structured framework, which
allowed rather flexible conversations to take place while stil ensuring that the main issues
were discussed. Accordingly, open-ended questions were used, covering topics such as;
meaning of sustaniable tourism, what shoulld be done to ensure the sustainability of
natural areas, The current situation in terms of sustainability of the destinations of Sinop,
Activities about nature-based tourism as Regional Directorate of Nature Conservation and
National Parks and what are the strategies about sustainable nature-basd tourism.
Following part contain response of Oguz BEYAZIT who is the 10. Regional Director of
Forestry.
451
3.1. Meaning of sustaniable nature tourism and needs to be done to ensure the
sustainability of natural areas?
Sustainable tourism has emerged in response to the increasingly negative impactsof the
tourism in the nature of destination. Sustainable nature tourism is sensitive tourism
to the natural environment. In order to sustainability of the natural environment, there
should no interference with nature nothing must be left to nature and noting should be
taken from the nature by the visitors. Visitors and locals of the natural areas, should be
informed about the deterioration of naturalness. While investment structure, naturalness of
nature must be protected. The carrying capacity of the natural areas do not exceed for
commercial considerations.
3.2. The Current situation in terms of sustainability of the destinations of Sinop
Despite cultural values, unique natural beauties such as Hamsilos Bay, Akliman, Erfelek
Waterfalls, rich vegatation and biodiversity there is not enough visitors to destination of
Sinop. So natural areas in the region have not yet reached the carrying capacity. visitors to
our region are concentrated in such a short period is 2-3 months during the summer and
and the vast majority of these visitors are locals who residing in other cities. Another issue
related to region most of the tourist come with daily tour or stay only a night. To generate
more revenue from tourism for the regional development and local economy. Also efforts
should be made to extend the length of stay of those visitors.
3.3. Activities and practices as Regional Directorate of Nature Conservation and

National Parks on sustainability of nature tourism.
General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks is the most important
guarantee in country's biodiversity, nature and management of protected areas. Our region
in Western Black Sea Region has two national parks, two nature conservation area and 12
nature parks within many nature tourism sources. As Regional Directorate with our
Provincial Directorates, national and international various stakeholders we are pursuing a
number of projects for the development of a number of protected areas for nature tourism.
Some of our projects are;
A project by the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, an IUCN

(International Union for Conservation of Nature) Member, carried out in Küre
Mountains National Park, was chosen as best practice on sustainable development
and green economy. The project ―Enhancing Forest Protected Areas Management
System‖ implemented in Küre Mountains National Park aims to improve the
effectiveness of the management of Turkey‘s forests in the National System of
Protected Areas. The project activities have resulted in improved protection for the
unique wilderness of the site and effective participation of local people in nature
conservation activities. The project has succeeded in setting up a conservation
model for the National Park, for sustainable development and tourism, and the
green economy. This model has become exemplary for other forest hotspots in
Turkey and the National System of Protected Areas (http://www.iucn.org/).
452
―Disabled Accessible National Park Project‖ is another project for Küre Mountain
National Park. 1400 meters on hiking trails will be designed for the disabled and
observation deck will be made of the about 500 meters on the Catak canyon.
Kocagöz Mansion in Küre Mountain National Park district in Ulus Town of Bartin
Province restoring byProvincial Directorates and it will be used as center of
presentation and ethnography museum.
Our Regional Regional Directorate has cooperation with universities of the region
for natureconservation. In this context, Provincial Directorates holding meetings,
workshops, symposium and conference. For example, Biodiversity Panel for
Sustainable Development was held with Kastamonu University and bio anti-
trafficking seminar was held in Bartin University.
For the Province of Sinop, some of the prectices for Erfelek Waterfalls and
Hamsilos, which are among the most visited places in the region, environmental
and landscape arrangements projects are conducted. Walkways and
parkingarrangement and garbage container are part of our activities for the nature
tourism in Sinop.
3.4. Strategies for sustainable nature-based tourism of Sinop
As we declared in Nature Tourism Master Plan of Sinop, we have strategies about

development, marketing, visitors management, monitoring and evaluation topic. Some of
our strateies for sustaniable nature tourism are as follows:
Sustainable nature tourism products, in the development process without damage

with local culture, local environment and society should be considered in harmony.
In areas with a high potential for nature tourism should be considered as a tool for
local development
Destination-focused promotion and marketing of natural areas can be in national
and international areas.
protection policies for natural areas and visitor management criteria should
identified thuseffective management must be provided with taking into account the
expectations of visitors and local people.
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
In recent years there has been a rapid growth in nature-based tourism. Tourism in nature
conservation areas requires appropriate management and more sensitivity to nature in order
to minimize the adverse effect of touristic activities. This study aimed, through an
explorative approach, to understand how nature-based tourism management perceive as
protector of natural areas and what kind ofstrategies and activities they are currently using.
Theresults of this study show that forestry as nature-based tourism management operating
many Project in order to protect nature and sustainability of nature tourism.
453
Province of Sinop in Western Black Sea Region of Turkey has many natural assets for
tourism and these areas are under the carriying capacity. In order to Protection of Nature
Tourism application of social structure, provided that the economic benefits to local
people, to be implemented as ecological sustainability benefits and this will be provided
social benefits. Nature Tourism sustainability and efficiency of the public to enrich the
provincial level, associations, academics and university staff about the subject take place
under the same roof as the advisory body of sector stakeholders.
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THE APPLICATION OF GIS IN TOURISM PLANNING AND
SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
Alma Pobrić1
Amina Sivac2
Abstract: Tourism planning is a complex process that includes the involvement of a number of
factors during the process of decision-making. Taking into account that any rational planning of
tourism should be in line with the principles of sustainable development, which means to preserve
the physical and social-geographical attributes of a destination, but at the same time striking a
balance with the interests of the local communities, private and public sectors, the use of geographic
information systems (GIS) has become an imperative in the process. Tourism is an activity which
depends on natural resources, but is also a phenomenon which can have a destructive effect on the
natural geographic environment in case of an inadequate access to its planning and development. In
addition, during the daily management and operations of tourist facilities, a large number of tourists
are a big consumer of energy and water and at the same time produce a significant amount of solid
waste, hazardous gases and waste water. These negative impacts of tourism can be prevented or
reduced by the application of certain GIS technology in order to achieve sustainable tourism
development. This papers main objective is to explore the potential of GIS application in a process
of tourism planning and its sustainable development, for the purpose of long-term survival of the
tourism destination.
Keywords: GIS, tourism, tourism planning, sustainable development
INTRODCTION
Tourism planning is a complex process that includes the involvement of a number of

factors during the process of decision-making. Any rational planning of tourism should be
in line with the principles of sustainable development, which means to preserve the
physical and social-geographical attributes of a destination, at the same time striking a
balance with the interests of the local communities, private and public sectors. Therefore,
the use of geographic information systems (GIS) has become an imperative in the process.
Geographic Information System (GIS) is one of the most important technological

innovations in the process of tourism planning and decision-making for the further
development of tourism. It is defined as "a system for collecting, storing, checking,
integrating, managing, analyzing and displaying data which are spatially associated with
the Earth" (Burrough, McDonnell, 1998.), which usually includes spatial databases and
related applications. GIS is used in many sciences and scientific disciplines, notably
geography, regional and spatial planning and environmental protection, but also in
economics, anthropology, archeology and other sciences where tourism is of interest.This
is because it‘s a valuable tool for managing, analyzing and displaying data related to the
local and regional levels of the various activities. A huge advantage of GIS is to enable the
1
2
456
inclusion of all stakeholders who are included in the tourism development process of a
certain area. GIS can unite the point of view of state institutions, NGOs, private companies
and organizations. Based on the views of all relevant stakeholders, it can help them to
make the best decisions for the development of tourism in a particular area.
SOME POSSIBILITIES OF GIS APPLICATION IN TOURISM PLANNING AND

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
Tourism is an activity which depends on natural resources, but is also a phenomenon

which can have a destructive effect on the natural geographic environment in case of an
inadequate access to its planning and development. Negative impacts of tourism on the
environment are manifested primarily through its degradation bythe mass tourist visits and
the construction of tourism infrastructure in inadequate areas. In addition, during the daily
management and operations of tourist facilities, a large number of tourists are a big
consumer of energy and water and at the same time produce a significant amount of solid
waste, hazardous gases and waste water.
These negative impacts can be prevented or reduced by the application of certain GIS
technology in order to achieve sustainable tourism development. Main applications of GIS
in planning and management of sustainable development of tourism include the following
activities:
inventory of natural and cultural resources of a destination;

determining the shortest path between two or more places;
planning and determining the appropriate location for the development of tourism;
promotion of a tourist destination;
determiningpaths and attractions suitable for sustainable tourism.
Inventory of natural and cultural resources of a destination
An inventory of tourism resources primarily involves creating a database of the physical

geographical and social-geographical tourism resources of a destination, but also including
the data of tourism infra and superstructure, demographics, etc.
The next step is digitizing all or some of the items listed above and their integration into a
single interactive map connected to a previously made database. An example is shown in
Fig. 1. This database can contain various information - from basic data about the attraction
to its detailed description, possible times of visits, the ticket price etc.
After the user selects one and/or more objects in the database, it will automatically be
highlighted on the accompanying interactive map and vice versa. This enables the user to
obtain more information about the location and characteristics of specific attractions,
thereby enabling easier selection of the desired route and the places of interest.
457
Fig. 1. GIS database and map of cultural heritage in downtown Sarajevo with tourist
information included
Determining the shortest path between two or more places
Determining the shortest or the most suitable path between two or more attractions is the
part of the GIS which is mostly used by the destination visitors. Users can establish a
tourist route with landing points by their own choice, where GIS provides them the
information on the distance between the selected attractions, shortest relation between
them etc.
458
Fig. 2. The shortest route plan from PA VreloBosne to PA Skakavac in Sarajevo Canton
Users can also plan routes for an entire journey, calculate drive-times, locate facilities and
solve other network related problems. On the other hand, the management of tourist
destinationscan use this option to create their own itineraries and offer them to visitors. All
of this can be done by a part of the ArcGIS called Network Analyst, which provides users
network-based spatial analysis tools for solving complex routing problems. It uses a
configurable transportation network data model, allowing users to accurately represent
their unique network requirements.
Planning and determining the appropriate location for the development of tourism
The planning and determination of appropriate sites for tourism development is one of the
most important functions of GIS in terms of tourism planning. Creating a database for
morphometric characteristics (the morphometric features of the terrain, the horizontal and
vertical articulation of relief, slope and elevation of the terrain, exposure, etc.),
exogenously-geomorphological, hydrological and soil characteristics and their
cartographic representation, is the basis for all the future activities in terms of tourism
planning.
This involves determining the most suitable location for building new touristic sites and
infrastructure or the renewal of existingones, planning new zones to practice various forms
of tourism activities and the determination of the maximum allowable number of tourists in
a particular area for a purpose of a sustainable development.The measurement and
459
monitoring of tourism impacts would include the registration of changes in destinations
brought by tourism development. This enables the assessment of the advantages and
disadvantages brought by tourism, and also a good basis for all the future activities.
Promotion of a tourist destination
The promotion of a tourist destination by using GIS involves the synthesis of the results of
the inventory of tourism resources process, their mapping and presentingthem to the
tourists through a website aimed at the tourist promotion of an area. Promotion via the
Internet has become an obligation for all decision makers in the process of tourism
planning and development, such as public authorities and organizations responsible for
tourism and the relevant ministries and tourism organizations.
Given that tourism has a very strong geographical component, the use of geographic maps
is of the utmost importance in the process of thepromotion of a destination. GIS can also
be useful to identify areas that have the best profit potential. For example, data on the
frequency of traffic in certain areas within the destination may affect the values of defining
specific locations for the placement of promotional materials such as billboards.
Fig. 3. A story map of downtown Sarajevo with multimedia content included
As a part of ArcGIS, Esri Story Maps lets users use the full power of the world's leading
mapping and GIS platforms to create their own maps. This is particularly important for the
management of tourist destinations, although it can be used by local community members
who would like to promote their local attractions as well. Esri Story Maps letsusers
combine authoritative maps with narrative text, images, and multimedia content.
Determining paths and attractions suitable for sustainable tourism
The use of sophisticated methods, primarily the production of various models of tourism
development using the simulation, is becoming increasingly present in destination planning
and management. New technologies in tourism development are imposing a growing need
for the application of geographical information technologies in tourism, in order to meet
the requirements of tourists in terms of the creation of the tourism product, and in relation
460
to the choice of thedevelopment strategy whose implementation will ensure the sustainable
development of tourism.
GIS can be used very efficiently in order to relieve the attractions from excessive tourist
concentration. This is achieved by recording, digitizing and mapping the attributive
attractions in the wider area of the primary indicative attractions. Maps with the
aforementioned alternative tourist attractions and routes should be set in areas with a large
number of tourists, but also in the vicinity of accommodation facilities, as well as in
printed tour guides.
A large number of tourists can easily contribute to the degradation of the primary
attractions. Therefore it‘s necessary to define the maximum carrying capacity of the
attractions and to properly manage the number of tourists who are visiting them. On the
other hand,a number of interesting attractions which have considerable potential but are
not sufficiently valorized can be promoted in this manner.
Fig. 4. Mapping the paths of sustainable tourism forms in Sarajevo Canton
Fig. 4. shows a map of the Sarajevo Canton, with the specified paths for hiking, caves,
waterfalls, lakes, protected areas and other attractions in this area which are not sufficiently
valorized. Using GIS provides their better involvement in tourism development, thus
enabling a long-term survival of primary resource and the sustainable development of the
entire destination.
461
CONCLUSION
GIS has enormous potential for application in tourism which has not been sufficiently
utilized. Currently the most important applications of GIS in tourism is related to the
inventory of physical and socio-geographical tourism resources, and the calculation of the
best routes and the shortest paths between two or more attractions. The possibility of the
application of GIS to determine the most suitable areas for the building of new tourist
accommodation facilities as well as for the construction of new attractions and / or the
renovation of existing tourism infra and supra structure is so far underutilized, even though
it has a large importance and potential. It is also important to emphasize the possibility of
the application of GIS in the process of helping visitors to make a decision about traveling
to a specific destination. This is particularly evident in the modern era of technology,
where most decisions about taking trips happen through the promotion of a destination via
internet portals. Beyond that, GIS facilitates the accessibility of the destination through
navigation, but also by providing the ability for tourists to plan routes and to access
information about accommodations, cultural events, weather conditions and other benefits
provided by interactive maps as a result of the personal inquiries of tourists.
REFERENCE LIST
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Retrieved 27 May 2015 from
http://www.gisdevelopment.net/Education/papers/edpa0003.htm
2. Baker, T. R. (2005). Internet-Based GIS Mapping in Support of K-12 Education.
The ProfessionalGeographer, pp. 44-50. Oxford. Blackwell Publishing.
3. Baker, T. R. &Bednarz, S. W. (2003). Lesson Learned from Reviewing Research
in GIS Education.Journal of Geography, pp. 231-233,Washington. National
Council for Geographic Education
4. Burrough, P.P., McDonnell, R.A. (1998). Principles of Geographical Information
System. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
5. Davis, B. (1996). GIS: A Visual Approach. Santa Fe, Onward Press
6. Feick, R., Hall B. (2004). Sensitivity analysis of multi-criteria methods for site
evaluation using a GIS decision support tool.International Journal of Geographic
Information Science, pp. 815-840. Oxford. Taylor & Francis
7. Hall, C.M. (2008). Tourism Planning: Policies, Processes and Relationships – 2nd
ed. Essex. Pearson Education.
8. Mason P. (2003). Tourism impacts, planning and management, Burlington,
Butterworth Heinemann
9. Neidhardt, T. (2004).Sarajevo kroz vrijeme, Sarajevo, Arka press
10. Pang, A. (2001). The Educational Effectiveness of Dynamic and Interactive Data
Visualization and Exploration in Geographical Education. Masters Thesis,
Department of Geography, Birkbeck College, University of London
11. Pobriš, A., Robinson M.G., Engelstoft S. (2004). "Débaptiser les rues de Sarajevo
et l'identitébosniaque", L'Europe de l'Estquinzeans après la chute du mur, Des
pays baltes à l'ex-Yougoslavie, pp. 325-330.Paris, L'Harmattan, collection
Géographie et Cultures
12. Stynes D.J., O‘Halloran C. (1987).Tourism Planning, Lansing, Michigan State
University
462
THE POTENTIALS FOR TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN THE
MUNICIPALITY OF BUGOJNO BASED ON THE HILLARY DU CROS
METHOD OF VALORIZATION
Dario Šakić1
Miranda Čaveliš
Abstract: To properly plan for tourism development of great significance is existence of cultural,
historical and natural heritage potentials in a certain area. That potential can be evaluated from
several aspects. One of the aspects is the topic of this work: a tourist-geographical evaluation of the
cultural - historical and natural heritage. This paper is therefore to analyze the potential of Bugojno
for tourism development. A total of 30 cultural and natural potential attractions are analyzed. The
aim of this paper is to point out the resources of Bugojno, applying the method of tourist
valorization of natural and cultural resources by model Hilary du Cross. This method will identify
the values of market attractiveness indicators, factors of importance when designing tourism
products, cultural/natural importance and robustness of the site for tourism development. In terms of
tourist valorization of a geographic area or destination, it is necessary to determine the elements of
the natural, historical and cultural heritage. It is necessary to isolate the historical events and
personalities associated with certain periods as well as properly review and know the current
situation, with all the negatives, strengths and opportunities that this area offers. The results indicate
that, in the long term, tourism can be an important economic sector in the region.
Keywords: Tourism potential, valorization, Hilary du Cros, Bugojno
INTRODUCTION
Attractive potentials (natural and anthropogenic elements of area) are one of the
most important resources and the condition for the existence and survival of every tourist
destination (Richards, 2002). The attraction is considered certain characteristics of the area
(destination) that was directly specific towards location and motif of certain tourist
activities (Weaver, 2006). To determine the attractive properties of tourism potential and
destinations in general and formed an appropriate tourist offer, it is necessary to conduct
the tourist valorization. It is a complex process of evaluating the space, content and
appearance which characterize a particular destination, from a view of evaluation
opportunities for tourism economy. This paper is therefore to analyze the potential of
Bugojno for tourism development. The aim of this paper is to point out the resources of
Bugojno, applying the method of tourist valorization of natural and cultural resources by
model Hilary du Cross.
Geographical position, many natural beauties and great strategic importance in the
region of Upper Vrbas valley allowed that this area is settled early in the past. Bugojno
Municipality is one of 12 municipalities of the Central Bosnia Canton. Geographically,
municipality is located in the Uskoplje valley with an altitude of 570 m, and total area of
municipality is 361 sq km,therefore is considered as hilly and mountainous area. Relief of
Bugojno is polyphase, polymorphic and polygenic what is result of a variety of
endogenous and exogenous factors. Various forms of relief are distinguished, from the
valley that covers the central part to the mountain ranges on the east and west, and the vast
1
Faculty of Science and Education, University of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina;
e-mail: dario.a.sakic@gmail.com.
463
surface between and on the mountain ranges. In the northeast and east the most important
mountains are those that bind Vranica Mountain (Nadkrstac, 2112 m) and Mount Komar
(Kamenjaš, 1510 m): Turţin, Hum, Radovan, Crni Vrh, Rudina, Kalin (1531 m) and Kaštel
whose height exceeds 1500 m, and they belong to the Mid-Bosnian Schist Mountains. The
southern and south-western rim is followed by mountains that link Radusa mountain
(Idovac 1956 m) and Jelika mountain (1386 m): Lupoglava, Skrtska planina, Stoţer,
Šuljaga i Mala Šuljaga. In addition to these, around Bugojno are known plateau: Ravno
Rostovo (1095 m), Otigošše (1000 m), Karalinka (700 m) and Demirovac (1765
m).Climate in Bugojno is temperate continental with relatively warm summers and cold
winters.Annual fluctuations in temperature are high, especially during the spring and
fall.Frosts are expressed in early fall and late spring.Period of moderately warm months is
a long and coincides with the period of vegetation (LEAP, 2007).Bugojno belongs to the
Bosnian-Herzegovinian cities that have not grown out of the Ottoman urban tradition
(Hadţibegoviš, 2004).The city lies at the intersection of three main roads, which connect it
to all parts of the country: M-16 Bugojno – Kupres – Split, M-16.2 Jajce – Bugojno –
Prozor/Rama – Mostar, M-6 Bugojno - Novi Travnik. Bugojno is linked with the main
road M-5 in Donji Vakuf that connects Bugojno - Travnik - Zenica - Sarajevo. The total
length of constructed roads in Bugojno is 712 km (LEAP, 2007). The construction of the
railway in 1895 caused rapid industrialization of the region, coal mines were open
(Gracanica), forestry and leather processing start to develop (Saric, 2010). The backbone
of the development of the municipality in the former Yugoslavia was based on industry,
especially metal, electronic, leather, footwear, textile, mill – bakery industry, and also were
represented agriculture, forestry, trade, catering and tourism. Personal and collective
standards were above the average of Bosnia and Herzegovina, even the average of
Yugoslavia. The development in material production has resulted in the rapid development
in the field of social services. In this period new school facilities, cultural and sports
center, football stadium, swimming complex, hotels, facilities for hunting and skiing and
many others were built. Bugojno, as a modern and urbanized city, became the center of
many cultural and sporting events, and the most important were International Grandmaster
Chess Tournament, Yugoslav Biennial of puppetry and Festival of amateur theaters of
Bosnia and Herzegovina. War devastation, the inefficient process of economic transition
and the lack of development initiatives have led to the difficult economic situation in the
municipality. Tourism as an economic sector in the previous period did not constitute an
important area of development. In tourism, significant funds have not invested, except for
development capacities for hunting after which Bugojno were known.
The current capacity of Bugojno for tourism are few sports and recreational centers
such are the Cultural and Sport Center (KSC), built in 1983 with a sports hall with 3,500
seats, a theater hall with 550 seats, a cinema hall with 120 seats and an outdoor
amphitheater, a tourist sport - recreation center "Karalinka", winter - recreational center
"Rostovo", sport - recreational center "Potoţani", pools in open, and numerous football and
tennis sports fields.
Accommodation is offered in hotel Rostovo, boarding house Genex M, PUK
Potoţani, motel Heko, TRNC Karalinka, motel Alibey and mountain lodge Duboka with a
total capacity of 311 beds (Proposal of development strategy of Bugojno, 2014).
464
Tab. 1. Accommodation facilities and capacities
Capacity Number
Name of facility
(beds) of rooms
Hotel Rostovo 90 35
Boarding house Genex M 24 8
Potoţani 36 18
Motel Heko 45 28
Karalinka 40 17
Motel Alibey 26 10
Mountain lodge Duboka 50 10
Total 311 126
Source: Proposal of development strategy of Bugojno, 2014
The Commission to Preserve National Monuments has declared six sites as

national monuments: the archaeological site of Crkvina (Grudine), the archaeological site
of the prehistoric hillfort settlement Pod, historical building Rustempašiš tower, a historic
area of Old town Vesela Straţa, remains of the historic building Sulejmanpašiš tower and
sepulchral ensemble Mausoleum Malkoţ and Skenderpašiš (The Commission to Preserve
National Monuments, 2005, 2006, 2007).
The geographical location, favorable climate with warm summers and cold
winters, many water sources, the deep woods of Koprivnica, a tradition in the industry and
many other resources are part of the benefits of Bugojno, whose long-term priorities are
economic recovery and sustainable development. Mountain areas represent very significant
natural tourist motifs, and if you are close to major urban areas - are extremely important
excursion - recreational function (Marušiš, 1977).
METHODS
Natural and cultural resources are not only aesthetic, but also economic value in a
particular area, and they should be evaluated to provide the basis for the creation of value
tourist products (Pantoviš, Stamenkovic, 2013).In order to develop any type of tourism in a
particular location it is necessary to carry out the processes of valorization and evaluation,
otherwise, could lead to negative effects.Tourism valorization will determine what
potential Bugojno has.In the tourism industry, there are several different types of
valorization.In this paper, a model of Hilary du Cros (du Cros, 2010) is used. Since the
model is intended for cultural resources, in this paper are evaluated and natural values,
therefore the model is modified to a small extent.During the valorization, two groups of
sub-indicators are evaluated: the tourism sector (market appeal of cultural/natural
resources and factors of importance when designing tourism products) and sector
management of cultural/natural resources (cultural/natural significance and
robustness).The maximum total value of indicators from both groups is 60.Within the
market appeal of cultural or natural resources, following sub-indicators were evaluated:
good ambience, is well known outside the local area, whether it is good national symbol,
that you can tell an interesting story, whether it has a certain good qualities which
differentiate it clearly from the surrounding goods, whether it is attractive for special
needs, whether it is complementary to other products at the destination or the region, as a
tourist activity in the region, and whether the destination is associated with culture.From
important factors when designing tourism products were evaluated good access, transport
465
of goods to the population center, proximity to other cultural/natural attractions, and
service facilities.
For every cultural and natural asset are made conclusions of the sub-indicators of
market attractiveness for the tourism sector. Depending on the total score, natural/cultural
asset is placed in three categories: from 0 to 20 have poor, 21 to 40 have medium and 41 to
60 have a high appeal.Within the cultural/natural significance were evaluated the aesthetic,
historical, educational, social and scientific research value, rarity of the asset on the
destination or region, and representativeness of asset.Within robustness were evaluated the
sensitivity of the asset, state of repair, the existence of a asset management plan, regular
monitoring and maintenance, the potential for ongoing investment and consulting the key
stakeholders, the possibility of negative impact of a large number of visitors to the physical
condition of the property and the possibility of negative impact of modification.And in this
part of the assessment for each asset was made a conclusion on the sub-indicators for the
management of cultural or natural assets and robustness.Depending on the overall score,
assets are placed in categories. From 0 to 20 have a small, 21 to 40 have a moderate and 41
to 60 have a high value.After the analysis, a "matrix of market attractiveness/robustness"
with a 9-cell is set up. For every cultural and natural asset it is determined to which cell it
belongs, depending on the scores that are previously were assigned in the process of
evaluation.The cells are defined as follows: M (1,1) - high value of the cultural/natural
significance/robustness indicators and low market attractiveness, M (1,2) - high value of
the cultural/natural significance/robustness indicators and medium market attractiveness,
M (1,3) - high value of the cultural/natural significance/robustness indicators and high
market attractiveness, M (2,1) - the medium value of the cultural/natural
significance/robustness indicators and low market attractiveness, M (2,2) - the medium
value of the cultural/natural significance/robustness indicators and medium market
attractiveness, M (2,3) - the medium value of the cultural/natural significance/robustness
indicators and high market attractiveness, M (3,1) - a small indicator value of the
cultural/natural significance/robustness indicators and small market attractiveness, M (3,2)
- a small of the cultural/natural significance/robustness indicators and medium market
attractiveness and M (3,3) - a small of the cultural/natural significance/robustness
indicators and high market attractiveness.
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Tab. 2. Sub-indicators of valorization and scoring board
Natural/Cultural
Tourist sector Grades Grades
heritage management
Market appeal Natural/cultural significance
Ambiance (natural/cultural) 0–5 Aesthetic value 0–2
Well-known outside local area 0–5 Historical value 0–2
Significant national symbol 0–5 Educational value 0–2
Can tell an „interesting― story – 0–5 Social value 0–2
evocative place Scientific potential/research 0–2
Has some aspect to distinguish it 0–5 value 0–3
clearly from nearby assets or Rareness on 0–4
attractions 0–5 destination/region
Appeals to special needs 0–5 Representativeness
Complements other tourism 0–5 0–4
products in area 0–5 Robustness 0–4
Tourism activity in the region Fragility 0–5
Destination associated with State of repair 0–5
nature/culture 0–4 Management plan or policy in 0–5
0–3 place
Product design needs 0–5 Regular monitoring and 0–5
Accessibility maintenance
Transport 0–5 Potential for ongoing 0–5
Number of attractive involvement and consultation
natural/anthropogenic values of key stakeholders
nearby Possibility of negative
Service benefits impacts of high visitation on
physical state
Possibility of modification (as
part of product development)
to have not negative impact
on physical state
Source: Bjeljac et al.,2013
Tab. 3. Matrix of market attractiveness and robustness

M (1,1) M (1,2) M (1,3)
Robustness M (2,1) M (2,2) M (2,3)
M (3,1) M (3,2) M (3,3)
Market attractiveness
Source: Hilary du Cros, 2010
RESULTS
The paper analyzes 30 resources and potentials for tourism development in the
area of Bugojno, from cultural monuments, archaeological sites, areas reserved for sport
and recreation forms of tourism to areas with outstanding natural value.
467
Old towns
4 3 Towers from Ottoman period
Sacral assets
2
1 Burial grounds
2 Arheological assets
3
3 Urban center from Austro-Hungarian
period
Fig. 1. Number and type of cultural assets valorized in this paper
Cultural assets that were evaluated are the old towns of Vesela Straza, Susid and
Kastel, Sulejmanpasic and Rustempasic tower, the Roman Catholic Church of St. Anthony
of Padua, Sultan Ahmed mosque and the Serbian Orthodox Church of the Nativity of the
Virgin Mary, the Jewish cemetery, Malkoc and Skenderpasic mausoleum, urban center
from the period of the Austro - Hungarian Empire, archaeological sites Pod and Crkvina
(Grudine), Tito's villa in Gorica and Koprivnica, memorials from National liberation
movement in Prsljani and Kozvarice as well as medieval tombstones.Tombstones are
located at several locations and in the following table is their common value. Because of
conservation, favorable location in the city center, proximity of services, sacral places were
given the highest rating. They are suitable for the development of religious tourism,
especially during June, when it is celebration of the patron saint of Bugojno and
Ajvatovica, the biggest Muslim pilgrimage site in Europe, which following events also
taking place in the area of Bugojno. The urban center of the Austro-Hungarian period have
high scored because of its aesthetic value and conservation, while Tito's villas, although in
ruins, get the good scores because they are well-known outside local area and they have
good potential for development of memorial tourism.
Natural resources, potentials and areas reserved for sport and recreational forms of
tourism that were analyzed are geomorphologic phenomenaKameni svatovi, Valley of
caves, Japaga pit, thermomineral spring Vruca voda mineral spring Zlatarica, Ravno
Rostovo, Koprivnica, Duboka, Karalinka, Gorica, and the lakes Radovan and Zanesovici.
Geomorphic fenomena
1
Caves and pits
2
5
Springs
2 Lakes
2 Landscapes of exceptional natural

values
Fig. 2. Number and type of natural assets valorized in this paper

468
Ravno Rostovo has the highest value of market appeal due to existing tourism
activities, mostly in winter tourism, and the existence of ethno village "Babic" suitable for
rural and eco tourism.In addition, the high scores got Karalinka, which is located near the
city center, and has a sport and recreational elements. The ambiance is nice, because it is
located on a plateau, surrounded by fir forests. It is suitable for adventure tourism, walking
and cycling.Other localities have received lower scores due to the greater distance from the
population center, weak road communication, unregulated parking spaces, and proximity
to potential minefields.
High attractiveness (41 - 60) of sub-indicators of the market appeal of
cultural/natural asset have destinations: the church of St. Anthony of Padua (50), Sultan
Ahmed Mosque (50), the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (50), the urban center
of the Austro-Hungarian period (52), Ravno Rostovo (50), Jewish Cemetery and Malkoc
and Skenderpasic mausoleum (41) and Tito's villa Gorica (44).
From evaluated assets, 20 of them have medium value of cultural/natural
significance/ robustness indicators and medium market attractiveness indicators (matrix M
(2.2)), eight sites have moderate values of cultural/natural significance/robustness
indicators and high market attractiveness (M (2.3)), and two sites have little value of
cultural/natural significance/robustness indicators and medium market attractiveness (M
(3.2)).
Tab. 2. Total grades for market attractiveness and robustness with matrix
Market
No.
Name of destination Locality Robustness Matrix

attractiveness
Old town Vesela
1. Vesela 28 21 M (2,2)
Straza
2. Old town Susid Kordici 22 20 M (3,2)
3. Old town Kastel Harambasici 23 19 M (3,2)
4. Sulejmanpasic‘ tower Odzak 32 22 M (2,2)
5. Rustempasic‘ tower Odzak 33 22 M (2,2)
Various
6. Thombstones 28 23 M (2,2)
locations
Church of St.
7. Centar 50 31 M (2,3)
Anthony of Padua
Sultan Ahmed
8. Centar 50 31 M (2,3)
Mosque
Church of the
9. Nativity of the Virgin Cipuljic 50 31 M (2,3)
Mary
10. Jewish cemetery Gromile 41 26 M (2,3)
Malkoc‘ and
11. Skenderpasic‘ Kopcic 41 25 M (2,3)
Mausoleum
The urban center
12. from the Austro- Centar 52 32 M (2,3)
Hungarian period
469
Archaeological site
13. Cipuljic 35 23 M (2,2)
Pod
Archaeological site
14. Cipuljic 33 22 M (2,2)
Crkvina (Grudine)
15. Tito‘s villa Gorica Sultanovici 44 26 M (2,3)
Tito‘s villa
16. Koprivnica 40 26 M (2,2)
Koprivnica
17. Memorial Prsljani Prsljani 31 29 M (2,2)
18. Memorial Kozvarice Koprivnica 32 29 M (2,2)
Geomorphic
19. phenomena Kameni Kordici 37 26 M (2,2)
svatovi
20. Valley of caves Duboka 29 23 M (2,2)
21. Pit Japaga Kalin 28 23 M (2,2)
Thermomineral Kalin -
22. 34 26 M (2,2)
spring Vruca voda Rudina
Mineral spring Kalin -
23. 33 26 M (2,2)
Zlatarica Rudina
Ravno
24. Ravno Rostovo 50 33 M (2,3)
Rostovo
25. Koprivnica Koprivnica 29 28 M (2,2)
26. Duboka Duboka 39 31 M (2,2)
27. Karalinka Karalinka 40 29 M (2,2)
28. Gorica Sultanovici 32 25 M (2,2)
29. Lake Radovan Radovan 25 24 M (2,2)
30. Lake Zanesovici Zanesovici 38 26 M (2,2)
For tourism development the most suitable are assets that are assigned to the
matrix M (1,3) and M (2,3) after evaluation of all sub-indicators.In such assets valuation
does not require additional preparation period for their incorporation into the tourism
product (Popovic, 2013).
10%
27% M (3,2)
M (2,2)
M (2,3)
63%
Fig. 3. Matrix of market attractiveness and robustness

470
Limit that the municipality is facing is pollution of forest areas by landmines; their
removal is a prerequisite for bringing space to final use. According to BH MAC in
Bugojno municipality there are 16 115 sq km of suspected areas that are polluted with
landmines.
The area of Bugojno is a very complex tourism environment, with many historical
and natural tourist motives which, through proper management can fully present to tourists
with its substantial and diverse offer.Historical events that took place in this region were
reflected in the life of the people in this municipality.Those events created and left legacy
of spiritual and material culture, which today represent one of the factors of tourism
development in this region, like prehistoric monuments, medieval towns and the tombstone
, buildings from the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian period and the legacy from the period
of the second Yugoslavia.After the tourist valorization is done, sub-indicatorssuggest that
the ancient cities, prehistoric monuments, religious facilities and tombstones tourist
attractive and suitable for the development of tourism, special cultural, but with adaptation
and additional investments.The existence of thermo-mineral water, Vruca voda, and
mineral spring Zlatarica, provides the basis for the development of health
tourism.According to Sibinovic and Belij (2010) thermal mineral water, and climate as a
health factor, are the basis that needs to be methodically, systematically and long-term
research and properly evaluate.Greffe (2004) considers that the evaluation of heritage leads
to new jobs, and comes to the conclusion that investment in heritage is more sustainable if
it is implemented in areas where heritage plays a secondary role and level of economic
integration is high.Natural resources of the municipality, such as the rich forest areas of
Koprivnica, Duboka, plateau Karalinka and Rostovo, and Lakes Zanesovici and Radovan
provide opportunities for the development of several types of tourism, from ecotourism,
rural tourism, adventure, fishing, hunting, the skiing, swimming, etc.According to the
Draft of Strategy of Bugojno (2014), the Upper Vrbas region, including area of Bugojno, is
positioned as rural - natural oasis that offers a wealth of experience in nature and idyllic
atmosphere that permeates the river Vrbas.Natural resources are the basis for the
development of tourism in a region (Pantovic, Stamenkovic, 2013).Accommodation in the
vicinity of the stronger tourist centers such as Kupres, Jajce, Travnik and Vlasic opens up
the possibility for a tourist to connect with the wider region and the creation of products
that can be used to link and network these areas.
CONCLUSIONS
The aim of this study was to determine the attractiveness of the market and the
robustness of the potentials for tourism development of Bugojno based on methods
developed by Hilary du Cros.A large number of cultural and natural resources have the
potential to become a tourist product for the development of tourism because they show to
us in a unique waya rich and diverse history of the area, customs, way of life, natural
resources and enable the improvement and enrichment of the tourist offer.All tourist sites
have expressed natural geographic benefits, and in most locations are interwoven elements
of historical, natural, recreational and other values that give full justification to activate and
create content of tourism.Bugojno has a big tourist importance for Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and its values are reflected in a many urban green areas, forest resources, lots
of native wildlife, beautiful rivers, tributaries and lakes, natural beauties, cultural and
historical monuments, but also the hospitality of the hosts, that will classified Bugojno as
very attractive and high-quality tourist destination.Natural and cultural resources of the
471
municipality are the basis for the development of tourism and tourist offer should be based
on these resources. Analysis of the current situation showed that the municipality has the
potential for tourism development, but they need some investment and the establishment of
a tourism development strategy and adequate protection of natural and cultural heritage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Professor Snjezana Musa, PhD for assistance and for comments that greatly
improved the manuscript. She provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the
research.
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and anthropogenic tourist potentials in undeveloped regions of transition countries. TTEM
– Journal of society for development of teaching and business process in new net
environment in B&H. Vol. 8, No. 3, 1237 – 1249.
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Greffe, X. (2004): Is heritage an asset or a liability? Journal of Cultural heritage, vol 5,

Issue 3. 301 – 309.
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Institut za istoriju. Sarajevo. 354 pp.
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Geografski pregled sv. XXI. Geografsko društvo BiH, Sarajevo. 91-111
Pantoviš, M., Stamenkoviš, I. (2013): Tourism potential valorization of the river Danube
in Novi Sad and its environment based on the Hilary du Cros model. European Researcher,
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Popoviš, M. (2013): Kulturno – turistička valorizacija istorijskog jezgra Cetinja.

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turizma knjaževačkog kraja. Glasnik srpskog geografskog društva, sv. XC, br. 1. 333 - 340
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472
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Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Center, 2015
The Commission to Preserve National Monuments (2005): Decision

declaringarchaeological site Crkvina (Grudine) inCipuljic, Bugojno is a national
monument. Official gazette of Bosnia and Herzegovina 75/08.
The Commission to Preserve National Monuments (2005): Decision

declaringarchaeological site Pod, prehistoric hillfort in Bugojnois a national monument.
Official gazette of Bosnia and Herzegovina 75/08.
The Commission to Preserve National Monuments (2005): Decision declaring historic

area of old town Vesela Straža in Bugojno is a national monument. Official gazette of
Bosnia and Herzegovina 42/06.
The Commission to Preserve National Monuments (2006): Decision declaringhistoric

building of Rustempasic towerin Odzak, Bugojno is a national monument. Official gazette
of Bosnia and Herzegovina 105/06.
The Commission to Preserve National Monuments (2007): Decision declaring historic

building of Sulejmanpasictower in Bugojnois a national monument. Official gazette of
Bosnia and Herzegovina 36/07.
The Commission to Preserve National Monuments (2007): Decision declaringburial

ground of Turbe Malkoc and Skenderpasicin Kopcic, Bugojno is a national monument.
Official gazette of Bosnia and Herzegovina 88/07.
Local ecological action plan for Bugojno municipality (LEAP), 2007
Development strategy proposal for Bugojno municipality, 2014
473
SUSTAINABILITY METRICS: MEASURING SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT FOR TOURISM
Elma Šatrović1
Ensar Šehić2
Abstract: Sustainable tourism is defined as tourism that improves the quality of life of the host
community, providesa high quality of experience for the visitors and maintains the quality of the
environment on which both the host community and the visitor depend. In order to measure
sustainability in tourism researchers use set of subjective and objective indicators. However, the
analysis conducted in this paper shows both types of indicators have some weaknesses, so there is a
need to use other measurement tools. As far as we know, there have been no studies of the three
most commonly used sustainability measurement tools (AIChEBRIDGESworks Metrics, GEMI
Metrics NavigatorTM and IChemE Sustainability Metrics) in tourism. Our study is the first one to
deal with these measurement tools. The aim of this paper is to describe most commonly used
sustainability measurement tools; their special requirements for tourism and to answer the question
how tourism contributes to sustainable development. Analysis shows that tourism contributes to
sustainable development primarily through community-driven tourism development; minimization
of negative social and cultural impacts; optimization of economic benefits; protection of physical
and man-made resources, ethics, policy, standards; visitor satisfaction, maintaining destination
attractiveness, use of proper tools and full community participation. Methodology that is used is
comparative analysis of three most common sustainability measurement tools. Results obtained by
comparative analysis indicate thatAIChEBRIDGESworks Metrics, GEMI Metrics NavigatorTM and
IChemE Sustainability Metrics have some common requirements for different businesses. However,
requirements for tourism are very strict since it is considered as non-community based business,
short-term planning, no protection of natural and human resources, huge economic benefits provider
and business that has non-ethnical attitude towards environment. Conclusion states that taking into
consideration the weaknesses of all analyzed tools, there is a need for further development of
sustainability measurement tools in tourism.
Keywords: conventional tourism, sustainable development, sustainability measurement tools,

sustainable tourism, Triple Bottom Line.
INTRODUCTION
Sustainable development can be defined as―developmentthat meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs‖ (Székely
and Knirsch 2005). Today, humanity faces a lot of challenges ofcontributing to sustainable
development. Natural resources have been degraded, gap between rich and poor has
widened dramatically, the earth is overpopulated, environmental pollution increases with
every passing year and causesirreparable damage to the earth etc.
It is important to point out that the challenge of contributing to sustainability requires the
commitment and active participation of all members of society, including businesses. This
is why this paperexplores how tourism contributes to sustainable development. The aim of
1
PhD candidate,School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
2
Assistant Professor,School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia
and Herzegovina.
474
this paper is to describe most commonly usedsustainability measurement tools; their
special requirements fortourismand to answer the question how tourismcontributes to
sustainable development.Initially,it is important to emphasize that during last decades, as a
response to developmental ills associated with conventional mass tourism various forms of
tourism (e.g. green tourism, ecotourism) have beengaining prominence as more benign
alternativesthat help increase awareness of the negative impactsof tourism and have raised
consequent calls for impactassessment studies.
This paper starts with introductory remarks. Inthe second part the definition of sustainable
development is given. Third part explainssustainable tourism. Forth part talks about
requirements of sustainability metrics; methodologies that are used to identify most
appropriate tool for particular company and gives overview of sustainability measurement
tools. Paper ends with concluding remarks.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Until the late 1970s, in many regions and countries, tourism was considered a business that
brings more benefits with fewer financial resources. However it is considered as business
that causes irreparable damage on human society and nature (Chris Choi and Sirakaya,
2005). Expectations of society at large are forcing tourism companies to refashion the
conventionaltourism development framework and to meet the needs ofnew
environmentalism standards while sustaining an optimallevel of socioeconomic benefits.
The Berlin Declaration(1997) made a strong normative point by suggesting thattourism

should benefit local communities, strengthens the local economy, employsthe local
workforce, and wherever ecologically sustainable,uses local materials, local agricultural
products, and traditionalskills. Policies and legislation and other mechanisms should be
introduced to ensure the flow of benefits to localcommunities. With the establishment of
special journals related to sustainability issues and the proliferation of sustainable-tourism-
related articles the discourse on sustainable tourism has moved to the development of tools
that are necessary to measure and evaluate various aspects of sustainable tourism (Chris
Choi and Sirakaya, 2005).
An area that draws considerable attention is indicatorresearch. Indicators are usually used
to measure and monitor development progress in communities. Mostly, researchers rely on
objective indicators in order to measure developmental progress. According to Rossi and
Gilmartin (1980) objective indicators refer to ―quantitative counts of behaviors and
conditions associated with a given situation‖. The drawbacks of these indicators include
weaknesses in assessing all aspects of the development progress since there are limits in
observation and aggregation (Veenhoven, 2001). On the other hand subjective indicators
reflect residents‘ emotions, personal evaluations, attitudes etc. Chris Choi and Sirakaya
(2005) indicate that mostly researchers use objective indicators and point out the
importance of subjective. However, the combination of both indicators would mitigate
weaknesses of both indicators and provide better information for decision makers.
In addition it is important to emphasize that in an era when sustainability seems to be

emerging as a major social paradigm, tools developed solely to measure perceptions of
positive/negative impacts of tourism within the traditional conceptual works may be
insufficient (Hoff 1998). So, objective and subjective indicators that are used in
475
(Veenhoven, 2001; Rossi and Gilmartin, 1980; McIntyre, 1993; Sharpley and Sharpley,
1997 and McGahey, 1996) are not considered appropriate. This is why some authors try to
develop and test innovative frameworks, new scales and measurement tools (Chris Choi
and Sirakaya, 2005). However, all of these tools have some drawbacks. Taking into
consideration the importance of sustainability measurement in all businesses, different
institutions have developed sustainability measurement tools. According to the authors best
knowledge there are no papers that analyze applicability of the three most commonly used
sustainability measurement tools (AIChEBRIDGESworks Metrics, GEMI Metrics
NavigatorTMandIChemE Sustainability Metrics) in tourism. This motivates authors to
conduct comparative analysis of requirements of aforementioned measurement tools for
tourism.
THE DEFINITION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The most commonly used definition of sustainable development is published in 1987 and
states that: ―Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs‖ (Székely
and Knirsch, 2005). The concept of sustainable development is simple enough:the natural
resources of the earth are limited; they are being used disproportionately by a minority of
people living in wealthy nations, thus creating intra-generational inequity. The rate of use
of these resources is ever-increasing, thus depriving the future generations of a living
standard comparable to that of the present, and creating inter-generational inequity (Sikdar,
2003).
The confusion and conflict about the meaning of sustainable development still exits.
However, sustainable development is thought to be a balance between economic
development, societal equity and environmental protection (Majumdar et al., 2009). In
some business circles this is referred to as the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) (Sikdar 2003;
Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Triple Bottom Line concept

Source: Majumdar et al. (2009)
476
The contribution to sustainable development requires the commitment and active
participation of all members of society, including businesses. In the case of businesses,
sustainability includes the implementation of strategies and activities that meet the needs
of business itself and its stakeholders while protecting and sustaining natural resources
(Majumdar et al., 2009). Thanks to the growing pressure from governments and other
members of society, large companies have started developing initiatives to contribute
sustainable development nowadays.
In 1998 John Elkingtom proposed the Triple Bottom Line reporting. He emphasized that
economic performance is most commonly reported sustainability sphere and represents
survival basis for businesses and shareholders. Expectations of society at large are forcing
companies to be greener and point out the importance of environmental performance.
However, third performance (social) is the least common in businesses reports as well as in
academic literature (Székely and Knirsch, 2005).
In addition three critics of TBL reporting are provided. The first critic indicates that
environmental impacts can be eliminated by economic. The second argues that the
comparison of environmental and social sphere with economic in monetary terms is unfair
while the third indicates that it is common for business to report and measure eco-
efficiency which is the combination of environmental and economic performance and
operations (Majumdar et al., 2009). However, socio-economic (interactions between social
and economic spheres – Fig. 1) as well as socio-ecological (interactions between social and
environmental spheres) are generally ignored.
SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
The sustainable tourism paradigm seeks to strike abalance between the traditional ―utility
paradigm‖ and itsderivative, ―social exchange theory,‖ which focuses onthe tradeoff
between economic costs and benefits, and thenew environmental paradigm (NEP), which
concentrates onconservation/preservation of all resources and enhancementof the well-
being of communities during generations to come(Rowe, 1992). For the purpose of this
paper, sustainabletourism is defined as tourism thatimproves ―the quality of life of the host
community, providesa high quality of experience for the visitors and maintainsthe quality
of the environment on which both the host communityand the visitor depend‖ (McIntyre,
1993). The aim of sustainable tourism is to mitigate the negative impacts of conventional
masstourism.
Sustainable tourism was born out of hopes and desires for a better future and concerns and
fears about conventional tourism development and has been popularized as the best of the
known alternatives. Sustainable tourism aims to provide a new way of developing
destinations that can establish relationship between tourism and environment, society,
culture, and politics (Sharpley and Sharpley, 1997).
The most common questions in relation between sustainable development and tourism are:
What are appropriate measurement tools of Triple Bottom Line ideas?

What are differences between sustainability measurement tools for tourism and
other businesses?
How tourism contribute to sustainable development?
477
According to Chris Choi and Sirakaya (2005) tourism can contribute sustainable
development through: community-driven tourism development; minimization of negative
social and cultural impacts; optimization of economic benefits; protection of physical and
man-made resources, ethics, policy, standards; visitor satisfaction, maintaining destination
attractiveness, use of proper tools and full community participation.
Defenders of conventional tourism argue that one of the main goals of tourism
development is to maximize economic benefits (McGahey, 1996). However, advocates of
sustainable tourism indicate that environmental as well as social aspects of sustainable
development have to be considered as well.
SUSTAINABILITY MEASUREMENT TOOLS FOR TOURISM
Companies that aim to contribute to sustainable development consider measuring progress

as critical to success. Morris et al. (1998) emphasize that: British Petroleum, IKEA,
Interface, and Royal Dutch/Shell explore not only reasons and ways for achieving
sustainable development goals but also the measurement tools. Further, this paperprovides
anoverview of: requirements of sustainability metrics; methodologies that are used to
identify the most appropriate tool for particular company and gives overview of
sustainability measurement tools for tourism.
Requirements of sustainability metrics

According to Majumdar et al. (2009) roles of metrics are to: address specific issues
relevant to the business; contain features/methods by which these issues can be measured
and allow users to set realistic goals and to measure progress towards these goals.Morris et
al. (1998) indicates the ideal metrics will be this that consolidates progress across all three
dimensions of TBL.However, the biggest challenge in developing sustainability metrics is
the organization of information in a way that best fits decision-making in terms of
sustainable development (Székely and Knirsch, 2005).
Companies will be able to use sustainable development metrics effectively if developed
metrics satisfies following requirements: companies have to be able to set goals; to develop
action plans; to support the decision-making, adapt and implement changes. Companies
need also to be able to measure progress; to compare the achieved performance with
alternatives; metrics has to be user-friendly, flexible and adaptable to different
stakeholders (Majumdar et al., 2009). If companies use metrics that satisfy aforementioned
requirements, they are allowed to set goals, take actions, set benchmarks and analyze
actions towards achieving goals.
Methodologies
In order to identify the most suitable tool for particular company, different methodologies
have been adopted. The complexity of methodologies has evolved over time. In this paper
Bellagio framework is presented. In November 1996, an international group of
measurement practitioners and researchers from five continents came together in Bellagio,
Italy to monitor progress towards practices of sustainable development and to summarize
insights from practice (Hardi and Zdan, 1997). This monitoring resulted in principles that
serve as guidelines for the whole of the assessment process including the design and choice
of indicators, communication of the resultand their interpretation (Hardi and Zdan, 1997;
478
Tab.1). These principles should be applied together in order to identify the tool that best
fits observed company. The conceptual model of Bellagio framework is presented in Fig.2:
Fig.2. Conceptual model of Bellagio framework

Source: Becker(2004), cited in Majumdar et al. (2009)
Tab.1 summarizes Bellagio principles and assessment of progress:
Tab. 1. The summary of Bellagio principles and assessment of progress
Source: Hardi and Zdan(1997)
479
Sustainability measurement tools
For decades, the public considered tourism as the savior of many communities around the
world because of its ability to generate new income and jobs. However, many destinations
have been caught off-guard in dealing with the impacts of tourism on natural, social, and
cultural resources. The unique features ofconventional tourism (non-community based,
short-term planning, no protection of natural and human resources, business that brings
huge economic benefits and business that has non-ethnical attitude toward environment)
increase the need for measurement and transparency in reporting on Triple Bottom Line
ideas and lead to strict requirements for tourism in terms of sustainability measurement and
reporting.
Taking into consideration the importance of sustainability measurement in all businesses,

different institutions have developed measurement tools of TBL ideas. Three most
commonlyused sustainability measurement tools are:AIChEBRIDGESworks Metrics,
GEMI Metrics NavigatorTMandIChemE Sustainability Metrics (Majumdar et al. 2009). This
part provides an overview of these tools. Bellagio principles are used to compare these
tools and identify their weaknesses. Concluding remarks summarize the results of
comparison.
AIChEBRIDGESworks Metrics–In the period between 1999and2004 The American

Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) and BRIDGES to Sustainability worked to
develop BRIDGESworks Metrics. This metricsis addressed to all businesses with internal
decision making and consists of decision rules based on five ratios.The five numerators
are: mass of raw materials minus mass of products, potable water used, net energy used,
mass of toxins and pollutants. The denominator for each ratio is the output (Majumdar et
al. 2009). These ratios concern only two (economic and environmental) out of three Triple
Bottom Line spheres (eco-efficiency; Fig. 1). This metric is addressed mostly to
production companies and its requirements are mostly not applicable for tourism.
GEMI Metrics NavigatorTM–AIChE and BRIDGES to Sustainability have developed The

Global Environmental Management Initiative GEMI Metrics Navigator TM as well. This
metricsaims to help different types of organizations to create higher quality decision
making process towards sustainable development. This is continuous metrics development
process consisted of six steps. Each step of the GEMI Metrics Navigator TM provides
suggestions in the form of worksheets, checklist of evaluated criteria and series of
questions that differ amongbusinesses. Six-step procedure seems to be applicable in
tourism since worksheets and checklists explain the application in non-production sectors.
IChemE Sustainability Metric–Sustainable Development Working Group of The Institution

of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) originated from UK has developed
theIChemESustainable Development Progress Metrics. This metrics is published for the
first time in 2006 and is addressed to different businesses.A number of individuals drawn
from industry, consultancy and academia worked on this metrics for three years. They
aimed to produce a practical tool for practicing engineers that uses as far as possible
information already available (IChemE 2006). Publication introduces a set of economic,
environmental and social indicators that are aimed to be used to measure the sustainability
480
performance of an operating unit. Metrics contains special requirements for some
companies e.g. tourism.
Different economic, environmental and social sustainability criteria have to be measured in

companies that use some of sustainable measurement tools(Ricci 2012). Economic
criteriaare: Corporate Governance, Risk & Crisis Management, Codes of
Conduct/Compliance/Corruption & Bribery, Customer Relationship Management and
Innovation Management; environmental criteria are: Waste Treatment and Sources of Raw
Materials, Pollution Caused by Processes and Products, Risks Arising from Hazardous
Chemicals while social criteria are: Human Capital Development, Talent Attraction &
Retention, Corporate Citizenship & Philanthropy, Occupational Health & Safety, Labor
Practice Indicators and Social Reporting (Ricci 2012). AIChEBRIDGESworks Metrics,
GEMI Metrics NavigatorTMandIChemE Sustainability Metrics have different requirements
for different businesses. However, there provide very strictrequirements for tourism due to
its specific features (non-community based, short-term planning, no protection of natural
and human resources, business that brings huge economic benefits and business that has
non-ethnical attitude toward environment). Further part of paper summarizes special
requirements for tourism.
AIChEBRIDGESworks Metrics, GEMI Metrics NavigatorTMandIChemE Sustainability

Metrics require from companies in all businesses to measure and report progress towards
economic criteria. However, tourism has very important role in world‘s economies.
Tourism has experienced rapid growth in the past four decades, and this trend is expected
to continue. In 2004 tourism accounts for 10.4% of the world‘sgross domestic product,
totaling US$5.49 billion worth oftotal tourism demand, and employs 214 million
peopleworldwide (Chris Choi and Sirakaya, 2005). The forecasts indicate that tourism will
grow on average4.5% annually between 2005 and 2014. Taking into consideration this
fact, the economic sphere of sustainability in tourism is of great importance and all three
measurement tools have special treatment in terms of economic criteria for tourism. For
example there is special requirement for criteria Innovation Management since tourism is
innovation-driven business.
Taking into consideration previously mentioned specific features of tourismmost important

issue nowadays in thisbusinessis waste treatment. This issue isconsidered as environmental
criteria in (Ricci 2012). All companies that use AIChEBRIDGESworks Metrics andIChemE
Sustainability Metrics are obliged to report and measure progress towards reduction of
sources of raw materials and pollution caused by its process. IChemE Sustainability
Metrics pay much attention on waste treatment in tourism. GEMI Metrics NavigatorTMdoes
not observe environmental criteria.
Among three aforementioned measurement tools just IChemE Sustainability Metrics focus
on social criteria. IChemE Sustainability Metrics can be used for different businesses as
well. Few criteria are obligatory for all businesses (Human Capital Development, Talent
Attraction & Retention, Corporate Citizenship & Philanthropy, Labor Practice Indicators,
Social Reporting). However, Occupational Health & Safety is obligatory only for tourism.
481
CONCLUSION
This paper aims to describe most commonly used sustainability measurement tools; their
special requirements for tourism and to answer the question how tourism contributes to
sustainable development. The conclusion states that tourism contributes to sustainable
development primarily throughcommunity-driven tourism development; minimization of
negative social and cultural impacts; optimization of economic benefits; protection of
physical and man-made resources, ethics, policy, standards; visitor satisfaction,
maintaining destination attractiveness, use of proper tools and full community
participation.
Tab. 2. Measurement tools of sustainable development (comparison)
Source: Majumdar et al. (2009)
Three most commonly used tools for businesses are:AIChEBRIDGESworks Metrics, GEMI
Metrics NavigatorTMandIChemE Sustainability Metrics. This paper shows these
measurement tools have some common requirements for different businesses. However,
requirements for tourismare very strict since it is considered as non-community based,
short-term planning, no protection of natural and human resources, business that brings
huge economic benefits and business that has non-ethnical attitude toward environment.
Different methodologies are used in order to identify most suitable tool. One of them is
Bellagio framework.As a concluding remark of this paper there is the comparison ofthree
aforementioned tools following Bellagio framework (Tab.2).
Analysis indicates that all of three tools have some weaknesses. AIChEBRIDGESworks
Metrics does not consider equitable access to resources; care of future generations and
social sphere. Weaknesses of GEMI Metrics NavigatorTMare: stakeholders are not
consulted; impact on future generations isignored;no transparency. Weaknesses of IChemE
Sustainability Metric are: large number of indicators; indicators are not available for
stakeholders; no transparency; social indicator is analyzed in limited range (Majumdar et
al. 2009). Taking into considerationthe weaknesses of aforementionedtools, there is a need
for further development of sustainabilitymeasurement tools in tourism.
482
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483
CHANGES IN PATTERN OF SECOND HOME DEVELOPMENT IN
COUNTRIES ARISING FROM SOCIALIST FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF
YUGOSLAVIA
Vuk Tvrtko Opačić1

Miha Koderman2
Abstract: Intense construction of second homes in Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

(hereafter referred as ex-Yugoslavia) started in 1960‘s. Acquisition of second homes was affordable
for wide range of ex-Yugoslav citizen population due to low prices of land and real estate, as well as
favourable loan conditions from state owned banks. Motivation for ownership was different –
spending family holidays, which was more affordable in comparison to hotel accommodation, and
investment in real estates in period of unstable ex-Yugoslav economy, represented by high inflation
rates and variable currency. Predominant type of second home units was family vacation house,
usually built in self-managed construction. In the moment of disintegration of common state in (and
after) the year 1991, countries were at considerably different stage of development. Wars that
followed even deepened the national and regional differences, which can be observed also in
different second home development in new independent states. Due to private building
entrepreneurship, most popular second home areas were faced with a new type of secondary
residences – multi-apartment recreational buildings, often used as commercialized accommodation
capacities. In the same time, prices of second homes have increased; therefore they became a
privilege only for higher class. We can conclude that second home development pattern in ex-
Yugoslav countries in the last 50 years has changed from affordable to exclusive phenomenon.
From the mentioned context, the main goal of the paper arises: to compare the pattern of second
home development in ex-Yugoslavia countries before and after the fall of common state. Apart from
literature overview, interpretation of official available census data (1971-2011) on the national level
will be given. Special emphasis on changing socio-economical context of the second home
development in Croatia and Slovenia will be presented.
Keywords: second home tourism, SFR Yugoslavia, development pattern, Croatia, Slovenia
INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of residing in second homes or weekend-houses could be traced back to

the time of ancient Egypt and the Roman Empire (Coppock 1977,4; Holloway and Taylor
2006, 23; Opaţiš, 2012, 8), where residences such as villaerusticae or villaemaritimae
were used as temporary residences by wealthier representatives of the society at the time.
Today, it can be considered as one of the most popular forms of recreation among the
varied sphere of leisure time activities. In most European countries this phenomenon
intensified after the Second World War, when several countries registered intense
construction of these dwellings.Similar development could be observed in the Socialist
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1945-1991), whereconstruction of second homes
substantially gained in popularity in 1960‘s. According to Gosar (1989, 165), ex-
Yugoslavia experienced an ―extraordinary increase of second homes‖in this period. The
location of the country was marked by four distinct European physical geographical units
1
Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Zagreb,
Croatia.
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Humanities, University of Primorska,
Koper, Croatia.
484
(the Dinaric Alps or Dinarides, the Alps and the Pannonian and Mediterranean basins),
therefore the country was characterized with a high degree of landscape diversity and
became consequently attractive for second home tourism development.
The latter was generallystimulated with several political and social policies, which were
introduced by the socialist government. These included affordable prices of land and real
estate in general, and favourable loan conditions. As a result, self-managed building of
family vacation houses increased in all six ex-Yugoslav republics until the 1980‘s. This
phenomenon was especially evident in the Mediterranean part of the country (in littoral
parts of Croatia and Montenegro), while other republics faced growth of these residences
in places with significant importance for recreation and leisure activities – in mountain and
lakeside resorts, as well as in the spa centres, hilly and riverside areas.However, due to the
increased development of second home infrastructure in the 20th century, numerous
traditional settlements faced significant transformation in terms of appearance and
architecture patterns.
PATTERN OF SECOND HOME DEVELOPMENT IN SOCIALIST PERIOD OF

EX-YUGOSLAVIA
Intense construction of second homes in ex-Yugoslavia started in 1960‘s (Jeršiţ,

1968;Pepeonik, 1977), when they became more acceptable phenomenon in socialist
Yugoslav society. Authorities introduced the socialist self – governed model,which
allowed private ownership of the (second) real estate because they wanted to provide social
stability of the population. Increased motivation for acquisition of second homes in
socialist Yugoslav society could be recognised as an expression of saving (Gosar, 1984;
Poljanec-Boriš, 1991) and investment (Gosar, 1989).In the conditions of high inflation of
the local currency (the Yugoslav dinar)and the absence of a free market economy on the
one hand and low land prices in depopulated rural areas (Opaţiš, 2012) andfavourable
housing loans (Mikaţiš, 1994; Mikaţiš, 2007) on the other, investment in second homes
was one of the most rational way of saving surplus capital (Opaţiš, 2012).The debated
context was further strengthened by the fact that in the period of ex-Yugoslavia urban-
oriented industry was the dominant economic activity, which initiated extensive migration
flows from rural areas due to high demand for labour force.As a result, a large number of
abandoned housing and commercial buildings in the villages became available at very
affordable prices in many rural areas in the country (Gosar, 1989;Opaţiš, 2012).
In this regard, ex-Yugoslavia registered an increased interest for acquisition of second

homes during the 1960‘s, 1970‘s and 1980‘s (Jeršiţ, 1968; Alfier, 1987;Klariš, 1989;
Miletiš, 2011; Opaţiš, 2012). The demand was the highest on the coast and islands –
especially in Croatia (Opaţiš, 2009b), later also in Montenegro. Mountainous areas, for
example the Slovenian Alps (Gosar, 1984; 1987; Koderman, 2014a), and attractive parts of
rural recreational areas of major cities (eg. in mountainous and hilly areas (Gosar, 1987;
Salmiţ and Koderman, 2013; Koderman and Salmiţ, 2013), banks along rivers, lakes, etc.)
in almost all parts of ex-Yugoslavia (Klariš, 1989) were also very popular for second home
development. The number of second homes has grown exponentially throughout ex-
Yugoslavia and in many areas typical second home landscape has been formed. In these
areas, second homes became the main factor of spatial transformation and brought
485
numerous physiognomic (Opaţiš, 2009a), economic (Opaţiš, 2008), sociocultural and
environmental implications in space, mostly with negative connotation (Gosar, 1987).
The development of second home phenomenon after World War II can be divided into two
periods regarding the genesis of objects for rest and recreation: a) the phase of conversion
and adaptation of the existing housing stock intosecond homes in areas affected by
emigration and aging of the population (mostlyin 1960‘s and 1970‘s) and b) phase of
construction of purposely built second homes in form of family houses (in 1970‘s and
1980‘s) (Opaţiš, 2009b). Regarding the morphology of the ex-Yugoslav second home
dwellings, the dominant type was family detached house (Pepeonik 1983, Opaţiš, 2009b).
The main motivation for the acquisition of second homes was relaxation and recreation of
the owner and his family and friends.
The majority of second home demand came from major cities (Opaţiš, 2012) – a trend
which coincidedwith tourism demand in general. In littoral part of Croatia, Kušen (1983)
distinguished five categories of private investors from that period: a) investors from the
coastal areas, which were generally not different from that from the interior part of the
country, b) residents with significant personal incomes, which were previously allocated to
social flats, c) workers on ―temporary work abroad‖, whose foreign currency savings were
considered a substantial capital ex-Yugoslavia, d) individual craftsmen, members of the
independent professions and farmers, who were avoiding the payment of a part of their
social responsibilities and taking advantage of the specific rules and privileges, which
enabled them to gain a substantial financial resources and e) the category of investors that
has emerged due to the large demand for real estate of the first four categories.At the end
of the 1980‘s,the collective recreational housing was introduced in leading coastal and
mountain tourism destinations of Yugoslavia. In terms of morphology of second homes
this trend was manifested by multi-apartment recreational buildings, which also mark the
developmental phase of second home phenomenon after the breakup of Yugoslavia and the
transition to a free market economy in 1990‘s (Opaţiš, 2012).
The above mentioned trends can be clearly distinguished from Tab. 1, 2 and 3, where the
number of second homes and their share in total housing stock in ex-Yugoslav republics is
presented. The Federal Yugoslav bureau of statistics first started to collect the data of the
so called dwellings for holiday and recreational purposes in 1971. In this year, the share of
second homes in the country‘s total housing stock was negligible – less than one percent of
the housing stock was (officially) used for second home purposes (Tab.1). One can, of
course, speculate, weather such low proportion of second home residences could be
attributed to the lack of methodological criteria for the mere definition of second homes,
rather than actual function of this real estate in the country. Nonetheless, the most
important republics in terms of second home development in the beginning of 1970‘s were
Croatia and Montenegro, which both share a substantial and attractive coastline along the
Adriatic Sea. As already mentioned above, second home development first started to
develop in this littoral part of ex-Yugoslavia in particular.
486
Tab. 1. Number of second homes and share of second homes in housing stock in ex-
Yugoslav republics in 1971
Number of Number of
inhabited second Share of second homes
Socialist Republic of dwellings homes in housing stock (%)
Bosnia and Herzegovina 783,815 1,399 0.18
Croatia 1,157,542 22,946 1.98
Macedonia 315,580 813 0.26
Montenegro 109,202 1,834 1.68
Serbia 2,107,877 11,724 0.56
Slovenia 461,225 4,281 0.93
ex-Yugoslavia (total) 4,935,241 42,997 0.87
Source: Federal Bureau of Statistics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 1972.
In the period between 1970 and 1980, the growth of the number of second homes in ex-
Yugoslav republics was particularly strong. Gosar (1987) stated that in this decade there
was an increase in the number of individuals who not only wished to use their leisure time
for engaging in recreational activities but also desired to make use of the time spent in their
second homes for working in their gardens, vineyards or orchards, and this in turn led to an
increase in the number of second homes being constructed in the winegrowing areas of the
Pannonian and Dinaric regions.
Number Number of Share of second
of permanently second homes in housing
Socialist Republic of inhabited dwellings homes stock (%)
Bosnia and Herzegovina 1,015,437 19,892 1.96
Croatia 1,381,434 84,317 6.10
Macedonia 435,924 9,351 2.15
Montenegro 131,472 11,361 8.64
Serbia 2,579,845 72,318 2.80
Slovenia 585,780 18,965 3.24
Source: Federal Bureau of Statistics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 1984.
The described developmentcan be clearly evident from the statistical indicators, presented
in Tab. 2. In this period, the strongest relativegrowthwas recorded in the republics of
predominantly continental character: in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the number of
second homes grew from 1,399 in 1971 to 19,892 in 1981 (an increase of over 1400
percent), Macedonia (an increase of over 1100 percent) and in Serbia (an increase of 600
percent). Share of second homes in total housing stock also significantly increased in the
other three ex-Yugoslav republics, especially in Montenegro (an increase of over 600
percent), where almost one tenth of the housing stock was dedicated for second home use
(in this decade, Montenegro exceeded Croatia in the share of second homes in total
487
housing stock). Secondary residences also experienced intense construction in the Alpine
parts of Slovenia, where in increase of over 400 percent was recorded in the debated
period.
During the 1980‘s, the share of second homes in housing stock doubled in almost all ex-
Yugoslav republics (the data for Bosnia and Herzegovina are not available). The increase
was especially strong in Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia, where the number of second
homes grew for 272, 264 and 247 percent respectively. In Montenegro, the share of second
homes presented nearly 15 percent in the total housing stock, while this share was around
10 percent in Croatia (Tab. 3).
Number of Share of second
Number of second homes in housing
Republic of dwellings homes stock (%)
Bosnia and Herzegovina n. a. n. a. n. a.
Croatia 1,772,345 176,845 9.98
Macedonia* 580,342 25,474 4.39
Montenegro 203,691 29,990 14.72
Serbia 3,619,325 179,122 4.95
Slovenia 684,139 26,374 3.86
Sources:Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Slovenia, 1994; Central Bureau of Statistics

of the Republic of Croatia, 1995; Federal Bureau of Statistics of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia, 1991; Statistical Office of the Republic of Macedonia, 1997.
* The data for the Republic of Macedonia are based on the year 1994.
In a relatively short period of time (1971–1991), second homes have become an important
part of the ex-Yugoslav housing stock, as theirshare increased for over 700 percent over
the debated period. Although the spatial distribution of second homes could be in general
described as dispersed as they could be found in almost every municipality in the country,
they were mostly concentrated along the coast of the Adriatic Sea and in the vicinity of
larger cities, especially in the urban areas of cities Beograd and Novi Sad (this region had
the highest density of second homes in ex-Yugoslavia according to Klariš (1989, 75-76)).
In Croatia, these dwellings were predominantly located in the seaside resorts and coastal
regions of the western part of Istria peninsula, in Crikvenica-Novi Vinodolski Riviera, in
southern part of the Velebit coastal region (with the area of Novigrad) and in the coastal
parts of Northern and Central Dalmatia (from the town of Nin to the town of Trogir,
Makarska Riviera), and islands of Krk, Lošinj, Pag, Vir, Murter, Ţiovo, Šolta, Braţ, Hvar
and Korţula. In Montenegro, second homes were similarlymost densely distributed along
coastal areas, especially in the vicinity of Bay of Kotor (Klariš, 1989, 75-76; Opaţiš,
2009b).
488
PATTERN OF SECOND HOME DEVELOPMENT IN TRANSITIONAL PERIOD
AFTER THE DISINTEGRATION OF EX-YUGOSLAVIA WITH SPECIAL
EMPHASIS ON CROATIA AND SLOVENIA
With the fall of socialism and the disintegration of Yugoslavia in the early 1990‘s, the
newly formed independent states were affected by the longer (e.g. in many parts of Croatia
and in Bosnia and Herzegovina) and shorter (e.g. in Slovenia) wars. Direct and indirect
negative effects of wars have further slowed down economic development in most of the
newly formed independent states, so the economic transition lasted longer in all countries
arising from Yugoslavia (with the exception of Slovenia) than in other post-socialist
European countries.
Two new processes have strongly determined the recent phase of second home
development in all of the newly formed independent countries, especially in Slovenia and
Croatia: a) the increased strengthening of private property and b) the emergence of private
enterprise (Rogiš, 2006). The main consequence of the re-inauguration of private property
in the context of the second home phenomenon is the restoration of a free real estate
market. The latter resulted in a significant increase of prices in the most popular tourism
and second home receiving areas. The international demand for the real estate in leading
second home areas in Croatia and Slovenia has grown after the opening of the real estate
market to foreignersin terms of approaching and joining the European Union and was to a
high degree further stimulated by significant improvement of transport infrastructure
(especially the highway network) in both countries. Processes, mentioned above,have
influenced second home development over the last two decades,which therefore gained
different characteristics compared to the period of Yugoslavia, when it was almost
exclusively based on domestic demand. However, domestic second home demand in
Slovenia and Croatia still prevails in relation to foreign (Opaţiš, 2012; Salmiţ and
Koderman, 2013; Koderman and Salmiţ, 2013; Koderman 2014b).
Although the majority of second homes in Croatia and Slovenia can still be found in the
form of family homes (mostly built in the period of ex-Yugoslavia), multi-apartment
recreational buildings are becoming more remarkable element of second home landscape
in the coastal and island areas of Croatia, as well as in coastal and Alpine areas of
Slovenia. The construction of multi-apartment recreational buildings is forced by newly
established construction lobby, which in the late 1990‘s and early 2000‘s so strengthened
that has often became a key participant in spatial and urban planning at the local level in
the late 1990‘s and early 2000‘s.
Increase of second home real estate prices has gradually transformed this phenomenon
from the wider availability of these dwellings in ex-Yugoslavia to their exclusive
ownership in the newly formed independent states,where owning a second home became a
privilege of higher class, i.e., a status symbol.
In Croatia and Slovenia, the leading second home areas remained the same as in the
previous socialist period: the Adriatic coast, islands, mountainous areas of Slovenia
(especially the Alps) and attractive parts of rural recreational areas of major cities (Miletiš,
2011; Opaţiš, 2012; Koderman, 2014). With the appearance of the multi-apartment
recreational buildings, physiognomic-functional, economic, socio-cultural and
489
environmental implications of the second home phenomenon have been strengthened in
manylocal communities.
While all these processes previously appeared in Slovenia and Croatia and marked their
recent stage of second home development, they are now typical for other ex-Yugoslavian
countries. Here, the demand for second homes still remains predominantly domestic (with
the exception of the coastal area of Montenegro). The reasons for this lies in the fact that
other countries are still not part of the European Union and their property market is
somewhat more closed. Other important reasons for slower growth of international demand
can be exposed: a longer distance of travel and weaker transport accessibility towards the
main centres of second home demand, lower degree of tourism development, the presence
of political tensions and instability, the unclear legislative and spatial planning framework,
unregulated land registry, etc.
Second home development in Croatia
After the disintegration of Yugoslavia, Croatia has conducted two censuses of population,
households and dwellings (2001 and 2011) in which second homes were registered as a
part of the housing stock. In 2001, 182,513 dwellings for holiday and recreational purposes
were recorded (Croatian Bureau of Statistics, 2003), while in 2011 there were 249,243
dwellings for vacation and recreation recorded (Croatian Bureau of Statistics, 2013). The
number of dwellings has increased significantly over the last inter-census period (36.6%),
compared with the previous period between 1991 and 2001 (3.21%). The reason for such
intense growth lies in the increased construction of multi-apartment recreational
buildings.The most prominent increase was recorded in the early 2000‘s, before the
economic recession which has slowed down and almost stopped the building activity in the
end of the 2000‘s. The proportion of dwellings for holiday and recreational purposes in
total housing stock has also increased – from 9.7% in 2001 to 11.1% in 2011 (Croatian
Bureau of Statistics, 2003; Croatian Bureau of Statistics, 2013).
Data from last two censuses show that the leading second home areas (according to the
absolute number of dwellings for vacation and recreation, as well as according to their
share in the total housing stock) have not changed. The highest number of second homes
was recorded in towns and municipalities on the coast and on the islands, particularly those
connected with the mainland by the bridge (e.g. Vir, Pag, Krk, etc.). In the towns and
municipalities of the Northern Croatian Littoral (Istria and Kvarner regions), a higher
number and higher share of second homes in the total housing stock were recorded in
comparison with the Southern Croatian Littoral (Dalmatia region). The main reason for
such distribution is the fact that Dalmatia is further away from the leading national and
international centres of second home demand in comparison to Istria and Kvarner. Other
reasonslie in the fact that Istria and Kvarner were excluded from the zone of direct war
operations in the first half of the 1990‘s, so the development of the second home
phenomenon took place more spontaneous here than in Dalmatia. In addition, because of
the advantages of proximity to the centres of demand and better transport accessibility,
process of construction of multi-apartment recreational buildings in the Northern Croatian
Littoral began earlier and was stronger than in the Southern Croatian Littoral. Second
homes make up a clear majority of the total housing fund in even 19 towns and
municipalities in Croatia,with the highest share on the island of Vir (86.3%). It is
490
obviousthat the second home phenomenon in many local authority units has become a
major factor of morphological and functional transformation and that its role in the
Croatian littoral area further strengthens.
Second home development in Slovenia
Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia conducted the last ―classical‖ census of
buildings and dwellings in 2002, in which there were 31,681 second homes recorded in
country. In 2011, the so called registry-based census identified only 20,740 such units. It
should therefore be noted, that statistical office completed this census not by collecting
data on the ground in the form of statements of owners and tenants, but by using
administrative sources and integrating the data obtained from the Central Population
Register of the Ministry of the Interior, the Building Cadastre and the Real-Estate Register
of the Surveying and Mapping Authority and the Land Registry (managed by the Supreme
Court of the Republic of Slovenia). In interpreting the data from the 2011 Census, and in
possible comparisons with the previous census carried out in 2002, it should be mentioned
that there may exist certain differences on account of the use of different data collection or
data acquisition methods (Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2002; 2011).
According to the census in 2002, second homes in Slovenia accounted 4.1 percent of the
total housing stock. In the register-based census of 2011, their share was only 2.5 percent –
a decline which canmostly be attributed to the different methodology used the last census
by the statistical office. Despite this fact,the municipalities with the highest proportion of
second homes in their housing stock remain the same in both census years – these are the
municipalitiesof Kranjska Gora, Bohinj and Bovec, all three partly located in the Triglav
national park in northwestern Alpine region of Slovenia. Other, smaller municipalities
(Kostel, Jezersko, Osilnica, Bloke, RibnicanaPohorju) also show a significant proportion
of holiday units, however, it should be noted that these municipalities have a low number
of residential units (less than 1000) in general. Although the second homes in the
mentioned municipalities do not represent the dominant form of settlement as the share of
permanently inhabited dwellings everywhere remains higher, secondary buildingshad a
significant impact on the morphology and physiognomy of the several settlements in
Slovenia.
CONCLUSION
Dramatic changes of socio-economic and political context in the countriesestablished after

the dissolution of ex-Yugoslavia have significantly influenced the pattern of second
homes‘ development. In the socialist period, when nowadays independent countries were a
part of common state, main characteristics of second home development included: a) a
purpose-built or converted and renovated family houses as the dominant form of second
homes, b) exclusively domestic demand for acquisition of second homes, c) low prices of
real estate and land, d) favourable loan conditions for the construction or renovating, and
e) leisure and recreation with family and friends as the dominant pattern of the second
home usage. The disintegration of the ex-Yugoslavia, with a turbulent period of wars and
economic transition in 1990‘s, has deepened differences in economic development
between ex-Yugloslavcountries, and contributed to the significant changes in the
contemporary context of second home development. Therefore, the characteristics of
491
recent stage of the second homedevelopment appeared earlier in Slovenia and Croatia than
in other countries. The reasons lie in the earlier opening of the real estate market to
foreigners (EU citizens), membership in the European Union and better transport
connections with centres of second home demand. Among the main features of the recent
second home development patternthe following elements can be identified: a) more
pronounced presence of multi-apartment recreational buildings, especially in the leading
coastal and Alpine second home areas, b) the emergence of a free real estate market and
influential construction lobby, c) the emergence of international second home demand –
mostly in the leading coastal and Alpine second home areas, d) a strong increase in land
prices, loans for purchasing second homes that are often unattainable for most citizens, e)
appearance of commercial or speculative motivation on the acquisition of second homes (e.
g. renting, capital investment in real estate because of the expected growth in their prices).
It can be concluded that second home development pattern in the ex-Yugoslav countries in
the last 50 years has changed from affordable to exclusive phenomenon.
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THE IMPACT OF CHEFS’ NATIONAL CUISINE PERCEPTIONS ON
THEIR INTENTION TO PURCHASE LOCAL FOOD
Bahattin Ozdemir1
Ayla Aydin2
Osman Caliskan3
Gokhan Yilmaz
Abstract: The purpose of this study is to understand the role of chefs‘ perceptions of national
cuisine in their intention to purchase local food. Data were collected through a survey instrument
which includes individual scales for chefs‘ perceptions of national cuisine and their intentions to
buy local food. 106 questionnaires were distributed to chefs attending to activities held by Turkish
Chefs Federation in Antalya ANFAS Fairground between 26 and 28 February 2015. Within a
convenient sampling method, 74 questionnaires were returned and 67 of these were included into
the subsequent analyses. Following the reliability and validity analysis of the scales, the results
showed that chefs perceived national cuisine in three domains as cost, labor and popularity, and the
findings of regression analysis indicated that the cost dimension of national cuisine perception
influenced chefs‘ intention to purchase local food.
Keywords: Local Food, National Cuisine, Chefs‘ Perceptions, Purchasing Local Food, Turkey
INTRODUCTION
As people‘s information sources and experiences of a wider array of local cuisines expand
due to the developments in information technologies and increases in the number of travels
to different regions of world, tourists are exposed to and become familiar with different
cuisines (Seo et al., 2013). Relying on this familiarity, tourists develop their perceptions of
different local cuisines, and it is believed that those perceptions positively influence
tourists‘ behaviors (Chi et al., 2013). In the relevant literature it is revealed that cuisine has
a considerable impact on tourists‘ choices of their vacation destinations (Kivelaand Crotts,
2009). Moreover, food is an important determinant of tourists‘ satisfaction with a
destination (Nield et al., 2000). Thus, food can prompt tourists to return to the same
destination (Kivela and Crotts, 2006). From a supply side perspective, tourists‘ food
consumption is an important means of generating revenue for a destination. Additional to
its economical contributions, cuisine is also a unique attribute of destinations that enhances
tourist experiences (Mynttinenet al., 2015) through the connections between local food and
culture.
Local food consumption is a growing trend among contemporary consumers. In a recent

study, 20% of respondents rated the ingredient source as the most important attribute for
their restaurant selections (Lillywhite and Simonsen, 2014). Onozaka et al. (2010)
highlighted that consumers have been developing an inclination to consuming local food
1
Associate Professor, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Faculty of Tourism, Akdeniz
University, Kampus Antalya, Turkey.
2
Research Assistant, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Faculty of Tourism, Akdeniz
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Faculty of Tourism, Akdeniz
495
products because they perceived local food fresh, high quality and nutritious. In the
specific context of tourism, prior research (Fields, 2002; Kim et al., 2009; Chang et al.,
2010; Mak et al., 2012) showed that tourists are motivated to consume local food in their
vacation destinations by several factors including cultural motivators (symbolic meaning
of food), social motivators (status and prestige, developing new relations or strengthening
existing ones around food), and physiological motivators (fresh and healthy food
consumption). Local food consumption is not merely a demand side issue but also a matter
of fact in the supply side. Indeed, this growing demand is expected to accelerate the
production and use of local food in tourist destinations (Lillywhite and Simonsen, 2014)
where hospitality industry (restaurants and hotels) is supposed to be the major users of
local food products. In the context of restaurant and hotel firms, chefs play a critical role in
deciding to use and purchase local food (Telfer and Wall, 2000). Therefore, the relevant
literature mostly focuses on chefs‘ perceptions of local food products‘ attributes, obstacles
to purchase local food, and their intention or decision to buy local foodstuffs. The
researchers (Strohbehn and Gregoire, 2003; Curtis and Cowee, 2009; Onozaka et al., 2010;
Kang and Rajagopal, 2014) who explored the attributes of local food revealed that chefs or
decision makers (owner, general manager, purchasing manager) in hospitality industries
appreciated freshness, nutritional value, quality, taste, low cost and price, uniqueness, and
ease of preparation attributes of local food products. Nevertheless, chefs also experience
some serious obstacles to buy or use local food. Prior research showed that seasonality of
products, inconsistencies in quality and price, problems with delivery, and incomplete
information about availability of products are the major challenges perceived by chefs
while purchasing local food (Strohbehn and Gregoire, 2003; Curtis and Cowee, 2009;
Kang and Rajagopal, 2014). Both perceptions of local products‘ attributes and perceptions
of obstacles may influence chefs‘ intention to purchase local food (Inwood et al., 2009). In
this sense, attributes of local food exert a positive impact on chefs‘ intentions while
perceived obstacles negatively affect chefs‘ motivation to locally sourcing of food.
Another influential factor might be chefs‘ perceptions in the domains of local or national
cuisines‘ ingredient, production and cost requirements and their beliefs about how
customers react to local food. However, studies on the national/local cuisine perceptions
are very scarce. Moreover, the respondents in the existing research studies were mainly
tourists or consumers, not chefs. In fact, following the recognition that local food is a
critical attribute of destinations and tourists‘ experiences, researchers have paid a
considerable attention to tourists‘ perceptions of local cuisines or food. In this context,
different research studies employed different conceptualizations of those perceptions. For
instance, Karim and Chi (2010), Chi et al. (2013) and Seo et al. (2013) use the term ―food
image‖ while Philips et al., (2013) and Camillo and Karim (2014) prefer using ―attitudes‖
to explain how tourists perceive local food or cuisines. According to Karim and Chi (2010)
food image conceptually had three dimensions including food/cuisine (variety, quality,
presentation, cooking methods, locality, and taste), dining/restaurant (price, attractiveness,
varieties, easy access, friendly service, and menu) and food–related tourism activities (food
and wine regions, package tours, cultural experience, street market, food vendors).
However, Chi et al. (2013) stated that dimensions including food distinctiveness and
accessibility, food diversity and enjoyment, and food quality and presentation constitute
food image. In their study, Seo et al. (2013) empirically revealed that local food image has
two dimensions: cognitive (recognition or perception of local food with its attributes
including quality, attractiveness, healthfulness, family-orientation and uniqueness), and
496
effective (emotional and sentimental perceptions including contention, pleasantness,
enjoyable, and exiting). Philips et al. (2013) described tourists‘ attitudes toward a cuisine
in three domains including enjoyable or not; pleasant or not; bad or good. Camillo and
Karim (2014) focused on consumers‘ attitudes towards a national (Italian) cuisine and
empirically demonstrated that taste, simplicity of cooking and preparation, freshness of
ingredients, variety and appeal, price and authenticity are the main components of those
attitudes. Very recently, Mynttinen et al.(2015) revealed that tourists‘ perception of food
has two important components as freshness and healthiness. These studies also discovered
positive relationships between food image, attitude or perceptions and tourists‘ visit
intentions (Karim and Chi, 2010), sampling of local food (Philips et al., 2013; Seo et al.,
2013), satisfaction with food and their evaluations of culinary experiences in a destination
(Chi et al., 2013).
It is appearing that tourists‘evaluations of national cuisines are important to their choices

among destinations. But it is very hard to establish direct relationships between image of
national cuisine based on tourists‘ perceptions and the purchase of local food by
restaurants. Nevertheless, it is plausible to assume that positive image of a national cuisine
may lead tourists to demand and consume local dishes from that food culture (Philips et al.,
2013; Seo et al., 2013) and eventually tourists‘ increased demand may induce restaurants
to include more local food into their menu offerings which may result in purchasing more
locally produced foodstuffs. In fact, some researchers (Karim and Chi, 2010; Kang and
Rajagopal, 2014) confirm these relations at least conceptually and partly in the way that
tourists‘ demand for local food increases producing and serving of local dishes in local
restaurants. However, the other and important aspect of local food purchases by restaurants
is chefs‘ willingness to use local foodstuff and thus it is critical to understand the factors
that have an impact on chefs‘ intention to buy locally produced food. As noted before, the
previous research has mainly focused on the influence of chefs‘ perceptions of local food
attributes and challenges to purchasing local food on their motivation to buy or use locally
produced foodstuffs (Strohbehn and Gregoire, 2003; Curtis and Cowee, 2009; Inwood et
al., 2009; Onozaka et al., 2010; Kang and Rajagopal, 2014). However, there is no research
on the effects of chefs‘ evaluation of national cuisine on their intention to purchase local
food. Since, more dishes from a national/regional cuisine on menus may require use of
more local ingredients and chefs‘ favorable perceptions of national cuisine leads to their
choices of planning menus with more varieties from national food culture. Therefore, it
may be possible to associate the purchase of local food with chefs‘ perceptions of
national/regional cuisine. Thus, the purpose of the study is to understand the role of chefs‘
perceptions of national cuisine in their intention to purchase local food.
METHODOLOGY
This section contains pieces of information about study setting, sampling and data
collection methods and data analysis.
Study Setting
The empirical part of the study was carried out in Turkey, specifically in Antalya.
Considering the number of nights spent by tourists and the number of tourism
establishments, Antalya is one of the leading tourism destinations in Turkey (Erkus-
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Ozturk, 2010) and possesses the necessary resources for sun-sea-sand tourism (Alvarez,
2010). The region has a mild climate, magnificent landscapes and natural scenery,
beautiful beaches and a colorful culture which attract millions of visitors every year (Cizel
et al., 2013). In fact, tourism industry in Antalya is largely dependent on international
tourists who are seen as ―sun and sea seekers,‖ and who visit the destination especially in
the summer season (Ozdemir et al., 2012a). Tourist arrivals from foreign countries,
including Germany, Russia, France, England and the Netherlands, amounted to more than
10 million people (Ozdemir et al., 2012b).
Problems, however, have emerged alongside the rapid development of tourism in Antalya.
The large hotel facilities located in resort areas and are segregated from the city center.
Additional to this distance between resort areas and the city center, the all-inclusive
concept is a common practice among resort hotels in the region (Ozdemir et al., 2012a),
and all those result in an environment in which tourists do not experience the daily life of
the city and/or local people (Ozturkmen, 2005). Thus, recognition and consumption of
local food by tourists visiting the region are not at a satisfactory level (Ozdemir and Kinay,
2005) which may naturally have a negative impact on the use and purchase of locally
produced foodstuffs by hotels and restaurants in the region. Nevertheless, some researchers
have been interested in the relationship between local food and tourism in Turkey. The
Turkish literature conceptualizes the local food as a critical component of national or local
culture or equates it to local or national food culture. In this context, researchers paid a
considerable attention to the economical aspects of local food such as the benefits
generated through marketing local products to tourists. Thus, the main subjects in the
national research were the demand generating effect of local food in rural tourism (Kesici,
2012); the impact of local gastronomical products on local economical development
(Kocaman and Kocaman, 2014); tourists‘ local food perceptions (Gokdeniz et al., 2015;
BekarveBelpinar, 2015), and the role of local food in restaurant marketing (Erkol and
Zengin, 2015; Yurtseven and Kaya, 2011). Although this information provides an
overview of how local food was understood by researchers, it cannot present any clue in
understanding the determinants of restaurants‘ local food purchasing behaviors. In fact, the
information about how Turkish restaurants use local food products is hardly available.
There is only one accessible study (Yaris and Comert, 2015) which has investigated the
perceived advantages and disadvantages of using local food in restaurants with a sample of
11 restaurant operators. Therefore, there is an urge to examine the factors affecting the
hotels‘ and restaurants‘ purchases of local food in larger samples in Turkey.
Sampling and Data Collection
The data were collected through a questionnaire administered to a purposive sample of

Turkish chefs from hotels and restaurants operating in Antalya. Specifically, a combination
of purposive sampling methods (the criterion sampling and convenience sampling) was
used. The screening of study respondents followed two criteria. First, respondents had to
hold upper level positions (executive chef, sous chef or chef de partie) in the kitchen and
should be employed by hotel and restaurant firms operating in the region. In order to
establish contact with potential respondents, two researchers attended a local food and
beverage fair in ANFAS (Antalya Fair and Exhibition Organization Firm) Fairground.
Respondents were approached and informed about the purpose of survey and were then
asked whether they would participate in the survey. Respondents‘ participation in the study
498
was strictly voluntary. Respondents were also told that their individual responses were
anonymous and confidential. 106 questionnaires were distributed to chefs attending to
activities held by Turkish Chefs Federation during the fair between 26 and 28 February
2015. Finally, 74 questionnaires were returned and 67 of these were valid for further
analysis since seven respondents had completed the less than % 50 of the questionnaires. It
might be claimed that the current study has a relatively small sample size. However, this is
the main issue in similar other studies. For example, the study by Inwood et al. (2009)
involved 71 respondents into the sample while the study of Kang and Rajagopal (2014)
had a sample of 40 respondents.
The questionnaire comprised three groups of items. The first group of items constitutes a
scale for chefs‘ intention to purchase local food. In the second group, there is a scale for
measuring the respondents‘ perceptions of national cuisine. Finally, the third section was
designed to obtain demographic and professional information from the respondents.
Scale for intention to purchase local food: The items of the scale were developed by Kang
and Rajagopal (2014). The authors used the conceptual framework of theory of planned
behavior and examined the impact of respondents‘ attitudes, subjective norms, and
perceived behavioral control on their intention to buy local food in the context of hotel
industry in the United States. The scale originally has six items that measures respondents‘
intentions in the domains of cost, quality, flexibility of return policy, number of vendors,
contact with vendors, and decision makers‘ efforts to buy locally produced food. The
authors did not present any information about the dimensionality of the scale, but they
involved the scale as a one-dimensional variable into the further analysis.
Scale for perceptions of national cuisine: The items of the scale were borrowed from
Ozdemir (2003). The original study sampled 61 respondents who were chefs in five star
hotels operating in Antalya region and measured their perceptions of Turkish, Italian and
French cuisines. The 12 items in the original scale were in Turkish and related to what
each cuisine requires in the domains of labor (skills, experience, specialization); cost
(ingredients, equipment, labor); preparation time and craftsmanship, and popularity
(consumers‘ interest, demand, and consumption levels). Ozdemir (2003) revealed that the
scale was one-dimensional relying on the results of expletory factor analysis. All the items
in the scale of chefs‘ intention to purchase local food were translated into Turkish from
English. The translated items were examined by two experts (faculty members at
gastronomy and culinary arts department) who were familiar with both languages.
The survey instrument which includes individual scales for chefs‘ perceptions of national
cuisine and their intentions to buy local food was tested in a pilot study which was carried
out with 11 chefs. After small adjustments based on the results of the pilot study, the
questionnaire took its final form. A 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 =
strongly agree for intention to purchase, and 1= very low 5= very high for perception of
national cuisine) was used for all 18 items in the both scales.
Data Analysis
Data were analyzed in several stages employing different statistical techniques.

Frequencies and percentage scores were calculated for nominal variables, particularly for
499
the variables with reference to demographic and professional profile of respondents.
Additionally, mean scores were computed for respondents‘ age and tenure data.
Exploratory factor analysis was used to examine validity of the scales while Cronbach‘s
alpha coefficients were calculated to test scales‘ reliability. Finally, regression analysis was
used to identify the relationships within data.
FINDINGS
The findings section of this study includes an evaluation of chefs‘ professional and
demographic profile, results of reliability and validity analyses of scales, and the
relationships between variables.
Respondents’ demographic and professional profile
Respondents' gender, education and employment status are presented on Tab. 1. Tab. 2
shows the results of descriptive statistics about participants' age and tenure. Of the 67
respondents, 92.5% were males and half of the respondents graduated from high school.
65.7% of the respondents were employed by a hotel while majority of them (81.8%)
currently hold the position of executive chef.
Tab. 1. Information about respondents‘ gender, education, and employment status
Variables Frequency Percentage

Female 5 7,5
Gender Male 62 92,5
Total 67 100
Primary and secondary school 19 29,7
High school 32 50
Education College 4 6,3
University 9 14
Total 64 100
Hotel 44 65,7
Type of firm Restaurant 23 34,3
Total 67 100
Executive chef 54 81,8
Position Sous chef or chef de partie 12 18,2
Total 66 100
The mean age of the sample was 39. The respondents averagely spent 23.71 years in the
profession while the mean of total years in the current firm was slightly over 6 years as can
be seen from Tab. 2.
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Tab. 2. Information about respondents‘ age and tenure
Standard
Variables Mean Minimum Maximum
deviation
Age 39,47 8,936 19 65
Total years in the profession 23,71 9,219 8 53
Total years in the current firm 6,65 5,509 1 24
Validity and Reliability of Scales
This investigation analyzed the validity and reliability of scales using an exploratory factor
analysis and Cronbach‘s alpha coefficients. Factor analyses were performed to determine
the underlying dimensions of respondents‘ perceptions of national cuisine scale, and chefs‘
intention to purchase local food scale. In the factor analysis, a principal component
analysis using Varimax rotation was undertaken. Factors with an eigenvalue equal to or
greater than one were considered as significant and reported in the final factor structure.
Only items with factor loadings of 0.5 and higher were retained for further analysis
whereas items with factor loadings below 0.5 were removed. Results are depicted on
Tab.3.
As a result of factor analysis for the scale of chefs‘ intention to purchase local food, two
items (―I am willing to buy foods, if there is a flexible return policy‖ and ―I will make an
effort to purchase local foods‖) were deleted because of low factor loadings and the
remaining four items were reduced to a single factor. As shown on Tab. 3, these four items
had factor loadings ranging from 0.64 to 0.74 and one factor solution explained 48% of the
total variance. The result of Bartlett‘s test of sphericity was significant at 0.00; and the
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) overall value was 0.48. Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient of the
scale is 0.62 which is relatively small but still acceptable (Murphy veDavidshofer, 1988).
Similar analyses were performed for the scale of chefs‘ perceptions of national cuisine.
Because of low factor loadings three items (―Craftsmanship needed for production of food
in the cuisine‖; ―Specialization level of employees needed for production of food in the
cuisine‖ and ―Time needed for production of food in the cuisine‖) were removed following
the initial factor analysis, and three factors were extracted from the remaining variables. As
can be seen on Tab. 3, each factor explained 17% or more of the variance. In other words,
the three factors together explained 67.5% of total variance. The result of Bartlett‘s test of
sphericity was significant at 0.00; and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) overall value was
0.70. The reliability test demonstrated that the coefficients of Cronbach‘s alpha of three
factors ranged from 0.66 to 0.84 which support the reliability. As presented on Tab.3, each
of the factors was labeled based on the items that constituted it. Factor 1 included three
items relating to knowledge, skills and experience levels of employees and thus labeled as
―Labor‖. Factor 2 was also comprised of three items and was named ―Cost‖ because the
items under this factor related to cost of ingredients, labor and equipment. Factor 3 was
composed of three items which were related to customers‘ interest, consumption and
demand levels, and thus designated as ―Popularity‖. These three factors were inserted into
the further analysis as independent variables.
501
Tab. 3. Results of factor analyses for two scales
Variance Cronbach’s
Factor
Scales and items Eigenvalue explained Alpha
loading
% Coefficient
Intention to purchase local food 1,925 48,132 62,2
I will purchase more local foods, if it
.728
is cost effective.
I am willing to purchase local foods,
if I can receive product of consistent .746
quality.
I will purchase local foods, if there
is a single point/source for .644
purchasing.
I intend to purchase local foods, if
.651
producers of local foods contact me.
Perceptions of national cuisine
Factor 1: Labor 2,501 27,794 84,6
Knowledge level of employees .868
needed for production of food in the
cuisine
Skills level of employees needed for .865
production of food in the cuisine
Experience level of employees .825
needed for production of food in the
cuisine
Factor 2: Cost 1,987 22,081 72,1
Cost of ingredients used in the .857
production of food in this cuisine
Cost of equipment used in the .843
production of food in this cuisine
Cost of labor used in the production .675
of food in this cuisine
Factor 3: Popularity 1,587 17,633 66,7
Level of food consumed by .834
customers
Customers‘ demand for food .641
Customers‘ interest in food .582
Testing the relations between dependent and independent variables
Prior to performing the regression analysis, Pearson Correlationanalysis was conducted in

order to diagnose the relationshipsbetweenchefs‘ intention to purchase local food and
dimensions of chefs‘ perceptions of national cuisine. As seen on Tab. 4, cost (Correlation
coefficient= -,372; p= 0,007) is negatively and significantly correlated to chefs‘ intention
502
to purchase local food while popularity (Correlation coefficient= ,351; p= 0,007) has a
significant and positive correlation. Results also indicated that there was not a significant
relationship betweenlabor and intention to purchase local products. Thus, only two
variables (cost and popularity) were entered into the forthcoming regression analysis.
Tab. 4. Correlations between dependent variable and independent variables
Chefs’ perceptions of national Pearson Correlation Significance

cuisine coefficients
Labor -,065 ,634
Cost -,372 ,007*
Popularity ,351 ,007*
* Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).
A multiple linear regression analysis was used to test the prescribed relationships between
independent variables (two dimensions of chefs‘ perception of national cuisine: cost and
popularity) and dependent variable (chefs‘ intention to purchase local food) of the current
research. Results are shown on Tab. 5.
Tab. 5. Results of regression analysis
Variables Standardized t Significance Tolerance VIF

Coefficients value
Popularity ,219 1,796 ,077 ,870 1,149
Cost -,282 -2,314 ,024 ,870 1,149
R ,415
R2 ,172
Durbin-Watson value 1,997
Dependent variable: Chefs‘ intention to purchase local food
Since the assumption of normality needs to be checked for parametric tests, before
conducting regression analysis, the variables were tested against distribution for normality
by using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and skewness and kurtosis values. Depending on the
results for cost (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z = 0,818, p= ,516; skewness = ,463; kurtosis= -
,432); popularity (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z = 1,056, p= ,215; skewness = -,830; kurtosis=
1,266) and intention to purchase local food (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z = 1,249, p= ,088;
skewness = -,595; kurtosis= -,008), it is possible to claim that the normality assumption
was not violated. Following the guidelines provided by Field (2009), assumptions of
regression model including the linearity between dependent and independent variables,
homoscedasticity (homogeneity of variance), autocorrelations (statistical independence of
errors) and multicollinearity (highly correlated independent variables) were checked
through examination of residual plots (plots of the standardized residuals as a function of
standardized predicted values), Durbin Watson test, and examination of tolerance and
variance inflation factors (tolerance and VIF). A visual inspection of scatter plots did not
indicate a serious problem of violation of linearity and homoscedasticity assumptions. As a
503
rule of thumb, Durbin Watson test values between 1 and 3 indicate that there is no auto-
correlation in the data. As seen on Tab. 5, the result of Durbin Watson test secures that the
regression model in the current study did not suffer from a violation of autocorrelation
assumption. The values of VIF ≥ 10 and tolerance <0.10 indicate that multicollinearity
exists among independent variables. Tab. 5 where the regressionanalysis results are
depicted shows that the current regression model has not a multicollinearity problem since
the VIF values are below 10 and tolerance values are above 0.10. The regression model
shown on Tab. 5 demonstrated that although popularity (t= 1,796; p = 0,077) did not have
any significant effect, the cost (= -2,314; p = .024) dimension of chefs‘ perceptions of
national cuisine had an significant impact on the intention to purchase local food. It can
also be seen that cost had a negative and relatively small size effect on chefs‘ intentions
when its β value (-,282) was scrutinized. The R2 value of the model is considerably low,
which indicates that cost alone can only explain a small portion of variance in chefs‘
intention to buy local food.
CONCLUSIONS
In recent years, a growing emphasis has been placed on local food both from tourist
demand and tourism supply perspectives, and it has become a popular research subject
among hospitality and tourism researchers. From a supply side perspective, one of the
common dependent variables of prior research was chef‘s motivation to buy or use locally
produced foodstuffs, and this variable was mainly associated with a plenty of factors from
two major domains as chefs‘ perceptions of local food attributes and challenges to
purchasing local food. The current study has taken an alternative approach and focused on
chefs‘ local cuisine perceptions as an independent variable. Thus, the purpose of the study
was to understand the impact of chefs‘ perceptions of national cuisine on their intention to
purchase local food.
The major findings of the study revealed that cost, labor and popularity constituted the
chefs‘ perception of national cuisine. Moreover, the regression model demonstrated that
the cost dimension of chefs‘ national cuisine perception is a predictor of their intention to
purchase local food. Thus, when chefs‘ perceive that national cuisine requires high level of
costs with reference to ingredients, equipment and labor; they are less inclined to develop a
strong intention to buy local food products. Although the popularity was not a significant
determinant of chefs‘ intentions in the regression model, it was significantly and positively
associated with chefs‘ intention according to correlation analysis. Thus, popularity has also
a potential to influence chefs‘ intention to buy local food. More specifically, chefs‘
positive beliefs that costumers are interested in national cuisine, and also demand and
consume the food from national food culture may strengthen their intention to use and
purchase local food.
The major findings of this study have some important implications for practice. First,
efforts should be oriented to elimination of obstacles to purchasing local food in order to
increase the use of local foodstuffs by restaurants or hotels in a destination. According to
prior research there might be a plenty of obstacles, but the current study demonstrated that
chefs‘ perception of costs of a national cuisine is also a hindering factor to buy local food.
Despite its costs, national cuisine is a fruitful source for innovative ideas in the kitchen.
Chefs may focus on generating innovative versions of classical dishes in the national
504
cuisine, and these new dishes may be produced by using local food. Thus, it is important to
educate chefs about the innovation potential of national cuisine which may lessen its cost
burden and increase the use of local food. Second, popularity of a national cuisine among
tourists and demand generating potential of local food are important attributes that may
entice chefs to use and purchase local products. In this sense, one strategy might be to
promote local/national cuisines among tourists. The increased demand to local food by
tourists may lead chefs to have positive beliefs about tourists‘ local food consumption
behaviors, and eventually may positively influence their intention to buy local food
products.
The current study has some limitations. First, the convenient sampling method and
relatively small sample size which is limited to a specific destination is a serious restriction
to generalize findings to larger populations. Nevertheless, as a suggestion for future
research, researchers may involve larger samples in different destinations and obtain new
findings that might be compared to the findings of the current study. Another meaningful
limitation of the present study is the small R2 value of the regression model which
indicates that the independent variable can only explain a small portion of variance in the
dependent variable. Thus, there are other factors that have a considerable effect on the
dependent variable. Therefore, future research studies may insert new variables (attributes
of local food, challenges to buy local food, respondents‘ demographic and professional
profiles) into the model in order to increase the explanatory strength of their models.
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508
REGIONAL AND LOCAL HAZARDS IN TOURISM – CASE STUDY OF
MINEFIELDS IN THE PROTECTED AREAS OF CANTON OF
SARAJEVO
Ranko Mirić1
Nusret Drešković2
Edin Hrelja3
Boris Avdić4
Abstract: Research of hazards and risk in tourism is one of important segments in the concept of
management and planning in destination development. In the concept of long-term strategy of
economic development, Bosnia and Herzegovina has set its tourist industry goals very high. It is
recognized as the strategic branch of economy, which should increase competitiveness, foreign-
exchange influx, tourist traffic and employment rate. One of the basic preconditions of achievement
of these goals is the process of formation of protected areas, by which territorial share Bosnia and
Herzegovina is placed very low on the list of European nations.
Accordingly, this paper represents the research of protected areas development concepts in Canton
of Sarajevo, and of problems with theirs establishment, with the special focus on hazards like
minefields and unexploded ordnance (UXO).
Although it has passed 20 years since the end of the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina is not safe
country regarding this issue (current suspected area is 1.176,5 km2 or 2,3% of total land), while the
situation in Canton of Sarajevo is even more concerning (suspected area is 80,78 km2 or 6,3% of
total land). Hazards and risks related to minefields and UXO represent very significant limiting
factor in the process of establishment of new protected areas, which are planned by legal documents
on the Cantonal and Federal level. This is especially emphasized through high concentration of
mine suspected areas in the southern regions of Canton of Sarajevo, where are located mountains
like Igman, Bjelašnica, Visoţica, Treskavica, as well as Rakitnica canyon. These locations are
among the most valuable tourist attractions in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Key words: Bosnia and Herzegovina, minefield, hazard, Canton of Sarajevo, protected area
INTRODUCTION
Pursuant to the provisions of the Framework Law on the Protection and Rescue of Persons
and Material Goods in the Event of Natural and Other Disasters in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, the Council of Ministers adopted a National Methodology for Making Risk
Assessments regarding Natural and Other Disasters in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2009), in
which the term ―hazard‖ is defined as a threat, phenomena, activity that causes natural or
other disasters; potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that
may cause loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or
environmental damages.
1
2
3
Senior Assistant , Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo,
4
Assistant , Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo,
509
At the same time, hazards can include latent conditions that may pose future threats and
can have different origins: natural (geological, hydro-meteorological and biological) or be
caused by human processes (environmental degradation and technological hazards).
Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in terms of their origin or effects. Each
hazard is characterized by its location, intensity, frequency and probability. Accordingly, it
would be necessary to consider a continuing but also a situational assessment regarding the
presence and the effects of hazard elements on the safety of persons, their property and the
environment, and the exposure through the number, types, quality, and value of different
kinds of material goods or infrastructure and life that may all be subject to undesirable
dangers.
The said methodology is focused also on the assessment of the socio-economic impact of
mines and unexploded ordnance (UXO) on the population and the economy, where among
other elements there is also a mention of a quantificational analysis of facilities and
attractions of cultural and tourism significance (of great importance for economic
development in Bosnia and Herzegovina) in the risk zones (high, medium and low risk
zones).
According to the assessments made in January 2015, the current size of mine suspected
areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina is 1,176.5 km2, which represents 2,3% of the total area.
Through a number of systematic survey operations, we defined 9.185 mine suspected
hazardous micro-locations that are estimated to be infested with approximately 120,000
mines/UXO. (BH MAC, 2015)
Within the database (BHMAIS) there are currently registered 19.205 minefield records,
which, according to the evaluation of Mine Action Center (MAC) experts accounts for
only about 60% of their actual number. So far in Bosnia and Herzegovina there were 1,732
casualties, of which number 603 persons ended up as fatalities. There were more than 240
children among the victims. (BH MAC, 2015)
The sites contaminated with mines/UXO have a direct impact on safety of about 540,000
citizens. Out of the total number of vulnerable communities affected by mines/UXO, 136
or 10% were categorized as vulnerable persons exposed to high levels of risk (about
152,000 vulnerable citizens), 268 or 19% as vulnerable persons exposed to a medium level
of risk (about 180,000 vulnerable citizens) and 1,013 or 71% as vulnerable persons
exposed to low levels of risk (about 208,000 vulnerable citizens).
As a party to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and
Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction/Ottawa Convention (Anti-
Personnel Mine Ban Treaty), at the third Maputo Review Conference held last year in
Maputo, Bosnia and Herzegovina has committed itself to increasing the required budgetary
allocations in order to meet its remaining obligations in the mine action implementation,
because it is a precondition for the fulfillment of the goals set in the Mine Action Strategy
towards enabling the local authorities to take a greater deal of or full ownership over this
particular domain. However, at this rate and through this kind of attitude present among
the institutions, no sufficient funds have ever been allocated during the course of these six
years of implementation of the current Strategy. The implementation of the planned
dynamics and timetables required the allocation of about BAM 80 million; however, only
about BAM 45 million were allocated.
For the purposes of further consideration of this problem, this paper also takes into account
a very significant share of the intended land use categories, because according to a report
made in January of this year, approximately 2/3 (about 61%) of mine suspected areas were
situated in the zone of woodland and forest areas. In this regard, Canton of Sarajevo shares
510
the destiny of the same situation present all over Bosnia and Herzegovina. Mine suspected
areas amount to 80.78 km2 or 6.3% of the overall territory of the Canton, where the first
category accounts for 26.5%, the second for 17.2%, and the third for 56.2%. (BH MAC,
2015).
Bearing in mind that in the 2003-2023 Spatial Development Plan of Canton of Sarajevo, as
part of the general objectives of spatial development, a high position is occupied by the
activities such as, for example, promotion of special quality of the environment and
preservation of a distinctive environment, but also protection and valorization of values
associated with natural resources, natural and cultural heritage, the hazards and risks of
landmines and UXO are an extremely prominent limiting factor in the process of
establishing a number of entirely new units of natural heritage that are planned in the
legislative documents at the Cantonal and Federation levels. Consequently, this paper
explores the concepts of development and establishment of protected areas in Canton of
Sarajevo, and the problems accompanying their establishment, with a focus on the hazards
related to mines and UXO.
This is particularly evident in the concentration of mine suspected areas in the territory
where there are 14 planned protected areas to be established in the zone which is regulated
by law, among which the perspective of a national park within the stretch of Mount Igman-
Mount Bjelašnica-Mount Treskavica-Mount Visoţica and the Raktinica River canyon
stands out clearly as one of most attractive tourist resources in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
MATERIALS AND WORK METHODS
Materials used for the development of this paper are based on documentary grounds
contained in the relevant laws, reports and strategies at national and lower levels of
legislative and executive authorities (the Council of Ministers, the Government of the
Federation, the Government and the Ministries of Canton of Sarajevo) and spatial planning
documents and special purpose plans of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and
Canton of Sarajevo. In addition to the above documents, the extensive documentation
works and cartographic materials have also been used from the sources of the Mine Action
Center in Bosnia and Herzegovina. (BH MAC, 2015)
The work methodology was based on the collection, systematization and analysis of
documentary and cartographic materials, whose verification was conducted through the
application of field research, where analytical observations were made and mapping was
carried out. Through a complex synthesis and a number of comparative methodological
procedures in the domain of identification and evaluation of the natural and social
resources in the surveyed area, the output parameters have been obtained as required for
the assessment of the situation in the field of qualitative and quantitative indicators which
resolutely show the realistic situation, trends and prospects of development. In addition to
the methodology of using GIS software application, an annex of original diagrams and
charts has been created for purposes of making a comparative conceptual imagery of
qualitative and quantitative database, based on which a number of conclusive
considerations have been made.
511
DISCUSSION
According to the current trends, the most efficient model used to respond to the increasing
reduction of the physical-geographical diversity and biodiversity is the establishment of
protected natural areas. Only in this way can we at least partially compensate for the huge
losses generated in the recent and inappropriate attitudes toward natural resources and
ensure the survival and preservation of natural ecosystems and ensure the natural heritage
for the generations to come. Bosnia and Herzegovina is among the richest European
countries in terms of possessing a tremendous variety of natural resources, represented
through a high diversity of physical-geographical and bio-ecological systems concerning
the size of the country itself. Regrettably, through its previous and current activities, in
terms of the different degree of protected nature areas according to the international
standards and conventions signed by Bosnia and Herzegovina, this country is satisfying
only 2% of the required criteria, which is making it thus one of the last countries in Europe
and among the most lagging countries in the world. Canton of Sarajevo also has a number
of considerable natural resources, which are recognized on an extremely small scale,
because the share of its protected natural areas is about 2%, which makes an extremely
small proportion having in mind what the Canton‘s genuine potentials are. In addition to
the objective circumstances that are a consequence of the war period in which natural
resources have suffered significant devastation (degradation of forest lands, uncontrolled
exploitation of mineral resources, illegal and unplanned construction, negligent
management of water resources), the presence of landmines/minefields and UXO-s
represents a constant threat and objectively highest obstacle to further processes in
planning the protection of natural areas in the territory of Canton of Sarajevo and
consequently of their great value from the point of view of tourism industry.
Situation and Planning in the domain of protected areas of Canton of Sarajevo
Nature conservation areas and national parks are declared under the Law by the Federation
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, whereas natural monuments and protected landscapes are
declared as such by the Cantonal Legislature. The nature conservation areas are managed
by public institutions, whose main activities in that respect include protection, maintenance
and promotion of the protected areas aimed at preserving their original nature and its
processes, and ensuring their use to the extent that does not endanger the inherited values.
According to the Law on Nature Protection, the basic document of relevance for their
management is the management plan, which is adopted for a period of ten years. Spatial
organization, the method of planning and protection are determined but he Spatial Plan for
the Areas with Special Features (see the 2008 Information on the Protected Natural Areas
in Sarajevo Canton).
The current activities carried out so far with regard to the situation analysis and planning in
the domain of protection of natural areas in Sarajevo Canton were first initiated in 1999
under the authority of the Ministry of Physical Planning, Construction and Environmental
Protection, through the delivery of technical studies required to declare certain natural
areas as areas under legal protection. Some more effective instruments were also
introduced later on, ranging from the establishment of the administration of protected areas
to the provision of financial resources for that purpose, resulting in a legally regulated
status of the establishment of four protected areas, whose categorization is defined
according to the guidelines and principles set by the International Union for Conservation
512
of Nature (IUCN). These are protected areas Skakavac, Vrelo Bosne, Bijambare and
Trebeviš. According to the relevant data the total size of the territory occupied by the four
protected areas is 2,742.70 hectares, which is about 2% of the total area of the Canton.
Each of these areas has its own specifics in terms of physical-geographical and biological
diversity. Bearing in mind the natural-geographical and bio-ecological potentials of Canton
of Sarajevo, the conclusion is that the share of the protected natural areas is at an immense
disproportion with the potentials.
Judging from the current functioning of the above four protected areas, it can be noted that
there is a high degree of justification for their establishment, because by their
attractiveness and complementarity in the tourist offer of Canton of Sarajevo they have
taken a very important position, thus enhancing the overall well-being of local population
and visitors. By guiding themselves with the justification of the needs and obligations
undertaken under the international treaties, and in accordance with legal regulations
applicable in this area, the Canton of Sarajevo institutions have incorporated into the 2003-
2023 Spatial Planning Document the planned units of natural heritage that are registered as
units designated for protection. (Đug, Dreškoviš, 2010)
Tab. 1. Protected areas and planned units of natural heritage in Kanton Sarajevo
Index Name of the protected area (PA) Status of PA Area
(ha)
25,265.0
1 National Park Bjelašnica Planned PA
0
2 National Park Treskavica Planned PA 3,722.70
3 Nature Park Visoţica Planned PA 2,778.20
4 Strict Nature Reserve Raktinica Planned PA 1,882.30
5 Natural Area Sliv Bijele Rijeke Planned PA 8,556.40
6 Nature Park Jahorina Planned PA 1,506.80
7 Natural Monument Vrelo Bosne Existing PA 537.40
8 Protected Landscape Bentbaša Planned PA 135.80
9 Protected Landscape Trebeviš Existing PA 400.70
10 Nature Park Ozren Planned PA 7,207.20
11 Natural Monument Skakavac Existing PA 1,434.20
12 Forest Park Debelo Brdo Planned PA 1,808.20
13 Special Nature Reserve Misoţa Planned PA 519.60
14 Area of Natural Beauty Ţemerska Planina Planned PA 1,706.10
15 Area of Natural Beauty Podlipnik Planned PA 1,331.20
16 Protected Landscape Bijambare Existing PA 370.30
17 Nature Park Zvijezda Planned PA 2,709.70
Total: 61871,8
Source: Spatial Plan of Canton of Sarajevo 2003-2023 (2006) 0
Planned protected areas represent complexes that are abundant in rare natural and
biogeographic phenomena, incorporated into projection of formation of circular green belt
513
around Sarajevo. Regarding the fact of documented 66 individual natural monuments
(geomorphological, hydrological, dendrological, horticultural, paleontological, etc.), in
combination with evident cultural and historic values (112 individual monuments – nearly
half of them are necropolises), it can be stated that potential for all year long tourism in
these areas is very high.
Fig. 1. Map of natural heritage in the Canton of Sarajevo (According to Spatial Plan
of Canton of Sarajevo 2003-2023, 2006, and Prirodno naslijeŤe Kantona Sarajevo, 2015)
514
According to official planning documents, special attention is dedicated to development of
tourism zones in rural areas, among others. In this context, tourism is seen as important
segment of general rural development, and is advocated as the most acceptable in
ecological sense and appropriate in relation to available resources and existing
infrastructure. It also coincides with the objective need for economic restructuring in
depopulated traditional rural areas, as well as with the contemporary trend of tourist
demand.
For that purpose, zones of rural ecotourism are planned on the area of 6,199 ha
(Municipality of Hadţiši – Lokve 83.57 ha and Ljubovţiši 78.55 ha; Municipality of Ilijaš
– Bioţa 723.67 ha, Kamenice 452.97 ha, Misoţa 668.45 ha, Nišiši 762.72 ha, Taraţin Do
1,381.99 ha and Vrutci 779.38 ha; Municipality of Trnovo – Lediši-Dujmoviši-Dejţiši
310.97 ha, Sinanoviši-Tušila 128.21 ha and Umoljani-Šabiši 786.51 ha). (Spatial Plan of
Canton of Sarajevo, 2006.)
Recent condition and problem of minefields in the extisting and planned protected
areas in the Canton of Sarajevo
Although it is estimated by project dynamics in Spatial Plan of Canton of Sarajevo 2003-

2023 that suspected area of first category will be completely cleared by 2010, and that
other two categories will be drastically reduced, it is obvious that these planned objectives
were not accomplished, i. e. achieved progress is considered as unsatisfactory. Official
data of relative share of mine suspected area in total area of Canton of Sarajevo in 2006
show relatively modest decline – 12,1% in 2006, 6,8% in 2011 and 6,3% in 2015. Very
small progress is especially emphasized since 2011, when it has been cleared only 6,75
km² or 0,52% in four years. This alarming information becomes even more worrying with
the additional fact that demining of area of first category is not completed yet. First
category accounts for 25,2% of total suspected area in Sarajevo region, according to a
recent data in 2015.
At the level of municipalities, concentration of mine suspected areas is connected with
spatial relation between city and periphery. Out of four municipalities in City of Sarajevo,
two of them (Centar and Novo Sarajevo) are completely cleared, while the other two (Stari
Grad and Novi Grad) have relatively small proportion of suspected areas (Tab. 2.).
Territory of Sarajevo municipalities is dominant demographic and economic pivot area of
Canton of Sarajevo, with high urbanization and concentration of infrastructure elements on
the relatively small area of 141,5 km2 and average population density of 2,059.5 people per
km2. (Prirodno naslijeŤe Kantona Sarajevo, 2015.) That fact resulted in small number of
micro-locations of mine suspected areas. However, they still exist in certain places, e. g.
Protected Landscape Bentbaša (Municipality of Stari Grad).
Based of GIS analysis, different parameters of spatial relations are stated for other
municipalities in the Canton of Sarajevo, where the majority of planned protected areas are
located. Geographical features of these municipalities are determined by lower
concentration of population. This is especially emphasized in the municipalities with large
territories – Trnovo, Hadţiši and Ilijaš. Municipalities of Ilidţa and Vogošša are
characterized by very high population density in the urban centres, while their
mountainous periphery are generally rural, or planned for gaining the status of protected
area, because of low degree of nature degradation.
515
Fig. 2. Map of existing and planned protected areas and minefields
(Source: Spatial Plan of Canton of Sarajevo 2003-2023, Prirodno naslijeŤe Kantona
Sarajevo, 2015.)
516
Tab. 2. Indicators of mine suspected areas at the municipal and cantonal level in
2015
Suspected area (km2) Total
Municipality suspected Suspected
I category II category III category area area (%)
(km2)
Novi Grad * 0,98705 0,00929 - 0,99634 2,1
Stari Grad* 0,92256 0,01733 - 0,93989 1,8
Novo Sarajevo* - - - - -
Centar* - - - - -
Hadţiši 1,54848 0,91923 9,12010 11,58780 4,25
Ilidţa 0,83594 1,17044 4,18365 6,19002 4,3
Ilijaš 8,46255 1,62129 19,80280 29,88664 9,67
Vogošša 1,87423 0,22458 2,78303 4,88184 6,77
Trnovo 5,63954 10,86480 9,20847 25,71281 7,6
TOTAL 20,27035 14,82696 45,09805 80,19534 6,28
*Municipalities of City of Sarajevo
Source: BH MAC (2015)
For the purpose of complete understanding of this issue, complex geospatial database is
created. It includes data for 58 micro-locations of mine suspected areas within the existing
and planned protected zones of natural heritage in Canton of Sarajevo. ( Fig. 3., Tab. 3.)
Tab. 3. Numerical indicators of mine suspected areas in the areas of natural heritage in the
Canton of Sarajevo
Number Mine suspected Mine suspected
Area of natural heritage
(Fig. 1.) area (ha) area (%)
1 Bjelašnica 510.03 2.02
2 Treskavica 290.71 7.81
3 Visoţica 409.07 14.72
5 Sliv Bijele Rijeke 1,473.92 17.23
6 Jahorina 22.31 1.48
8 Bentbaša 23.05 16.97
9 Trebeviš 25.00 6.23
10 Ozren 34.40 0.47
12 Debelo brdo 257.45 14.23
13 Misoţa 76.29 14.68
14 Ţemerska planina 71.00 4.16
16/17 Bijambare -Zvijezda 343.52 12.67
Total (ha) 3,536.74 5.71
Source: BH MAC (2015)
517
Through analysis if geospatial database, it can be stated that only Vrelo Bosne, Rakitnica,
Skakavac and Podlipnik represent the areas of natural heritage that are not endangered by
minefield hazards. They comprise only 8,36% of total existing and planned protected areas
in the Canton of Sarajevo. Remaining areas of naturat heritage carry the various degrees of
hazard risk. Relevant indicator of this issue is percentage of suspected areas in total land
area of these existing and planned zones. Total mine suspected area in existing or planned
protected zones are cca 3,540 hectares and it comprises 44% of all suspected area in the
Canton of Sarajevo. This percentage value varies from 0,5% in Ozren up to 17,2% in Sliv
Bijele Rijeke.
Mutual characteristic for all areas of natural heritage is very high proportion of woodland
(richness, rarity, representativeness, threats, endemism, function, diversity etc.) in
combination with geological, geomorphological, hydrological and other values. From the
aspect of demining process and eliminating the mine and UXO hazards, these kinds of
terrain are the most demanding and take the highest risk. Establishing the normal spatial
functions in these areas is extremely difficult and complex procedure, according to
personal experience of certain authors of this paper.
Contaminated forest land with mines and UXO comprises 11% of total forest area in the
Canton of Sarajevo, or 8,237.64 hectares. Because of that, conditions for the
implementation of forest protection and management measures are largely impeded.1 On
the basis of cartographic analyses of spatial relations between the real forest vegetation and
mine suspected areas, it can be stated that over 90% of all minefields are located in the
forested zones. Additionally, some of the most attractive geomorphological, geological and
hydrological motives are located in suspected forested areas (e. g. canyons of the Misoţa
River and Bijela Rijeka). Access to certain elements of natural heritage, that is reflected in
existence of narrow corridors with cleared tracks, but still contaminated wider area, also
should be considered. In that context, formation of attractive zones of eco-tourism, which
could have function of a cores of economic development in these rural areas is very
problematic, because some of them are placed close to the identified minefields (e.g.
Dejţiši, Lediši and Taraţin Do).
In accordance with previous facts, it is possible to get some other parameters about recent
situation in the aspect of considering mine and UXO hazards on the territory of Canton of
Sarajevo in relation to the protected areas. First of all, great standstill in activities focused
on reducing mine suspected areas in the Canton of Sarajevo is evident. It resulted in
exceeded deadlines set by the Cantonal local government. Lack of investment is the
biggest limitation factor. Obtained data show that BAM 106 million is required for the
completion of demining process in existing or planned protected areas of Canton of
Sarajevo (with realistic premise of costs – BAM 3 for square meter). In the time of
extremely difficult economic situation that is a burden for the budget of Canton of
Sarajevo, continuation of this very important process is uncertain. According to the
available data, even the terrain of the prior category is not completely cleared, and the
financial assets for that purpose amount to BAM 60 million. Also, it should be noted that
according to estimations, regestered minefields comprise only about 60% of total
minefields in this area.
1
Source: http://mp.ks.gov.ba/content/deminiranje-suma (24. 08. 2015.)
518
Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of mine suspected areas within the areas of natural heritage
519
CONCLUSION
Minefields and UXO related hazards require very complex and serious approach in
professional and scientific research, including the aspect of tourism. Through
methodological consideration, it is concluded that existing and planned protected areas
posses high degree of geographical and bioecological diversity, and that they have
extraordinary potential for overall economic and social development of Canton of
Sarajevo, especially its rural periphery. In projection, planning and implementation of this
type of space and belonging content valorization should reach international standards and
values in the area of environmental protection (from current 2% of total territory of the
Canton that is protected up to projected 30%).
As one of the most important limitation factors in projection of future development,
minefield and UXO hazard is researched in this paper. Results are reflected in acquired
exact indicators of spatial-functional distribution of minefields in the Canton of Sarajevo in
accordance with its administrative parts (municipalities) and areas of natural heritage.
Through the quantification of spatial reality, authors have found high values of mine
suspected zones proportion in 17 existing and planned protected areas. These values vary
from only 0,5% up to 17,2% in Sliv Bijele Rijeke, area of natural heritage that can be
considered as very risky to visit. Total surface area of suspected minefields in the existing
or planned protected area covers 35.4 km2, or almost half of all suspected minefields on the
territory of Canton of Sarajevo. For the full implementation of demining process in
existing or planned protected areas, it is necessary to invest more than BAM 100 million,
and for cleansing of the whole territory of the Canton around BAM 240 million. According
to the current pace, objectives and projections in the field of planning of protected areas
will not be achieved in set deadlines by Spatial Plan of the Canton of Sarajevo 2003-2023.
REFERENCES
1. Metodologija za izradu Procjene ugroţenosti BiH od prirodnih ili drugih nesreša

„Sluţbeni glasnik BiH― broj 86/09. (2009) Sarajevo: Council of Ministers of Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
2. Izvještaj o protivminskom djelovanju u Bosni i Hercegovini za 2014. godinu (2015).
Sarajevo: Centar za uklanjanje mina u BiH – BH MAC.
3. Đug, S., Dreškoviš, N., Hamziš, N. (2010). Prirodna baština Kantona Sarajevo - nauţna
monografija. Sarajevo: Arch design.
4. Spatial Plan of Canton of Sarajevo 2003-2023 (2006). Sarajevo: Zavod za planiranje
razvoja Kantona Sarajevo.
5. Dreškoviš, N., Miriš, R., et al. (2015). Prirodno naslijeŤe Kantona Sarajevo - nauţna
monografija. Sarajevo: Geografsko društvo u Federaciji Bosne i Hercegovine.
6. http://mp.ks.gov.ba/content/deminiranje-suma (24.08.2015.)
7. Table with data of suspected area municipalities of Canton of Sarajevo and maps of
minefield situation (on request – 24. 08. 2015.). Sarajevo: Centar za uklanjanje mina u BiH
– BH MAC
520
DETERMINATION OF TOURISM ACTIVITIES OF THE WORLD’S BEST
TOURISM DESTINATIONS WITH MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION
MAKING METHOD
M. Oğuzhan İlban1
Mehmet Kaşli2
Hasan Hüseyin Yildirim3
Abstract: In this study, tourism performance of the 15 countries, the most popular tourist
destinations of the World, will be analyzed by TOPSIS method. Four factors are determined to
measure tourism activities in the countries. These factors are international tourism expenditures,
international tourism receipts, international tourism number of arrivals and international tourism
number of departures. Then TOPSIS method will be applied to combine the four different factors
and convert them into a single performance score. Later, the countries will be ranked and rated.
Tourism activities will be used for grading the performance score of the countries. Thus, valuation
of tourism activities in the 15 countries will be held for 6 years, between 2009 and 2014, and the
obtained results will be compared with th results of international tourism organizations.
Key Words: Tourism Industry, Tourism Activities, Topsis Method.
INTRODUCTION
International tourism, which has been the third biggest sector after petro chemistry
and automotive, has grown rapidly in the last half century. Tourism covers 9.5 % of the
world economy today. Of all the investment throughout the world 4.4 % is about tourism.
Furthermore, 5.4 % of the world export is based on tourism, which will indicate how
important tourism is for the world economy (World Travel and Tourism Council, Access
2014). According to a study made by World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), by 2020
the number of people to go into international tourism will be 1 billion and 400 million and
by 2030 the figure is expected to go up to 1 billion 800 million people (UNWTO, access
date: 15.06.2014). Figures from UNWTO show that touristic arrivals reach to 1 billion and
87 million people in 2013 from 25 million people in 1950. The size of the trade from these
touristic travels in the international arena is $1 trillion and 159 billion.
Between1980 and 1995 the increase in the number of tourists throughout the world
was 4.4 % and between 1995 and 2010 the increase was 3.9 % in spite of lots of wars,
terrorist activities and global crisis which affected every almost every spot of the world.
Tourism was almost the only sector which was not seriously affected from all these factors
and in 2013 the number of tourists travelling to other countries went up to 1 billion and 87
million.
The world tourism market has observed significant quality change in recent years.
Tourism activities have been diversified, tourism expenditures (per person) have increased
rapidly, compared to the figures in the past, new regions have been open to international
tourism and traditional regions have all been in a great effort to innovations and new
1
Assoc. Professor, Balikesir University, Burhaniye School of Applied Sciences, Tourism and Hotel
Management, Balikesir, Turkey.
2
Assoc. Professor, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Tourism Faculty, Eskişehir, Turkey.
3
Lecturer, Balikesir University, Burhaniye School of Applied Sciences, Banking and Finance,
Balikesir, Turkey.
521
competitions. Many countries have been trying to improve their accessible tourism
products and to activate their recreational activities in order to attract the ever changing
demand for tourism.
The dispersion of the tourism activities throughout the world indicates that Europe
and North America take the biggest share from the global tourism activities. The biggest
producers in the world tourism and travel sectors are European Union (EU) countries. The
tourism activities towards the developing countries have increased rapidly with the effect
of the globalization process. By means of the globalization, minimizing the border
formalities between countries, more democratic policies in transportation facilities, quality
and prices, harmonization of information and communication technologies to all service
sectors including tourism, and publicity and advertisement, the potential tourists have been
made informed of the supply sources of many new destinations all over the world. In
conclusion, the developing countries have increased their share from the tourism market in
the recent years. The 15 countries in this study cover approximately 70 % of the total
world tourism activities.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA OF TOURISM ACTIVITIES
There are four important parameters in the assessment of tourism for countries.
These are international tourism expenditures, international tourism receipts, international
inbound tourists and international outbound tourists. The definitions of these assessment
values are shortly given below:
International tourism expenditures are expenditures of international outbound
visitors in other countries, including payments to foreign carriers for international
transport. These expenditures may include those by residents traveling abroad as same-day
visitors, except in cases where these are important enough to justify separate classification.
International tourism receipts are expenditures by international inbound visitors,
including payments to national carriers for international transport. These receipts include
any other prepayment made for goods or services received in the destination country. They
also may include receipts from same-day visitors, except when these are important enough
to justify separate classification.
International inbound tourists (overnight visitors) are the number of tourists who
travel to a country other than that in which they have their usual residence, but outside
their usual environment, for a period not exceeding 12 months and whose main purpose in
visiting is other than an activity remunerated from within the country visited.
International outbound tourists are the number of departures that people make from
their country of usual residence to any other country for any purpose other than a
remunerated activity in the country visited.
Each of these assessment criteria is of great significance. International tourism
receipts seem to be the only criterion to assess tourism incomes to the economy of that
country but this is not the case. The number of inbound tourists to a country, for example,
is also very important in the advertisement of that country and it will lead to attract more
tourists in the future. The expenditures as a result of tourism activities are not only about
development levels of the countries but will also give important clues about the frequency
of their citizens' participation into tourism activities. On the other hand, these expenditures
are also very important assessment criteria to improve the concepts such as customer
satisfaction and quality service, which have been used as data in the scope of this study. To
sum up, all these factors are significant criteria to assess the tourism activities in a country.
522
The study will approach all these criteria equally in the assessment of tourism activities
and the tourism performances of the 15 countries, which have attractive destinations in the
world scale, will be assessed accordingly.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Charnes, Cooper & Rhodes (1978) have taken attention to the importance of
different calculation techniques of financial assessment of companies. Deng, Yeh& Willis
(2000) have found out that TOPSIS method is a simple and efficient way to measure and
evaluate the internal performance of companies using financial rates as the financial rates
used in China in the assessment of companies provide meaningful and helpful data about
countries and play an important role in the decision-making process. In their study which
aimed to examine the performance of airline companies, Feng & Wang (2000) have
employed the TOPSIS method by using a total of 22 variables as transportation and
financial indicators of 5 Taiwanese airline companies and have concluded that these
indicators are more affective in the assessment of these companies.
In their study about the selection of the best offer in the bids they make in their
manufacturing company, Li& Qin-Sheng (2006) have used the TOPSIS method to find out
the best tender offer from the 4 competing companies for some electronic devices
considering 12 indicators. Shih, Shyur & Lee (2007) have also used the TOPSIS method in
the personnel selection of human resources department of a local chemistry company and
have proved that the method is a strong one.
LUO, W. B., WANG, Y. J., WU, Y. Z., & WU, Z. B. (2008) make a study of
coordination between urban tourism and urban development in Hangzhou by applying the
method of TOPSIS.Based on the in-depth analysis of the present literature on urban
tourism,the paper sets up the coordinative evaluation index system of urban tourism and
urban development,calculates the coordinative index in Hangzhou and determines the rank
of coordinative state.Study result indicates that the coordinative index between urban
tourism and urban development increases with each passing year.As time goes by,the
coordinative index value gradually approaches ideal optimum,which was 0.8631 in
2005.With the maturity of urbanization and tourism development,coordinative state
gradually becomes optimized.The coordinative state in Hangzhou has turned from relative
non-coordination in 2001 to high coordination in 2005.
Eleren & Karagül (2008) studied on the evaluation of the performance of Turkish
economy and benefitted from 7 basic indicators between the years 1986 and 2006 and they
found in this study that 1986 was the year with the best economic performance and 1999
was the worst using a single performance point for each year by means of the TOPSIS
method.
Karimi, Yusop, & Law (2010) study examines the location decision for foreign
direct investment in ASEAN countries using TOPSIS approach, which provides a
relatively simple tool for this strategic decision making problem. By using TOPSIS
method, the capacity and attraction of ASEAN countries is evaluated and given final rank
for period 2000-2005. Within the model, ten indicators are defined as determinants of FDI
inflows. The empirical results indicate that Singapore is the most attractive for investment
among ASEAN countries while ranking of some countries have changed during these
years.
Demireli (2010) tried to determine the performance of the state-owned banks in
Turkey with the help of the TOPSIS method. In conclusion, he discovered that the banks
523
which have a nationwide operation network were influenced by the regional and global
crises between 2001 and 2007; their performance points have fluctuated continually based
on international data and banking sector could record any striking improvement in the
given period.
Yükçü & Atağan (2010) tried to measure which company show the best
performance by the help of the TOPSIS method using the performance indicators of three
companies in the sector and under the same holding. As a result they arranged the order of
these three companies of the holding after they made the analysis of the performance of the
companies. They concluded that the TOPSIS method gives an opportunity to the decision
maker to make more objective evaluation combining different evaluation options into a
single criterion.
Zhang, H.,& Zhang, Y. (2010) The regional competitiveness of tourism resources of
16 cities in the Yangtze River Delta was studied.The analysis results indicate that there is
much difference among the 16 cities in tourism resources competitiveness.Suzhou and
Hangzhou are the strongest competitive,however,Taizhou and Nantong are the
weakest.The conclusion indicates that the weighted TOPSIS method could be applied to
the comparative analysis on regional competitiveness of tourism resources,and can reduce
the subjective influence and improve the reliability of evaluation results.
Mangir & Erdogan (2011) aimed to analyze determinants of the financial crisis and
recession in the world. In particular, they focused on the following countries where effects
of the global financial crisis were severely experienced by using the Topsis method: Italy,
Greece, Spanish, Portugal, Ireland and Turkey. The evaluation criteria and sub-criteria
used to evaluate the macroeconomic performance are defined as follows: Economic
Growth (EG), Inflation rate (IR), Unemployment Rate (UR), Current Account Balance
(CAB), Budget Balance rate (BB). In conclusion they find that all countries were affected
by the crisis in 2008 but Turkey was the country with the least impact.
Shamai, A.,& Mosivand, J. (2011) study the factors attracting tourists to a
destination and to determine the hierarchy of towns in Isfahan (Iran) based on these
factors. The factors assessed for each town include: hotels, motels, suburban units,
restaurants, tour and travel agencies, travel service offices, transportation companies, art
galleries and cultural exhibitions, public parks, a number of public transport systems,
special tourism areas, and capitalization opportunities. TOPSIS model has been used for
making a hierarchy of tourism substructures, while the AHP approach was used for the
final ranking. Isfahan ranked first, with Kashan and Shahin Shahr in second and third
place, respectively. Suggestions for tourism development are presented.
Mohamad, D.,& Jamil, R. M. (2012) study an evaluation of the critical factors
influencing local tourists choice of destinations in Kedah anddetermination of the tourists
preference for destinations with respect to these factors using Fuzzy Hierarchical TOPSIS
(FHTOPSIS) method. This study focuses on the internal factors that motivate tourists to
choose their preference of destination. The result shows the purpose of visiting friends and
relatives is the most important factors that motivate their visit to Kedah, while novelty
seeking is the least motivating factors influencing the choice of destinations. The best
destination to be selected among five destinations under consideration in this study is
Langkawi, followed by Alor Setar, Sedim River, Bujang Valley and Bukit Kayu Hitam.
This study can assist relevant authorities and travel agencies to plan and promote the
places of attraction in Kedah with effective marketing strategies besides assisting tourists
to decide where to go to main attractions in Kedah.
524
Huang, J. H.,& Peng, K. H. (2012) analyze the Tourism Destination
Competitiveness (TDC) of nine Asian countries: China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea,
Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand and the Philippines. The study was conducted in
2009 using 6 criteria and 15 indices. The results in 2009, the Asian countries were ranked
from most to least competitive as follows: China, Japan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand,
Singapore, Taiwan, Korea and the Philippines.
Supçiler & Çapraz (2011) have focused on the problem of supplier selection in their
study. They have made the most appropriate supplier selection by means of the TOPSIS
method, the multi-criteria decision making method. They selected the best supplier with
the highest score among the present suppliers, the one which will give the maximum
benefit to the company. The main criteria they used in the selection of the supplier were
quality, cost, delivery and service.
Uyguntürk & Korkmaz (2012) make the analysis of financial performance of the 13
main metal industry companies in Borsa Istanbul using the financial tables of the
companies from 2006 to 2010 by means of the TOPSIS method. By TOPSIS they convert
general company performance of the companies into a single point by means of the
TOPSIS method and used this point in order to rankthe companies from the best to the
worst. They find that the performance points of the companies in the metal sector generally
change in analysis periods.
Urfalıoğlu & Genç (2013) use the TOPSIS method to determine the economic
situation of Turkey in the EU process. The decision criteria in the study are gross national
product per capita, the rate of growth, export, import, employment and inflation, which are
applied to 27 full member countries of EU and 5 candidate countries of the EU, Turkey,
Macedonia, Iceland, Croatia and Montenegro. They compare the results they find through
the TOPSIS method with other decision making methods and find very close findings to
other multi criteria decision making methods.
RESEARCH METHOD
A general overviewto all tourism activities will show that there are 15 important
destinations in the world. These destinations cover 70% of the global tourism activities.
Four main factors are included in the analysis between 2009 and 2014to be able to
see the comparative performance of the 15 important destinations. The information in the
period of these 6 years about tourism expenditures, tourism receipts, inbound tourists and
outbound tourists was taken from the annual UNWTO, Tourism Highlights and World
Bank Tourism Data. The information and codes of the 15 countries to be used as important
destinations for the analysis are given in Tab. 1.
525
Tab. 1. The countries of the study
Number Country Code Name
1 AUT Austria
2 CAN Canada
3 CHN China
4 DEU Germany
5 ESP Spain
6 FRA France
7 GBR United Kingdom
8 GRC Greece
9 HUN Hungary
10 ITA Italy
11 MEX Mexico
12 POL Poland
13 RUS Russian Federation
14 TUR Turkey
15 USA The United States
The analysis of the study consists of two steps. In the first one, four tourism data are
determined to define the tourism performance of the destinations and then the data for the
period from 2009 to 2014 are compiled for each of the 15 countries respectively. In the
second step the TOPSIS, which is the commonest decision making method used in multi
criteria decision making processes, converts the general tourism performance of the
countries into a single point. In the end, the destination rating is completed and the
countries are ordered according to the points they own from the biggest to the smallest.
Tab. 2. shows a list of the codes of the tourism activities used in the study.
Tab. 2. Tourism Activities and Codes

NO KOD RATES
1 EXP International tourism expenditures($)
2 REC International tourism receipts($)
3 ARR International tourism, number of arrivals
4 DEP International tourism, number of departures
In general, only the top 10 countries are given for each criterion in the rating of each
criterion. The study was applied in the years from 2009 to 2014 and the top 10 countries
are not the same for the six years. For this reason, considering the changing countries, the
four assessment criteria are employed for the 15 countries with regard to the result in the
mentioned years.
With the TOPSIS, one of the most common decision making methods, the
performance of 15 most popular countries of the world is analyzed and their tourism
activities are rated in this study. These counties cover 70 % of all tourism activities.
526
TOPSIS METHOD
Decision problem involves the process of determining the best option among the
most appropriate options. There are a wide variety of purposes such as TOPSIS,
ELECTRA, AHP, Fuzzy AHP, and Fuzzy TOPSIS for people who need to make a decision
in the face of multivariate decision-making problems. In recent years, a method of deciding
a multi-purpose one of the commonly used methods TOPSIS method based on multiple
criteria evaluation and decision-makers are used as a successful method.
TOPSIS (technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution) method is
presented in Chen and Hwang , with reference to Hwang and Yoon. TOPSIS is a multiple
criteria method to identify solutions from a finite set of alternatives. The basic principle is
that the chosen alternative should have the shortest distance from the positive ideal
solution and the farthest distance from the negative ideal solution. The procedure of
TOPSIS can be expressed in a series of steps:
Step 1: Creating a Decision Matrix (A)
Decisions of the listed advantages of line matrix takes place the desired decision
points. At the same time, the decision matrix is located in the columns of assessment
factors to be used in decision making. The initial matrix is a matrix formed by decision
makers. The decision matrix is shown as follows:
a11 a12 ... a1n

a 21 a 22 ... a 2 n
. .
Aij
. .
. .
a m1 am2 ... a mn
―m‖ is the number of decision points in the Aij matrix and ―n‖ gives the number of
the evaluation factors.
Step 2: Creating a Standard Decision Matrix (R)
m
rij xij xij2 i =1, 2, ..., m and j = 1, 2, ..., n.(1)
i 1
r11 r12 ... r1n

r21 r22 ... r2 n
. .
Matrix R is obtained as shown on Rij
. .
. .
rm1 rm 2 ... rmn
527
Step 3: Calculate the weighted normalized decision matrix (V)
The weighted normalized value v ij

is calculated asfollows:
v r w
ij ij j
i =1, 2,..., m and j = 1, 2, ..., n.
n
th
where w j
is the weight of the j criterion or attribute and w j
1.
j 1
w1 r11 w2 r12 ... wn r1n

w1 r21 w2 r22 ... wn r2 n
. .
Vij
. .
. .
w1 rm1 w2 rm 2 ... wn rmn
*
Step 4: Determine the ideal ( A ) and negative ideal ( A ) solutions.
| j 1,2,..., m} (2)
* *
A {(max vij | j C ), (min v
b ij
|j C )} {v
c j
i i
A {(min vij | j C ), (max v

b ij
|j C )} {v
c j
| j 1,2,..., m} (3)
i i
Step 5: Calculate the separation measures using the m-dimensional Euclidean

distance.
The separation measures of each alternative from the positive ideal solution and the
negative ideal solution, respectively, are as follows:
m
* * 2
S i
j 1
(vij v) j
, j 1,2,..., m (4)
S (vij v)
2
i j
, j 1,2,..., m (5)
j 1
Step 6: Calculate the relative closeness to the ideal solution.

*
The relative closeness of the alternative A i
with respect to A is defined
asfollows:
528
* S
C i *
i
, i 1,2,..., m (6)
S S
i i
Rank the preference order; Then found values of the order of magnitude
sequenced in order of importance is determined by the decision point.
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
Of all the countries with tourism destinations, 15 countries are put into the scope of
analysis in this study. The codes of these 15 countries are AUT, CAN, CHN, DEU, ESP,
FRA, GBR, GRC, HUN, ITA, MEX, POL, RUS, TUR and USA. To see the destination
performance of these countries, the tourism activity criterion is used for the years from
2009 to 2014.
The study is composed of two steps. In the first step of the analysis, 4 tourism data
are determined to define the tourism performance of the countries. Later, the data for the
15 countries are calculated one by one for the years from 2009 to 2014 according to these
criteria. In the second step, the four factors chosen to determine the performance of these
attractive tourism destinations are used to calculate a single score for the tourism
performance of each country by means of TOPSIS. Then, the countries are put into order
according to this score and their rating is completed. Calculating the general score of each
country one by one for the period of 2009-2014, the countries are rated for the study. The
excel program is used to apply the TOPSIS method.
The first step is to make the Decision Matrix (A) in the application of the TOPSIS
method. In the lines of the Decision Matrix read decision points intended to order the
superiorities of the countries, and in the columns are evaluation criteria to be used for
decision making. Matrix A is the beginning matrix for the decision maker. The matrix for
2009 is given as a sample. Not all other matrixes will be given here separately because all
include the same application.
Step 1: Forming Matrix A: There are 15 decision points (alternatives /
destinations) and 4 assessment factors (criteria / tourism evaluation criteria) in the study.
Firstly a standard decision making matrix is made with dimensions (15X 4) for the
TOPSIS method. According to this matrix, the decision matrix of the 15 countries is given
in Tab. 3.
529
Tab. 3. Decision Making Matrix for 2009
No. Country Code EXP ($) REC ($) ARR DEP
1 AUT 12.767.000.000 21.220.000.000 21.355.000 10.121.000
2 CAN 30.065.000.000 15.568.000.000 15.737.000 26.204.000
3 CHN 47.108.000.000 42.632.000.000 50.875.000 47.656.000
4 DEU 92.829.000.000 47.462.000.000 24.220.000 72.300.000
5 ESP 22.787.000.000 59.743.000.000 52.178.000 12.017.000
6 FRA 45.806.000.000 58.857.000.000 76.764.000 25.140.000
7 GBR 61.133.000.000 38.564.000.000 28.199.000 58.614.000
8 GRC 3.401.000.000 14.796.000.000 14.915.000 3.835.000
9 HUN 3.251.000.000 7.013.000.000 9.058.000 16.640.000
10 ITA 34.399.000.000 41.938.000.000 43.239.000 29.060.000
11 MEX 8.737.000.000 12.542.000.000 22.346.000 14.104.000
12 POL 7.888.000.000 9.843.000.000 11.890.000 39.270.000
13 RUS 23.785.000.000 12.369.000.000 21.339.000 34.276.000
14 TUR 5.061.000.000 26.331.000.000 30.187.000 5.561.000
15 USA 102.953.000.000 146.002.000.000 55.103.000 62.051.000
Step 2: Forming the Standard Decision Matrix (R): The normalized decision
matrix is calculated by using the elements of Matrix A and the equation number 1.
Tab. 4. Standard Decision Matrix for 2009

Number Country Code EXP REC ARR DEP
1 AUT 0,07275 0,1092 0,1491 0,0708
2 CAN 0,17133 0,0800 0,1098 0,1833
3 CHN 0,26845 0,2180 0,3552 0,3333
4 DEU 0,52900 0,2425 0,1691 0,5057
5 ESP 0,12985 0,3041 0,3643 0,0840
6 FRA 0,26103 0,2993 0,5360 0,1758
7 GBR 0,34837 0,1951 0,1969 0,4100
8 GRC 0,01938 0,0763 0,1041 0,0268
9 HUN 0,01852 0,0362 0,0632 0,1164
10 ITA 0,19603 0,2148 0,3019 0,2032
11 MEX 0,04978 0,0647 0,1560 0,0986
12 POL 0,04495 0,0508 0,0830 0,2747
13 RUS 0,13554 0,0638 0,1490 0,2397
14 TUR 0,02884 0,1354 0,2108 0,0389
15 USA 0,58669 0,7270 0,3847 0,4340
Step 3: Forming Weighted Standard Decision Matrix (V): In this step, first
weight rates (Wi ) are calculated for assessment factors. Later the standard values are
calculated by multiplying normalized standard values, calculated above, with (Wi ) values
to find out weighted standard values. The assessment factors are weighted equally in
530
decision making for 2009. When all factors are valued 1, equally for dispersion, the
weighted assessment factor will be 25 % for each factor. For the weighted standard
decision matrix to be formed, the columns of Matrix V is calculated by multiplication of
the values in the columns of Matrix R with the weight values of assessment factors (here
all take 25 %). In the Tab. 5 is given the weighted standard decision matrix of the countries
together with the solution sets ideal A*and idealA-.
Tab. 5. Weighted Standard Decision Matrix for 2009

Number Country Code EXP REC ARR DEP
1 AUT 0,0181 0,0273 0,0372 0,0177
2 CAN 0,0428 0,0200 0,0274 0,0458
3 CHN 0,0671 0,0545 0,0888 0,0833
4 DEU 0,1322 0,0606 0,0422 0,1264
5 ESP 0,0324 0,0760 0,0910 0,0210
6 FRA 0,0652 0,0748 0,1340 0,0439
7 GBR 0,0870 0,0487 0,0492 0,1025
8 GRC 0,0048 0,0190 0,0260 0,0067
9 HUN 0,0046 0,0090 0,0158 0,0291
10 ITA 0,0490 0,0537 0,0754 0,0508
11 MEX 0,0124 0,0161 0,0390 0,0246
12 POL 0,0112 0,0127 0,0207 0,0686
13 RUS 0,0338 0,0159 0,0372 0,0599
14 TUR 0,0072 0,0338 0,0527 0,0097
15 USA 0,1466 0,1817 0,0961 0,1085
MAX (A*) 0,1466 0,1817 0,1340 0,1264

MİN (A-) 0,0046 0,0090 0,0158 0,0067
Step 4: Forming the Analysis of Ideal ( A* ) and Negative Ideal ( A ):In this step
solution sets of ideal A*and negative ideal A-are formed. For the setA* the biggest value in
each column of the Matrix V and the smallest for the set A- in the same column are selected
and sets are arranged according to appropriateness of the criteria to the goal.
A* (max vij j J ), (min vij j J'

i i
A (min vij j J ), (max vij j J'

i i
According to the formula;
A* 0,1466 ; 0,1817 ; 0,1340 ; 0,1264

A 0,0046 ; 0,0090 ; 0,0158 ; 0,0067
531
Step 5: Calculation of the Selection Criteria: The space between alternatives are
found by means of the Euclidean distance with the dimension n. The distance of each
alternative from the positive ideal solution ( S i* ) and from the negative ideal solution ( S i )
is calculated with formulae (4) and (5).
{ }
{ }
Step 6: Calculation of Proximity According to Ideal Solution: In the calculation

of relative proximity( C i* ) of ideal solution to each decision point, ideal and negative ideal
distinction scores are used. The calculation of proximity value relative to ideal solution is
indicated in Formula (6).
C i* is normally valued between 0 Ci* 1 for 2009 and the equation as Ci* 1
*
indicates proximity to ideal solution and C i 0 indicates absolute proximity to negative
ideal solution. Tab. 6 shows the calculation of relative proximity of the countries to ideal
solution for the year 2009.
Tab. 6. Relative Proximity Values to Ideal Solution in the year 2009

Country Code C*
AUT 0,0331 / (0,0331 + 0,2480 ) = 0,1178
CAN 0,0569 / (0,0569 + 0,2340 ) = 0,1950
CHN 0,1310 / (0,1310 + 0,1625 ) = 0,4463
DEU 0,1843 / (0,1843 + 0,1526 ) = 0,5470
ESP 0,1055 / (0,1055 + 0,1928 ) = 0,3536
FRA 0,1528 / (0,1528 + 0,1576 ) = 0,4921
GBR 0,1366 / (0,1366 + 0,1702 ) = 0,4452
GRC 0,0143 / (0,0143 + 0,2693 ) = 0,0504
HUN 0,0223 / (0,0223 + 0,2710 ) = 0,0763
ITA 0,0973 / (0,0973 + 0,1873 ) = 0,3418
MEX 0,0311 / (0,0311 + 0,2545 ) = 0,1091
POL 0,0626 / (0,0626 + 0,2511 ) = 0,1995
RUS 0,0647 / (0,0647 + 0,2323 ) = 0,2180
TUR 0,0446 / (0,0446 + 0,2481 ) = 0,1524
USA 0,2585 / (0,2585 + 0,0418 ) = 0,8606
In this step the values are arranged according to how big they are and the order of
decision points (alternatives) is made. The scores are arranged from the biggest to the
smallest to indicate which country take more attraction.
532
Tab. 7. Scores and Order of Destinations
2009
Order Country Code Scores
1 USA 0,860671
2 DEU 0,547057
3 FRA 0,492196
4 CHN 0,446348
5 GBR 0,445202
6 ESP 0,353655
7 ITA 0,34189
8 RUS 0,218031
9 POL 0,199582
10 CAN 0,195728
11 TUR 0,152433
12 AUT 0,117846
13 MEX 0,109127
14 HUN 0,076328
15 GRC 0,050471
The order of scores for each destination is given in Tab. 7, which also points out that the
country with code USA ( The United States of America) realizes the best performance and
the country with GRC (Greece) the worst performance, based on the four criteria chosen
among the assessment factors from the destination performances of the year 2009.
According to Tab. 7, the order of the destinations according to their performance in 2009 is
as follows: USA(1), DEU(2), FRA(3), CHN(4), GBR(5), ESP(6), ITA(7), RUS(8),
POL(9), CAN(10), TUR(11), AUT(12), MEX(13), HUN(14), GRC (15).
The analysis for the year 2009 is repeated for 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 respectively
and the obtained findings are given in Tab. 8. The table (8) gives the results of the ratings
of the 15 destinations for each year separately calculating the tourism activity performance
scores of each country from 2009 to 2014.
533
Tab. 8. The Performance of 15 Important Destinations of the World from 2009 to 2014.
2009 2010 2011
Rating Codes Scores Rating Codes Scores Rating Codes Scores
1 USA 0,8607 1 USA 0,8668 1 USA 0,8353
2 DEU 0,5471 2 DEU 0,5293 2 DEU 0,5292
3 FRA 0,4922 3 CHN 0,4876 3 CHN 0,5219
4 CHN 0,4463 4 FRA 0,4517 4 FRA 0,4617
5 GBR 0,4452 5 GBR 0,4106 5 GBR 0,3973
6 ESP 0,3537 6 ESP 0,3252 6 ESP 0,3296
7 ITA 0,3419 7 ITA 0,3099 7 ITA 0,3042
8 RUS 0,2180 8 RUS 0,2374 8 RUS 0,2541
9 POL 0,1996 9 CAN 0,2142 9 CAN 0,2111
10 CAN 0,1957 10 POL 0,2028 10 POL 0,1903
11 TUR 0,1524 11 TUR 0,1459 11 TUR 0,1529
12 AUT 0,1178 12 AUT 0,1084 12 AUT 0,1027
13 MEX 0,1091 13 MEX 0,1053 13 MEX 0,0953
14 HUN 0,0763 14 HUN 0,0679 14 HUN 0,0611
15 GRC 0,0505 15 GRC 0,0398 15 GRC 0,0443
2012 2013 2014

Rating Codes Scores Rating Codes Scores Rating Codes Scores
1 USA 0,8614 1 USA 0,8238 1 USA 0,7631
2 CHN 0,5627 2 CHN 0,5762 2 CHN 0,6287
3 DEU 0,4912 3 DEU 0,4979 3 DEU 0,4754
4 FRA 0,4351 4 FRA 0,4213 4 FRA 0,3889
5 GBR 0,3804 5 GBR 0,3664 5 GBR 0,3485
6 ESP 0,3088 6 ESP 0,3083 6 ESP 0,3132
7 RUS 0,2835 7 RUS 0,3024 7 RUS 0,2744
8 ITA 0,2820 8 ITA 0,2702 8 ITA 0,2617
9 CAN 0,2121 9 CAN 0,1758 9 CAN 0,1719
10 TUR 0,1542 10 TUR 0,1604 10 TUR 0,1519
11 AUT 0,1034 11 AUT 0,0998 11 AUT 0,1189
12 MEX 0,0978 12 MEX 0,0960 12 MEX 0,1075
13 HUN 0,0590 13 HUN 0,0534 13 GRC 0,0632
14 POL 0,0472 14 GRC 0,0482 14 HUN 0,0519
15 GRC 0,0368 15 POL 0,0481 15 POL 0,0434
CONCLUSION
15 important destinations are included in the analysis of this study. These are coded as
AUT, CAN, CHN, DEU, ESP, FRA, GBR, GRC, HUN, ITA, MEX, POL, RUS, TUR and
USA. The activity reports of these countries are used in the analysis of the performance of
these countries. The study takes four tourism activities into account as criteria. These are
international tourism expenditures, international tourismreceipts, the number of inbound
tourists and the number of outbound tourists.
534
The analysis of the study is composed of two steps. In the first step, the four tourism data
have been selected to define the performance of these tourism destinations and then the
data from these 15 countries in the period from 2009 to 2014 are collected. In the second
step, these four factors selected for the tourism destinations are converted into a single
score to show their performance more clearly by means of the TOPSIS method, one of the
most common multi criteria decision making methods. Later, the countries are ordered
according to their scores with respect to the criteria and the ratings of the countries are
completed. The ratings of the tourism destinations are made by calculating their separate
general tourism performance for six years from 2009 till 2014.
The evaluation of each destination is given in three separate tables for 2009-2014. In Tab.
9 is given the destinations the performance of which stays constant through the years, in
Tab. 10 is given those whose performance improves through the years and in Tab. 11 is
given the destinations whose performance is getting worse.
Tab. 9. The Destinations whose tourism activities stay constant (2009–2014)

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
USA 1 1 1 1 1 1
GBR 5 5 5 5 5 5
ESP 6 6 6 6 6 6
Tab. 9 shows that the United States of America (USA), United Kingdom (GBR) and
Spain (ESP) could sustain their tourism activities constantly in the years from 2009 to
2014. According to the analysis made above, these three countries maintain their
performance the same through years.They protected their position in tourism activities
from 2009 till 2014 in the world competition.
Tab. 10. The destination whose tourism activities improve (2009–2014)

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
CHN 4 3 3 2 2 2
RUS 8 8 8 7 7 7
CAN 10 9 9 9 9 9
TUR 11 11 11 10 10 10
AUT 12 12 12 11 11 11
MEX 13 13 13 12 12 12
HUN 14 14 14 13 13 14
GRC 15 15 15 15 14 13
Tab. 10 indicates the change or improvement in the position of China (CHN). This
destination rose to the second rate from the fourth in the given 6 years. The other countries
which improved their place to a higher level are Russian Federation (RUS), Canada
(CAN), Turkey (TUR), Austria (AUT), Mexico (MEX) and Hungary (HUN). Greece is
another destination which rose to a higher level especially in 2013 and 2014 from the 15th
in the year 2009 Greece went up to 14th in 2013 and 13th in 2014.
535
Tab. 11. The destinations whose performance goes worse (2009–2014)
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
DEU 2 2 2 3 3 3
FRA 3 4 4 4 4 4
ITA 7 7 7 8 8 8
POL 9 10 10 14 15 15
Tab. 11 lists the destinations whose performance goes worse through the given years. The
Tab. 11 indicates that Germany (DEU), France (FRA) and Italy (ITA) fell one rank below
in the period from 2009 to 2014. However, one should always take into account that
though these destinations are in this list with their falling performance in the period from
2009 to 2014, they still keep an important place in the number of tourists they attract and
in the rating order they occupy in the competitive world of tourism. The place of Poland is
also striking in this table. The tourism activities of this destination is getting worse every
other year from 2009 to 2014. It was in the 9th order in 2009 and went gradually down to
the 15th place in the year 2014. However, the case is also an outstanding one because the
data from the four factors prove that all factors show improvement in this destination from
2009 till 2014 but the rise is below the other countries and it caused this destination to go
back every other year.
A survey to the related literature may hold some studies with the TOPSIS method. The
distinction between those studies and this study is the fact that this study yields a result of
wide range (15 important destinations of the world consisting of 70 % of the world
tourism) converting the tourism activities such as international tourism expenditures,
international tourism receipts, the number of inbound and the number of outbound tourists
into one single score by means of the TOPSIS method. The studies made by means of
TOPSIS are mainly focused on local or regional competition of the countries or
organizations. Rather than local or regional tourism, this study focuses on global
dimension of tourism, overlooking the world tourism from a different global angle to see
the whole.
Few studies can be found in the related literature where the factors such as the tourism
activities such as international tourism expenditures, international tourism receipts, the
number of inbound and the number of outbound tourists are processed with the
TOPSISmethod, which makes this study a more meaningful one. Another aspect of this
study is that it uses the data from as recent as 2014.
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538
PROPOSALS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE RURAL
TOURISM IN VILLAGES OF BOLKAR MOUNTAIN, EXAMPLE OF
MADENKÖY
Yusuf Gürçınar1
Abstract: In 1950, 75% of the total population of the country was living in rural areas, whereas this
ratio has declined to 8.2% in 2014 due to migration to urban areas. Particularly in the mountain
villages, where health, communication and transportation services have not been sufficiently
utilized, the inclination to migrate has been continuing at an escalating rate for individuals in the
working age, leading to the collapse of socio-cultural and economical structure. In the mountain
villages, there is a need for new sustainable fields of business operable within the four seasons of
the year that do not require costly investments and an educated workforce; provide business
opportunities to local women; contribute to preservation of the socio-cultural structural, natural and
cultural heritage;cause no concretion and land consumption.
In this study, development of proposals is aimed to conduct rural tourism in Ulukışla-Madenköy, a
location possessing the qualities to provide an ideal four seasons accommodation and logistic
support to any kind of activity made by the domestic and foreign visitors of Bolkar mountains
during their arrivals and departures.As a research method "SWOT" and "Resources and Physical
Condition" analysis techniques were used. Studies were mostly conducted through site researches.
Proposals were developed for development of Madenköy through implementation of sustainable
rural tourism in this area.
The results clearly demonstrate that Madenköy possesses the qualities to create a high level demand
in four seasons from the viewpoint of the tourists. As a means to sustain the rural tourism activities,
"Conservation plan" and ―The rural tourism management and development plan," must be prepared
and ―Sustainable carrying capacity of region" must be continuously monitored.
Keywords: Rural Development, Rural Tourism, Sustainable Tourism
INTRODUCTION
In 1950s 75% of the population were living in rural areas, however, this rate declined to
56,1% in 1980 , to 56,1% in 1980, to 35,1% in 2000 (Turkish Prime Ministry State
Planning Organisation [DPT] 2006, p.6) and finally to 8,2% in 2014. As a result of this
rapid change in the population distribution, the population within the rural areas has
declined from 23.797.653 to only 6,4 million between 2000 and 2014 (Turkish Statistical
Institute [TUIK] 2015, p.1). Especially in the mountain villages a strong inclination to
leave the rural areas is observed among the individuals within the working age group. The
significant influence of the migration on economical and socio-cultural structure of the
rural areas results in significant differences among the development levels of regions.
Development of the tourism in a rural or underdeveloped region of a country is also an

implication of a decline in the economical imbalance among the developed and
underdeveloped regions of that country. Along with the development of tourism within the
underdeveloped regions of the country, flow of new resources to this region‘s economy
will be triggered, new fields of business and employment areas will be established and the
income provided by the region‘s economy in all sectors/fields will be increased
1
Prof. Dr. Ing., Işık Üniversitesi Mimarlık ve Tasarım Fakültesi, İç Mimarlık Bölümü, Şile,
İstanbul, Turkey.
539
accordingly. Indeed, development and expansion of tourism within the country would
enable the elimination of differences among the development levels of the regions (Tosun
et al. 2003, p. 142). There is a group of tourists with expectations varying in line with the
increasing concern regarding environmental issues, with a desire for eco tourism which
also includes rural tourism promising a fine room, fine service and an active journey away
from sea-sun-sand-oriented common tourism centers, in intact natural areas and modest
facilities. Tourism sector may take an active role in the regional development through
reducing the development differences between the regions, since it can be developed in all
regions with a potential in this context.
Having occurred as a reaction to the destructive effect of mass tourism with a pursuit for
making difference, also embodying the sustainability principle that aims to increase the
local population level of welfare and preserve the environment, the Ecotourism is
distinguished as a rapidly developing sector in the tourism industry since 1990s. For
recognition of the global importance of Eco-tourism, which also embodies the aspects of
natural, cultural and rural tourism, 2002 was declared as the ‗‘International Year of Eco-
tourism‘‘ by United Nations (DPT 2013, p. 25).
For solution of the problems concerning the rural areas, the following is stated in the DPT
report (2006, ğ.17, 18): ‗‘The richness and variety of natural and cultural assets constitute
an important potential in terms of development of tourism and recreational activities. In
this context: the contribution of tourism to the rural areas will be increased through
improvement of tourism and recreational activities and relevant services; activation of
promotional activities; reorganization of tourism and fund raising in the rural areas as well
as establishment of infrastructure and superstructure development models suitable for
tourism in areas with a potential; institutionalization of determination and monitoring of
economical and environmental impacts of tourism and rendering the tourism a sustainable
sector..‘‘, thus enabling the inclusion of rural tourism activities in the country development
programs for resolution of inter-regional imbalances and control of inland-migration. In
fact, the demand for diversification of the tourism in accordance with the potentials of the
regions is yet to be realised despite being among the goals repeatedly submitted in all
development plans as from the planned term after 1960.
In ‗‘Turkey‘s Tourism Strategy 2023‘‘ prepared in year 2007, development of the tourism
infrastructure and increasing its quality for development of the nature-oriented tourism
branches such as eco-tourism and tableland tourism, preparation of action plans for
conducting agro-tourism, adventure tourism, speleological tourism activities in cooperation
with public private sectors and non-governmental organizations, are envisaged and
promoted (Ministry of Culture and Tourism 2007).Within the frame of Agriculture and
Rural Development Support Institution (TKDK) instrument for pre-accession assistance
development plan (IPARD), Rural Tourism support programs are conducted annually in
coordination with EU. In these programs rural Tourism Activities are defined as ‗‘..
development of guesthouse, ‗‘bed and breakfast‘‘ accommodation and restaurant services
to be established by microentrepreneurs, establishment of farm tourism facilities, their
development, the facilities established for touristic recreational activities (sport activities,
natural excursion, historical excursions) and their development..‘‘ Agriculture and Rural
Development Support Institution [TKDK] 2014, p.18). Rural tourism is not a widely
adopted and institutionalized tourism type in our country. Daily recreational activities have
540
been carried out in the rural areas near the cities, whereas accomodation-oriented tourism
is rarely encountered in these areas. Rural areas, especially the forest and mountain
villages have been subject to rapid depopulation due to migration, thus leading to a socio-
cultural and economical collapse in these locations.
The Aim and Content of the Study
For solution of social, cultural, economical and environmental impairment problems

(impairment of handcrafts, cultural structure, architectural style, settlement texture, flora
and fauna of the location) and development of these areas, sustainable Rural Tourism is an
important candidate to complement the agricultural activities such as vegetative
reproduction and stockbreeding conducted in these regions.
In this study, development of proposals is aimed to conduct rural tourism in Ulukışla-

Madenköy, a location possessing the qualities to provide an ideal four seasons
accomodation and logistic support to any kind of activity made by the domestic and
foreign visitors of Bolkar mountains during their arrivals and departures, with its endemic
flora and fauna rich location in Toros Mountains, its thousands of years of history,
authentic stone houses, mountain and winter sport activities, without conflicting with the
natural, socio-cultural structure and historical heritage of the region.
Previous studies on the subject
A research was commenced by me regarding the Potentials for Use of Traditional

Architecture for Tourism Purposes in the Mountain Villages of Eastern Mediterranean
Region in 1997 and this project was funded by Çukurova University with Project Nr.
FBE.97YL.117 (Gurcinar, 1997). Within the frame of this study, a master‘s thesis named
‗‘Utilization of the Traditional Texture in Mountain Villages for Tourism Purposes: Niğde
Province, Exemplar Village Madenköy, was carried out by Research Assistant Pelin
Ünver, and this thesis was published in 1998 and forwarded to all institutions.
No other study was encountered in the literature on the improvement and development of
the tourism potential of Madenköy. However there are general researches covering the
Province of Niğde as a whole. In one of these, the mountain and winter sports potential of
Bolkar Mountains in Meydan Tableland are introduced by Ülker (1992, p.265). Niğde
Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism has prepared the ‗‘Strategic Plan‘‘ for years
2015-2019 regarding the development of the tourism potential of the province, and
Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, Niğde Branch has prepared ‗‘The eco-tourism
action plan regarding the diversification of tourism in Niğde 2013-2023‘‘. İri (2009) wrote
a master‘s thesis with the subject : ‗‘Marketing of Niğde Province in terms of Tourism‘‘.
During the researches carried out by me as the interior architect of Winter Sports Center
Hotel, construction of which was approved in 2015 in the location of Meydan Tableland at
a distance of 5 km from Maden Village, I personally observed that many of the houses that
we located in 1997 were about to be demolished, an unplanned settlement was about to
spread, no investments and researches were undertaken for tourism purposes, orcharding
was not providing a regular income for being dependent on the climate, and that there was
no progress in the population and economy of the village. During the researches that I
541
carried out in the Ski Centers of Austria and Switzerland and the mountain villages within
the vicinity, I observed that a nostalgic ambience and a sense of night life were provided
for the tourists along with an additional function for the village without impairing its
existing agriculture and stockbreeding activities (such as horse riding, mountain sports).
By means of various financial aids granted for improvement of superstructures and
infrastructures of the villages and converting the houses into guesthouses, restaurants,
cafes, etc…, their four-seasons usage as well as the development of the villages were
enabled.
Research Method
SWOT Analyses methods were used and ‗‘Resource and Physical Condition‘‘ analyses
were carried out as a means to plan the tourism activities in natural and cultural areas of
Madenköy, specification of the strategies regarding their management and implementation,
as well as determination of strengths and weaknesses, opportunities, threats and physical
conditions. In the first three sections of the study which consists of four sections, the
following analyses were conducted:
Resource Analyses:A literature study was carried out on the history, geographical,
socio-cultural and economical structure of Madenköy,
Physical Condition Analysis: A site study was carried out regarding the
infrastructure and superstructure of Madenköy. The obtained results were
separately included in the prepared settlement plans in the form of road condition;
types, construction and material of the buildings, and the current basic physical
condition of the settlement area and architectural texture were determined,
SWOT Analysis: A face to face survey was conducted especially among 50 people
randomly selected in Madenköy which has a population of 183, as well as local
authorities. During the preliminary studies regarding the surveys, it was
understood that conducting interviews in a conversational manner and receiving
answers to the questions during the interviews would yield better results. During
these interviews an insight was obtained as to how the village community regarded
the tourism sector and tourists, their expectations regarding this sector, whether
they were eager to put their houses in use as guesthouses, whether the women were
willing to run a guesthouse, how the men considered this issue, which sectors
could proposed for economical development of the village beside tourism, whether
the youth of the the village would prefer to receive university education in big
cities or would like to be trained and work in the professions of tourist guiding,
tourism management, etc. Madenköy‘s strengths and weaknesses, as well as the
opportunities and threats regarding the village were determined through
conducting a literature study on the developments regarding the region and its
vicinity, as well as additional researches and site studies.
In the fourth section of conclusion and proposals, proposals for development of
Madenköy for sustainable rural tourism purposes, were developed.
542
Resource Analysis
Madenköy is a forest village in Central Anatolia Region, at the northern foot of Middle
Taurus (Bolkar) mountains (Latitude: 37.45°, Longitude: 34.626°), with an elevation of
1705 meters having a geological structure made of soluble stones such as limestone and
dolomite. It had been an important district within the region until the beginning of 20 th
century, to which all the surrounding villages were affiliated, with a greek population of
2500 households. The surrounding tablelands still bear the traces of the Greek Community.
These are; Balıklı Church (Balıklıoğlu Church), Antuan Land, Kıbrıslı Land and Ganimet
Tableland.
The village‘s population was 328 in 1985, 294 in 1990, 168 in 2000, 173 in 2010, 171 in
2011 and 183 in 2012 (TUIK-2015) and the number of households has declined to 72. The
reason for depopulation of the village and the increase in the population of women with an
average rate of %2,9 compared to men, the increasing level of migration in the village to
urban areas for economic reasons. Madenköy has witnessed several military and political
activities in all periods of its history for being in close vicinity of Çiftehan Thermal Spa,
used for health purposes for thousands of years, located on the exit of Strait of Gülek , one
of the most important passages of Silkroad on Taurus mountains connecting Arabian
Peninsula with Central Anatolia and Europe, also for having strategically important ore
deposits such as gold, silver, lead and zinc. The ongoing archeological excavations indicate
that the settled life in the region started 10 thousand years ago and settlement activities
continued in Neolithic, Chalcolitic, Ancient Bronze Ages as well as Hittite, Late Hittite,
Assyrian, Cilicia, Med, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantium, Arabian, Anatolian
Seljuk, Ilkhanid, Eretna, Karamans and Ottoman Periods (Provincial Directorate of Culture
and Tourism, 2014, p.41, 42).
First the lead deposits, at a distance of 800 m to Madenköy, operated at intervals as from
the Bronze age, and afterwards gold, silver and zinc deposits had been put into operation
again in 1824 by Greek miners, however due to the exchange of Greek population with
Turkish population from Saloniki during Balkan Wars in 1912 and in 1924, the production
had stopped. Afterwards the deposits were operated by Germans until 1940s. In 1970 all
mining activities were ceased for inefficiency of the mining management. A private
company has been extracting dore gold and silver and raw lead and zinc through
underground mining since 2009. The company envisages to cease its all mining activities
in the region in year 2020 (SRK Consultancy and Engineering Inc.2009).
Continental climate characteristics are dominant within the region. Therefore it is generally
dry and hot in summers and cold and snowy in winters. The average high temperature is
15.7 C in Ulukışla which has two closely located meteorological stations, and 20.0 C in
Pozantı; whereas the average low temperature is 3.2 C in Ulukışla and 7.8 C in Pozantı.
The average precipitation varies between 800-1000 mm in the region. (General Directorate
of Meteorology 2015).
543
Fig. 1. General view of Maden Village
The following is stated in 2013 Environmental Condition Report for Niğde Province:
―Bolkars have the vastest mountain meadowlands in Mediterranean Region. Due to this
aspect, as well as its peculiar geomorphological structure, microclimates occur in deep
valleys thus enabling the growth of several number of endemic plants in terms of
vegetation. The easiest way of transportation to Bolkars, for the people arriving from
Adana or Ankara direction, is provided over Darboğaz and Maden through…E90
Highway. Therefore the location for introduction of many plant and animal specias to
scientific society has been Madenköy Village and the surroundings of Meydan Tableland.
As far as known, there are 10 single point endemics available for plants and animals. The
number of detected plant taxons is 674, 101 of which are Turkish Endemics. 21 endemic
taxons among these are endangered taxons. On the other hand the jade horse herd can be
observed on the highlands of the region‘‘ (ÇED, Permission and Supervision Branch Dir.,
Environmental Management Branch Dir. 2013, p.51).
The Taurus Frog ―Ranaholtzi‖ living in Karagöl and Çiniligöl 7 km away from Madenköy,
Dryomys lanigeas well as a small nepenthe called ‗‘arisipasi‘‘ in the region are the
endemic species in Turkey. More than the half of 465 bird species in our country as well as
the terrestrial ones among almost 160 mammal species have been detected within the
provincial boundaries of Niğde (Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, 7 th Regional Dir.
Niğde Branch Dir. 2013, p.21,22).The population‘s primary source of income has been
sheep and goat farming, however along with increasing tree-planting activities orchard
agriculture, especially cherry growing has gained an escalating importance. The village has
not been sufficiently developed in terms of handcrafts.
Berlin- BagdadRailway, Çukurova Expresspasses through Ulukışla / Çiftehan. Large cities,
having a total population of 10 million people, are located in close vicinity of the village
which can be reached in 20 minutes after the highway exit of Ulukışla on Adana Ankara
İstanbul E90Highway. The village is at a distance of 136 km from Adana, which has an
international airport, 144 km from Mersin, 204 km from Kayseri, which also has an
international airport, 155 km from Nevşehir and 223 km from Konya. (Akarnakliyat,
2015)Due to transit transportation over E90 highway, arrival to Madenköy is
comparatively easy among other locations, also secure and comfortable in four seasons.
544
PHYSICAL CONDITION ANALYSIS
Road and Infrastructure Conditions
The asphalt road coming from Alihoca direction and E90 highway and heading to Meydan
Tableland and Darboğaz direction, passes through the south and partially inside of
Madenköy. (SeeFig. 2). The roads within the village are mainly used as pedestrian roads,
since they comprise of compressed earth and partially highroads, also due to high
inclination of the land. During the researches that we carried out in 1997, the tap and
domestic water were supplied from four fountains in the village and there was no sewage.
In the present, the sewage and domestic water networks have been operational.
Structural Materials and Construction
88% of all structures are made of stone (See Fig.4). Face stone is used on the corners of the
interior and exterior walls, bonded with a mortar of brick ballast and lime, and rubble stone
is used at the center, and wooden girders are located at intervals of 75-100 meters
surrounding the whole circumference of the building. Wooden girders are located on the
door and window openings. Roofs are of terrace type made of wood at close intervals with
slight inclination, coated with an insulating layer comprising of wood and pine peels, and
filled with earth. After shoveling of the snow in the winters and after rainfalls in rainy
seasons, the roof needs to be compressed using the tools named ‗‘rolls‘‘. Floorings of the
basements, used as stable and depot, are made of compressed earth.
Fig. 2. Vehicle and Pedestrian Roads Fig. 3. Building Types and Number of
Storeys
(P.Ünver 1998, Revision: Y. Gürçınar 2015) (P. Ünver 1998, Revision: Y Gürçınar 2015)
545
Fig. 4. Structural Materials Fig. 5. Type of building use
(P.Ünver 1998, Revision: Y Gürçınar 2015) (P.Ünver 1998, Revision: Y Gürçınar 2015)
It is covered with flagstone in some of the houses. They are slightly inclined towards
manhole for quick drainage of the liquids forming inside. In the basements, used as living
space, 50 cm high girders are mounted along the interior walls, the girders are
interconnected with beams supported by wooden poles nailed into the ground, and the
beams are covered with wood. The mezzanine floorings consist of wooden beams built in
with wooden girders embedded in the flooring. Wooden beams are made of raw circular
trees in some houses and of sawn trees in others.All upper sections of the floorings are
covered with wood and some of the lower sections are covered in accordance with the use
of lower space. All doors, windows, in-built cupboards and furnitures are made of wood.
In most of the two-storey houses, completely wooden bay windows with average corbel
height of 1 to 1,5 meters are made over the main entrance door of the house. The bay
windows having large corbels are reinforced with wooden supports named ‗‘eli
böğründe‘‘. Windows are located on all walls of the bays, constituting the most beautiful
living corner of the house with divans on its interiors along its interior walls. In two
houses, balconies are built instead of bays with the same construction technique.
Most of the houses have been damaged due to neglect, most of them have been demolished
and a major part of them are about to be demolished. The ones repaired without complying
to the original construction method have lost their authentic appearances no matter how
clean and tidy they appear from a distance, and various constructive problems have
occurred especially due to concrete and cement based interventions. In the newly designed
houses designed to meet modern constructional requirements, complying to the original
architectural identity is not pursued at all.
Building Types and Number of Storeys
In Madenköy 86 of 124 structures are single-storey and 38 are two-storey buildings. Upper
storeys of the two-storey buildings are used as living spaces, lower storeys were used as
barn and depot in the past and they are being used as merely depot in the present. Single-
storey houses generally consist of two adjacent units one of which is used as barn and
depot and the other is used as the living space (See Fig. 3).
546
Building Usage
The village has been located on a significantly high land with an extremely beautiful
sightseeing in its south facing a stream and a valley. Part of the houses have been located
on the slope in the form of stairs thus protection from the winds from the north in winters,
as well as maximal yielding of sunrays in winters on southern façade, and of the winds,
magnificent sightseeing and sun in the summers, is enabled. The number of the buildings,
which was detected to be 130 in 1997 has declined to 124 in the present. 72 of these
buildings are residence, 4 public buildings, 4 commercial buildings and 44 of them are
depot and barn. There is no change in the location and number of the spaces such as the
school, mosque, coffeehouse and grocery. (SeeFig.5).
SWOT ANALYSIS
During the survey study conducted on the SWOT Analysis made in Madenköy,
establishment of educational, tourism and small scale fruit processing (jam, compost,
concentrated fruit juice, etc…) and cold storage facilities were determined to be the
primary sectors to be developed. The results obtained as a result of the literature study and
the site investigations are limited and given under the titles of strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats.
Results of the Survey Studies
The village population has a quite positive opinion on the subject of tourism sector and
they accept the tourists, their behaviours, their lifestyles as they are. They believe the
tourism has the capability to develop their village in economical aspect. They have a
positive opinion on guesthouse management provided it does not affect their lifestyle.
They do not object the women‘s undertaking guesthouse management. They desire to
manage small establishments in the form of partnerships, to store the products they cannot
sell in these entrepreneurships, and to produce food products approved by the ministry of
health. Most of the teenagers prefer to migrate to inland and abroad cities for job
opportunities and to receive university education if available.
Strengths
Its geography enabling the diversification of tourism, its natural resources and climate,
the living atmosphere of the region, its ecosystem diversity and richness, dense
endemic plant diversity within the region, the natural character of forest lands and
availability of wild life.
The opportunity to use the historical assets within the region in diversification of
ecotourism activities,
The nature of Darboğaz town and Madenköy suitable to provide logistic support to the
tourists making mountain hiking, mountain sports, fauna and bird watching, scouting,
camp tourism, photo safari, botanic tourism, various mountain sports, camping, snow
surfing and snow trekking etc activities on the Meydan Tableland and nearby Medetsiz
Hill, Karagöl and Çinili Göl regions in spring and winter seasons(Skitourenwoche
Türkei – Bolkargebirge, 2015)
547
The population‘s insight as to how to behave the tourists because of the tourists
frequently arriving to the region to perform abovementioned sports
Hospitaliy of the local community,
Non-existence of crime rate in the village, provision of a secure environment
Established and operable domestic water, sewage and electric networks.
Being at a distance of 136 km and one and a half hour to Adana Airport with highly
busy domestic and foreign flights as well as to Çukurova International Airport as
Turkey‘s third largest airport.
Weaknesses
Deficient number of qualified and foreign language speaking workforce capable to

serve in foreign tourist entertainment and accommodation,
Deficient level of education on tourism services
Inavailability of restaurants, cafes, bars, entertainment, shopping etc. facilities in the
region,
Inadequacy of village road networks in terms of internal transportation as well as
construction methods.
Inadequate promotion of the region
Inavailability of the infrastructure capable of providing service to the tourists
(accommodation, guiding, dry cleaning, etc…),
Inability to store and process the fruits which cannot be sold due to various climate
reasons and
The adverse opinion of most of the youth population regarding the economical future
of the village, and accordingly, their desire to migrate to the large cities.
Opportunities
The increase in the demand for eco / rural tourism in domestic and foreign tourism,
The need for new job opportunities likely to create employment in line with the
increase in tourism activities (bakeries, butchers, groceries, farms doing direct sales,
vehicle service stations, cabs, post offices, banking services, cafee and restaurants,
ATMs),
Need for trained personnel with qualifications and sufficient background to rent, repair
and conduct maintenance of nature and winter sports equipment,
The opportunity to market organic honey, fruit as well as carpet, handcraft,etc to the
thousands of prospective tourists likely to come to the ski facilities being constructed
in Meydan Tableland,
Availability of all kinds of local production facilities capable of meeting tons of
monthly food demands of winter sport center hotels located in the region in which
organic agriculture and stockfeeding activities are carried out
Provision of 4 seasons ecoutourism opportunity to the millions of tourists arriving to
the regions as it is located in the Cappadocia Region,
Passage of highspeed rail line through Ulukışla,
Commencement of construction works for construction of a local airport in Niğde
Ulukışla Region,
548
Its having the complementary qualities for the tourists arriving to five stars resorts and
Golf facilities with a total bed capacity of fifteen thousand when considered along
with"Tarsus Kazanlı" Sea, Sand, Sun and Golf project, provision of employment
opportunities for the personnel working in the facilities in winter seasons and
Provision of simultaneous utilization of mountain, nature sports and spa-health tourism
when considered with ‘Çiftehankaplıcaları‘ Health Tourism Project.
Threats
Exceeding the ecological carrying capacity of the region

The likeliness of the tourists with low levels of awareness to harm flora and fauna,
Impairment of wildlife through poaching,
Behaviors of some of the tourists pushing the psychological bearing limits of local
community,
An inclination towards illegal housing among some individuals, becoming aware of
tourist potential and financial opportunities of the region.
Increasing number of peddlers within the area, construction of tents and huts regarding
food and souvenir sales in natural areas and their becoming permanent buildings in
time,
Migration of a population, with insufficient socio-cultural qualities and divergent with
the local community, to the region, thus giving rise to Squatting-related and
sociocultural problems.
Non-adaptation of restoration works of newly built structures and existing houses
within the village, to the authentic structure of the village, development of an ugly and
featureless urban transformation.
EVALUATION AND PROPOSALS
The existing experience of hospitable and warm-blooded Madenköy community regarding

tourism related issues, wild beauty of Bolkar Mountains, its volcanic lakes, wild life (wild
horses, goats, pigs, migratory birds), endemic plant and animal species, various cultural
and archaeological values in its immediate vicinity, complementary characteristic of the
economical activities carried out in the region for rural tourism (stockbreeding,
beekeeping, orchard, garden agriculture) and the strengths detected through the SWOT
analysis are capable of creating a high level of demand from the viewpoint of the tourists.
Realization of a series of measures and several issues detected as opportunities, is required

primarily with public support, for solution of the problems defined in the weaknesses and
threats of Madenköy These are; consolidation of the management of the area,
determination and completion of required infrastructure and superstructure inadequacies
before commencement of tourism practices, minimization of the tourist-based harms
through informing the tourists regarding the sensitive ecological structure and especially
endemic plant and animal species, before their entrance into the area, education of the local
community regarding the development of the products likely to be provided for eco-
tourism as well as the ecotourism values, opening the KOSGEB approved entrepreneurship
courses on the subjects of guesthouse management and gastronomy, supporting the
entrepreneurs desiring to establish their own business, providing foreign languate and
549
guiding trainings to teenagers, provision of ecological sustainability for use of utilization
of the resources, ensuring that the carrying capacity of the region is not exceeded through
frequent supervisions, taking serious measures against illegal residence/guesthouse
construction and illegal workplace construction, starting with hawking and proceeding as
permanent occupation of the area. Promotion of the regional values to the tour operators,
foreign journalists and television broadcasters as well as certification of the products
related to the Ecotourism areas is possible only through public support.
Provision of minimum touristic quality is a requisite for transformation of Madenköy into a

touristic accommodation center. The infrastructural inadequacies of the settlement shall be
eliminated and the roads, which partially consist of earth shall be covered with stone. The
narrow village road shall be widened for easy access of the busses to the village, and
parking areas shall be constructed for buses and cars. The houses shall be provided with
infrastructure for vehicle access to the extent allowed by the inclination of the land,
pedestrian roads shall be supported with stairs and ramps with dimensions suitable for
handicapped people.The guesthouses to be constructed in Madenköy through repairs and
modifications in accordance with the functionalities that enable accommodation of the
tourists, will be the most suitable and economical investment type in terms of evaluation
and especially protection of existing structural potential, implementation of
accommodation in existing buildings will not give rise to environmental problems such as
concretation and land consumption.
CONCLUSION
Madenköy constitutes an important potential for ecotourism with its natural assets such as
mountains, forests, lakes, streams, as well as its topographical structure varying between
1705 and 3524 m (Medetsiz Hill), its diverse flora and fauna embodying several animal
and plant species, interesting geological formations, traditional products and handcrafts,
local architechture and historical richness. Through implementation of the proposed
arrangements, following contributions can be made in terms of socio-cultural, economical
and environmental aspects of the location:
It can easily adapt to other types of tourism, provide four season alternatives to the
tourists arriving to Capadocia and thermal spa‘s in the regions and to prospective
tourists likely to arrive to the Golfing facilities in Mersin Kazanlı region. This may
create a positive effect for each sides.
It can play an active role in expansion of the tourism market through creating demand
by different tourist groups having awareness.
New job opportunities likely to increase the life standards of the community can be
established through development of tourism, such as organic food production, souvenir
handcrafting, etc for local workforce, guesthouse, café, restaurant management,
mountain and winter sports equipment, tool, cloth renting, sales, maintenance and
repair, wildlife hunting guidance, etc for entrepreneur women and young population,
and gardening, cleaning jobs, purchasing and storage jobs fo people without high level
skills, thus migration to urban areas can be reduced.
An ‗‘Settlemen Plan for Preservation Purpose‘‘ shall be prepared so as to comply with
the original texture and control the settlement load, maintain the existing structure and
integrity of the buildings in re-functionalizing, establishment of construction principles
550
for the materials used in repairs and new constructions, construction of the roads as
well as the newly built village settlements or the settlements near the village without
impairing the original texture of the location and in a complementing manner. For
preservation of natural environment and protection of socio-cultural structure,
preparation of ‗‘Rural tourism management and development plan‘‘ and continuous
supervision of the ‗‘Carrying Capacity‘‘ of the region is required for sustaining the
ecological environment.
Diversification of the rural economy will be possible only if the local community
correctly uses the opportunities determined in SWOT analysis and integrates the
tourism with the local economy in the right manner, which in turn will be an important
factor in alleviation of poverty and rural migration. Initially temporary and afterwards
permanent and revenue generating business oppurtunities will be provided especially
for women and young generation.
For sustainability of ‗‘Rural Tourism‘‘ which is based on protection and promotion of
everything it embodies, capable of reversing the migration of rural communities
through a small scale investment and socio-economical welfare, firstly the ‗‘Natural
and cultural heritage‘‘, ‗‘Socio-cultural structure of the location‘‘ and its
‗‘Biodiversity‘‘ should be preserved with a sense of ownership.
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552
INVESTIGATING THE IMPACT OF THE AGE, GENDER AND YEARS
LEARNING ENGLISH ON LEARNING STYLES PREFERENCES
Zahra Naimie1
Norasmatul Akma2
Rana Ahmed Abuzaid
Revatde Nadarajan
Abstract: Demographical factors may have an impact on learning and teaching styles across the
continents. This study was to explore whether demographical factors namely age, gender and
English learning experience are related to the learning style preferences of English Major Students
from the foreign languages faculty in Iran. The sample for this study comprised of 310 English
Major Students. In this study, quantitative approach was used in the collection of the data .The
instruments used in this study included the Index of Learning Styles Inventory by Felder and
Soloman (2006) and Oxford (1990). The results of the study revealed that except for Learning Style
Pair 2 (LSP2) (Sensing/Intuition), all the other learning styles pairs were not related to
demographical factors.
Keywords: Demography, Learning, Age, learning experience
INTRODUCTION
Today, one of the focuses of research in teaching and learning is exploration of the
learners‘ strategies when they are involved in the learning task.Educators have noticed that
some students prefer certain ways of learning more than others; this preference is referred
to as the learning style that can aid teachers in the successful teaching plan (Baumgartner,
2001). In other words, learning styles can be defined as the way the individual prefers to
go about learning.
The notion of learning style needs to be clarified, because in most situations learning
styles, learning strategies and learning preferences are used interchangeably. Smith and
Dalton (2005) defined learning style as ―a distinctive and habitual manner of acquiring
knowledge, skills or attitudes through study or experience‖ (p. 7). Riding and Rayner
(1998) (quoted in Hillberg & Tharp, 2002, p. 1) defined learning styles as individual
collections of learning strategies (manners in which learning tasks are responded to)
integrated with cognitive styles (the way the information is stored and represented).
Therefore it can be concluded that students should understand that sometimes their
learning style might or might not be the best one for the tasks given and because of that,
some degree of style ―stretching‖ or style flexing is required. Reid (1995) stated that
learners need to be aware in order to be successful learners; sometimes they should
―stretch‖ their preferred learning style. Students learn, see, interpret and understand
differently (Teele, 2006; Zacharis, 2011).
Kinshuk et al. (2009) highlighted the fact that even though students learn differently but
they are able to achieve higher with the style they are comfortable with.The information on
students‘ learning styles can be useful when the learning style implementation in adult
education is related to the teachers‘ learner style versatility at different levels and in
1
Senior lecturer, Department of Curriculum and Instructional Techonogy, Faculty of Education,
University of Malaya, Malaysia.
2
Senior lecture dental, Faculty of dentistry, University of Malaya, Malaysia.
553
different subjects (Nielsen, 2005).Learning styles have been widely defined but in this
paper, the definition of learning styles by Felder and Soloman (2006) is adapted whereby
learning style classified students under four categories based on their preferences. The
categories are namely: Active / Reflective, Sensing / Intuition, Visual / Verbal, and
Sequential / Global.
The idea of creating the lessons that apply ‗one-size-fits-all‘ approach for teaching and
learning cannot be applied any more. The 21st century learners have varied needs and
preferences where their learning environment are concerned since the technology
integration had happened.They would require certain learning styles preferences resulted
from technology advancement. (Bennett, Maton, & Kervin, 2007). Researches (Putintseva,
2006; Wu, 2010; Park, 2002; Xiao & Tianjin, 2006; Jhaish, 2010; Karthigeyan & Nirmala,
2013) have confirmed the fact that learning stylesis one of the vital elements to be
considered where learning and teaching improvement is discussed. Learning styles
preferences may be influenced by several factors which these factors include age, gender,
educational level, proficiency level, study field, belief, attitudes and motivation, prior
knowledge of learning styles, content, country‘s education system and teachers teaching
styles (Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1979; Ehrman &Oxford, 1995; Reid, 1987).
In terms of age, Reid (1987) identified that the learning style preferences for older students
were mainly towards visual and auditory modalities. This is supported by Other studies
(Cherry, 1981; Dunn, Price, & Sanders 1981; James & Galbraith, 1985; Keefe, 1987;
Rossi-Le, 1989) which shown that visual style has dominated among adult learners. In
addition,Barbe and Milone (1981) identified shifts that occur in learning style preferences
as an individual matures. In the primary level, the learning style strengths are more defined
with the dominant one being the auditory. Research regarding the impact of the gender on
learning styles has grown recently.
Some studies suggested that Gender differences may have an impact on individual‘s
preferences in learning (Yi, Hui, & Jasmine, 2011;Muralidhara, Nordin, &Mohmad Nasir,
2013;; Zainora et al., 2011). This can be explained due to the fact that there is a
discrepancy in number university enrolment betweengenders (Nadia et al., 2010; Sudeera,
2011). Several studies such as Nadia et al., 2010; Vaseghi, Ramezani, & Gholami, 2012;
Adi Afzal, 2011; Kashefi et al. 2012 have zoomed into the impact of the gender on
learning that results pointed out the ―mix finding‖ except Vaseghi et al. (2012) and Nadia
et al. (2010) which confirmed that there is a gender discrepancies where student learning
preferences are referred. On contrary, Kashefi et al. 2012) found that there is no
relationship between gender and learning styles preferences. Tatarintseva, 2002; Llach &
Gallego, (2012) highlighted that more research are to be encouraged in this area as there
are still grey area relating gender and learning style.
Nadia et al. (2010) stated that tailoring togender varsity in learning environment will
establish a proper solution to ―gender gap in education.‖ Finding reported that there is no
significant gender varsity in LSPs. Zokaee, Zaferanieh, and Naseri (2012) study the
impacts of perceptual learning styles and gender on Iranian English as Foreign Language
(EFL) learners‘ vocabulary learning strategies selection. Their finding indicated that the
gender has no impact on learner‘s vocabulary strategies selection.
Where educational background concerns, Reid (1987) reported that graduate students had a
greater tendency for visual learning than undergraduates did. The learner‘s academic
background and experience were not specified in his study. Politzer and MacGroarty
(1985) believed that previous educational experiences have an impact on cognitive styles
and classroom behaviours of the learners from other cultures. A study on adult native
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speaker learners of English showed that highly educated adults self-select learning style
preference with greater accuracy (Cherry, 1981) and that their mean scores in all the
dominant learning modes are higher (James & Galbraith, 1985). Jacobs (1990) utilized
several learning style instruments with African-American secondary school students and
found a correlation between learning style preferences and achievement level. Based on his
findings, high achiever learners showed higher usage of multiple learning styles. The
findings of many other researchers suggest that students with higher language proficiency
had preferences for visual learning style (Cherry, 1981; James & Galbraith , 1985; Keefe,
1987; Rossi-Le, 1989).
Studies on US learners who showed a shift towards visual learning styles along with
learner maturity and ability to read (Keefe, 1987; Price, Dunn, & Sanders, 1979). Rossi-Le
(1989) explored the relationship between kinaesthetic learning styles preferences and the
subject‘s proficiency and work history. According to these findings the more proficient the
English learners the more they preferred learning through interactive method and direct
experiences with the language.
Where From the first through the sixth grade, visual and kinaesthetic preferences dominant
but high school age students show more tendencies towards the visual and auditory.
According to researchers, this shift represents a change in the environment as students
learn to read (visual) and write (kinaesthetic). The relationship between the educational
level and learning styles preferences have been pictured in Reid‘s study as well as an
earlier one.
Learning experience is another significant factor which is claimed to have an influence on
the use of language learning style. Fazzaro and Martin (2004) agreed that learning styles
development among the learners can be established from their past life experiences and
society need. Tuan, (2011) & Said and Ghani (2009) zoomed to the relationship between
the language learning experience and language learning styles They have also stated that
when the learner is equipped with more experiences in EFL environment, they are aware to
select the most suitable strategies which match their learning styles preferences.
The Iranian education system requires students to learn and consider English as one of the
foreign languages. The focus for the EFL learners in primary and secondary schools is
primarily on English for communication, unlike in higher degree education such as
institutes and universities where the focus goes beyond the ability to communicate
effectively. For this level of learners, regardless of their major, the amount of knowledge
that they need to process increases daily with the sources being in the English language.
Some of these students have to attend private classes to improve their EFL skills. In many
cases, the classes will not provide what the students need, so the student‘s participation in
these classes will not lead to success.
The objective of this study is to investigate EFL learners‘ learning styles and the
relationship of three factors, namely, Age, Gender and learning on Learning Styles
Preferences. Specifically, the study was designed to address the following questions:
1) What are the learning style preferences of Iranian learners?
2) To what extent gender, age, and learning experience have an impact on learners learning
style preferences?
METHODOLOGY
The research method used for this study is the quantitative approach by using the survey.
Researchers used the survey to obtain the variety of the students‘ learning styles and also
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used the questionnaires to obtain some information regarding the learner‘s age, gender and
English learning experiences. Demographic information was obtained to explore whether
they have any impact on learners learning styles preferences or no?
However, this study will assist the EFL learners develop into successful learners through
utilizing learning style preferences more efficiently and effectively.
Instruments
The following are the steps taken by the researcher in this study:
Step one: identification of learner‘s information through demographic questions using:
a) Demography questions (part A)
Step two: identification of students‘ learning styles by conducting the survey:
b) Learning style survey, using the Felder and Soloman Learning Style Inventory (ILS).
(part B)
The Index of Learning Styles (ILS) questionnaire developed by Felder and Soloman based
on the Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model was used in this study to assess students
learning preferences. In this instrument there are four dimensions that are Active/reflective,
Sensing/Intuitive, Visual/Verbal and Sequential/Global. Active/reflective: refers to the
differences between Learning by trying something and learning by contemplation
Sensing/Intuitive: refers to the differences between learning by knowing facts or details
and learning by knowing the relationship. Visual/Verbal: refers to the differences between
learning more through pictures and figures and also reading and hearing.
Sequential/Global: refers to learning by following logical steps and learning to see the
bigger picture. Previously there were 5 dimensions, including Inductive/Deductive, based
on Felder and Silverman (1988) but this dimension has been dropped from the index.
The questionnaire that was applied in this study consists of two sections; Section A and B.
Section A seek respondents‘ demographic data such as gender, age, ethnicity, previous
learning experienceand English achievement level. Section B consisted of 44 questions
from the ILS questionnaire. The questions were merged into the first part of the main
questionnaire(ILS) to identify the extent and percentage of the ESL students‘ preferences
in learning style vary by gender,ethnicity, previous learning experience and English
achievement level in the four dimensions of ILS that are named LSPs consst of
LSP1()LSP2()LSP3()LSP4(). However not all demographic factors obtained will be used
for the purpose of the analysis in this study.Subjects for this study were from four
undergraduate classes in the faculty of foreign languages in the main campus of one of the
universities in Iran.
Participants
The total initial participants of this study consisted of 310 university students in the main
campus of one of the universities in Iran. The participants involved in this study are
majoring in English as a Foreign Language (EFL); furthermore, they were from different
age groups. This group of students can be categorized mainly as medium users of the
English language because they have chosen English as their major. English language
majors are expected to be fluent in both spoken and written English. The sample age range
was between 20 to 40 years old.
All participants had at least 7 years of formal education in English. The participants were
also enrolled in speaking courses, all of which are required courses in order to attain the
556
bachelors of English degree. These courses are designed in order to improve their speaking
ability. Students from this academic discipline were chosen to ensure a certain level of
language proficiency (intermediate or above) required for discourse markers to be noticed
and to show their facilitating effect (Perez & Macia, 2002).
Data analysis
All responses from the questionnaires survey statistically was analysed and organized to
offer answers to the research questions. Descriptive and inferential analysis of the
quantitative data was evaluated by using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS).
Descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages was
applied to analyse the data for variables including gender, age, learning styles and teaching
styles.
Finding and discussion
The research reports the preferred learning styles of the 310 EMS participants based on
their responses to the Felder and Soloman (2006) learning styles inventory. As the second
step, the impact of gender, age and years of learning
English on learning style preferences was explored.
This section will answer research question 1 that discusses what are the learning style
preferences among the learners in Iran. It is related to the patterns of the learning style
preferences among the students. The results in Tab. 1. depict the learners‘ style patterns in
a university setting in Iran.Finding indicated there is no significant difference between the
learners choice when the 4 dimension of the learning styles are concerned. However the
dimension that was highest rated by the learners was LSP2, LSP3,LSP1 and LSP4.
In order to answer research question two, chi square analysis was done.The findings also
showed that there is no significant relationship between age and learners‘ learning styles
preferences in LSP1: .47, LSP3: .81, LSP4: .50, but on the other hand there is a significant
relationship between the LSP2: .058 and Age. The results indicated that there is no
significant relationship between learning style preferences and gender in all four
dimensions of the Felder and Soloman learning styles inventory (LSP1: .47, LSP2: .70,
LSP3: .43, LSP4: .27) for this sample.
It is also indicated that there is no significant relationship between years learning English
and learners‘ learning styles preferences in LSP1: .64, , LSP4: .85 but on the other hand
there is a significant relationship between the LSP2: .015 LSP3 : .025 and years of learning
English.
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Tab. 1. Frequencies and percentages of the LSP‘s dimensions
Dimensions Frequency Percentage
Dimension 1 (LSP1) Active 157 50.6
Reflective 153 49.4
310 100%
Dimension 2 (LSP2) Sensing 236 76.1
Intuitive 74 23.9
310 100%
Dimension 3(LSP3) Visual 210 67.7
Verbal 100 32.3
310 100%
Dimension 4(LSP4) Sequential 150 48.4
Global 160 51.6
310 100%
Analysis of the dominant learning styles of EFL students showed the following results.
Students‘ preferred learning styles were reported as an active, sensing, visual and global
style. However, the dominant learning style of the EFL lecturers were reported as active,
sensing, visual and in the last dimension the preferences have been equally distributed
between the Sequential and Global dimensions.
Based on the results, the students expressed major preferences for active learning styles;
active learners like to comprehend the new information and be involved physically in the
class activities. They like to study with one or more students in a group. Class interaction
is considered as another success factor for these kinds of learners. To recall the information
learned in the class, these active learners need to work with one or more students to
understand the subject matter, whereas reflective learners learn best when they study alone.
The reflective learners obtain information easily if they are left alone to work on their own
and in a very quiet environment and they like to study alone.
Another preference was the sensing learning style. Sensing learners like to be more
practical, discover the possible chances, solve problems by established methods, like
innovation and love to experience the facts through hands-on experience. They learn best
when they have hands-on experience through trial and error. For these types of learners, it
is recommended that the lecturer use problem solving activities and let them feel the
situation and ask them for the possible solution, whereas for learners such as visual which
are considered as a preference in the third dimension, they learn best by looking at the
information, reading, observing and thus learn best through visual aids such as charts,
schematics, diagrams or any type of visual presentation. Writing notes in the class will
assist them to remember the material they have to learn.
Finally, for the preferences in the last dimension, the learners‘ preferences were equally
distributed; it means the students have equal preferences for both ends of the dimension.
Sequential learners are good in following the logical order of the information but they are
unable to link the information with the different aspect of the subject learned in a class. On
the other hand, the sequential learners are more comfortable with the random information;
it is difficult for them to explain to others what they have learned but they understand the
558
concept and the subject matter clearly. For theses types of learners, the lecturers must use a
kind of narrative activity to let them express what they understand and get them to be
actively involved in the class.
The results of this study indicated that there is no significant relationship between learning
style preferences and gender in all four dimensions in the Felder and Soloman inventory
(LSP1: .47, LSP2: .70, LSP3: .43, LSP4: .27 ). The findings showed that there is no
significant relationship between age and learners‘ learning styles preferences in LSP1: .47,
LSP3: .81, LSP4: .50 but on the other hand there is a significant relationship between the
LSP2: .058 and Age. This study also found no significant relationship between years
learning English and learners‘ learning style preferences in LSP1: .64, LSP4: .85 but on the
other hand there is a significant relationship between the LSP2: .015 LSP3: .025 and years
of learning English.
Therefore, the tasks in this study were twofold. The first was to find a way to determine a
subject‘s learning styles preferences along the dimensions of active- reflective, sensing-
intuition, visual-verbal and sequential-global. The second was to assess the impact of
factors such as age, gender, number of years learning English language.This study only
discussed a few demographical factors and their impact on learning style preferences. The
factors discussed in this study were age, gender and duration of the years learning English.
It is recommended to investigate the impact of the more demographic factors on student
learning preferences to see the variety of the finding.
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ARE UNIVERSITY EMPLOYEES READY TO BE AN
“INTRAPRENEUR”? A NEW PERSPECTIVE OF STRATEGIC HUMAN
RESOURCES FOR UNIVERSITIES
Senem Yazıcı1
Abstract: There are increasing competencies in higher education in Turkey. The universities are in
need of implementing new products and services and to find new―creative and innovative‖ ideas to
stay in the race. The purpose of this article is to provide insights to the question of whether there are
―Intrepreneurs‖ at universities who are able and skilful to do things out of the box. This research is
the first attempt at exploring the ―Intrepreneurship‖ in higher education in Turkey. Corporate
Entrepreneurship Assessment Instrument (CEAI) was chosen as the survey instrument for this
study. The results have shown the need for training towards internal factors and approaches to
strategic human resources. This study has shown the weakest and strongest parts of university
towards intrapreneurship dimensions. The results of this research highlight the importance of
understanding an intrapreneurship at universities. Academic intrapreneurhip will be the key to the
future of the universities where intrapreneurs educate entrepreneurs for the future.
Key words: Intrapreneurship, University, Human Resources, Innovation
INTRODUCTION
Competition has been an important issue of business world. All organisations need to
increase the level and incidence of entrepreneurship in order to survive in the highly
competitive, dynamic and global business environment. Global competition and mobility
of people have changed the university education preferences. Many people started to travel
different parts of the world to study at a university. Universities are in the global
competition recruiting students from all over the world. Turkey also wants to be part of
this competition and changed many regulations in higher education.
There were a very small number of universities in Turkey back in 80`s. However, Turkish
higher education council has developed new policies and implications for opening up new
universities which resultedin increasing numbers of universities in the last ten years
(Ozdemir, 2011). A new initiative provided opportunity for successful
businessman/entrepreneurs to start up a university (Example: Koç and Sabancı University).
This new approach also created a new competition among old/new and
governmental/private universities (Coşkun, 2014). Therefore, management of the
universities wanted to create the enterprise concept within the university context (Özer,
2011). Gibb & Hannon (2006) explained the enterprise concept as ―focuses upon the
development of the ‗enterprising person and entrepreneurial mindset‘. Therefore, anyone
who works at a university becomes a very important asset to implement this concept. The
concept requires human resources policy to change normal management to a new
approach. The new perspective must focus on developing personal enterprising skills,
attributes and mindsets to the context of creative and innovative projects and developing
and designing an entrepreneurial university.
1
Lecturer in Tourism, Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, College of Tourism,
International Antalya University, Antalya, Turkey.
563
The management or the owner of university could want to aim for creating entrepreneurial
university as to be a leader in the competition. However, management's wish will not be
enough to achieve this as long as human resources do not have the capacity to support.
Hence, human resources policy of universities must be changed to attract more creative,
innovative people who carry enterprising skills and attitudes. In another words, universities
need to find star (winner) of the faculty members and administrative staff that can change
the future of the university. Employees of a university also have a key role creating value
and quality for the university reputation and competition. Universities are for students but
without faculty members and administrative staff it looks like an empty box. So, are
universities ready to employ intrapreneurs who will play a key part to create an
entrepreneurial university?
Entrepreneurial university concept has been studied extensively (Gibb & Hannon, 2006;
Baker, 2015; Kalar & Antoncic 2015). However, there is not much research specifically
focusing on intrapreneurship at the university level (Oktem et al. 2003). The purpose of
this study is to highlight the need for intrapreneurs to become an entrepreneurial university
as well as to define the intrapreneurship as an internal factor to have a successful
entrepreneurship eco-system at university environment.
What is Intrapreneurship?
Intrapreneurship and corporate entrepreneurship are terms used interchangeable and both
mean any activities that can create innovative solutions by using organisation's resources
and increase business growth (Parker, 2011; Khan et al, 2011; Moriano et al., 2014). On
the other hand, ―Intrapreneur‖ can be simply defined as a person who shows
entrepreneurial behaviour within an existing organisation (Pinchot, 1985; Antoncic &
Hisrich, 2003)
Studies have showed that entrepreneur and intrapreneur carrythe same skills, mindset,
attitude and approach to business opportunities (McFadzean et al. 2005; Aksel & Baran,
2008; Parker, 2011). It depends on the type and size of organization involved;
intrapreneurs have more possible benefits than entrepreneurs such as assumption of risk,
personal reward possibilities, availability of existing resources, and the amount of freedom
(Moriano et al., 2014). Bosma et al. (2011) found no differences between entrepreneur and
Intrapreneur by looking at characteristics in terms of risk taking, creative mind,
opportunity seek, change, analytic mind. Basically, Intrapreneur must have specific
characteristics which differentiate them from others as networking skills, thinking out of
the box, enterprise, controller, champions, risk taker, innovative, creator, success oriented,
challengeable, quick learner (Parker, 2011). This is also showing that Intrapreneursare
behind the change, creative solutions, product and process developments.
Individual level of need will not be enough to pursue intrapreneurship in general.
Organisation structure and available support can enhance the intrapreneurship activity
within the organisation (Agca et al., 2012). Wakkee et al. (2008) believed that
intrapreneurship can occur if management supports it and organisation is ready internally.
Moriano et al. (2014) found that management plays a key role implementing and
developing intrapreneurship within the organisation. Alpkan et al. (2010) found that
organisations must support intrapreneurs by providing special environment which enable
their intrapreneur skills and activities by giving free time, control of decision making
process, support, motivation, good reward system, tolerance to failure. In addition, Borza
et al. (2012) mentioned that support system can vary based on the size of the organisation
564
such as; large organisations have reward systems for projects and new products
development; small firm can give more free time, flexible working hours and freedom to
choose project to work on and rewards. According to Naktiyok & Bayrak Kok (2006),
intrapreneurship can also change old, passive and stable work environment of large
organisations to new, dynamic, and proactive to go back into the competition. Therefore,
intrapreneurship is very important to develop new products, processes and ideas not only
within large organisations; it is essential any size of organisations.
If intrapreneurship is so important for any type and size of business, intrapreneurship must
be extra important for educational institutes who educate future, potential entrepreneurs
and intrapreneurs. Therefore, the main questions need to be asked are: ―does anyone who
work at a university can be an ―Intrapreneur‖?‖ or ―will they be willing to be an
intrapreneur?‖
As mentioned earlier, there were not many studies conducted on intrapreneurship in the
university concept. There is only one study found in the literature. This study was
conducted to search intrapreneurship level at administrative staff in two old governmental
universities in Ankara (Oktem et al. 2003). Oktem et al. (2003) found that organisational
culture plays an important role to develop intrapreneurship within a university
environment. They have suggested that intrapreneurship can only exist if the university
culture adopts entrepreneurial approach and implements it to the system of management
(Oktem et al., 2003).
Dimensions of Intrapreneurship and Diagnostic Tool “CEAI”
Kuratko et al. (2014) have developed a questionnaire for diagnosing a firm`s internal
environment for corporate entrepreneurship. It is called ―The Corporate Entrepreneurship
Assessment Instrument (CEAI)‖ and it is a diagnostic tool used for assessing people's
perception of the five major dimensions critical to creating an entrepreneurial environment.
An analysis of literature demonstrates critical five intrapreneurship dimensions that are
crucial to understand and develop entrepreneurial actions within the organisations
(Antoncic & Hisrich, 2003; van Vuuren &Bouwmeesters, 2007; Ahmad et al., 2012,
Kuratko et al., 2014).
Managerial support indicates perspective and support of all levels of management,
especially upper-level executives to promote entrepreneurial behaviour. Kuratko et al.
(2008, p. 703) refers to the ―willingness of the top-level managers to facilitate and promote
entrepreneurial behaviour; including championing of innovative ideas and providing the
resources people require to take entrepreneurial actions‖. Work discretion (autonomy and
risk taking) can be described from management point of view as willingness to tolerate and
learn from failures, flexible job descriptions and work empowerment, on the other hand,
entrepreneur‘s view means to take risk, be more self-confident, power to take control.
Rewards and Reinforcement means availability and use of rewards that can create elicit
entrepreneurial behaviour (Kuratko et al., 2014). Time availability could be the most
important resource to pursue innovative projects and creativity (Ahmad et al., 2012).
Organisational boundaries can be achieved with a supportive organisational structure and
culture. Kuratko et al. (2014, p. 39) stated that ―the extent to which one perceives there are
flexible organizational boundaries that are useful in promoting entrepreneurial activity
because they enhance the flow of information between the external environment and the
organizations, as well as between departments/divisions within the organization‖.
565
METHOD
The purpose of this study is to explore and learn readiness of university workforce toward
intrapreneurship and how they perceive their workplace in order to identify the important
dimensions of intrapreneurship to direct further training needs. Hundred and ninety eight
self-administered questionnaires were distributed to respondents who work at privately
owned university in Turkey. 55.6% of the questionnaires were returned successfully. The
demographic variables included in the study were gender, age, marital status and number
of years` of work experience at the university. Respondents' demographics showed that
65% were male and 45% were females. With regards to the age of respondents, 34% were
between 20-39 years old and 76% were 40-60 year old and 74% were married, 36% were
single. In terms of the number of years working at the university, 36% of the respondents
served less than a year, 68% were between two to four years, and 6% were more than four
years.
The dimensions of intrapreneurship were measured using the Corporate Entrepreneurship
Assessment Instrument (CEAI) which has developed by Kuratko et al. (2014). In the
questionnaire, respondents answered items by using five-Likert scales with 1 representing
strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree. Every dimension carrieda different number of items
as, management support-19 items, work discretion-10 items, reward-6 items, time
availability-6 items and organisational boundaries-7 items. Item numbers 21, 36, 39, 40,
42, 43, 44, 45, 47 and 48 of the scale are reversely scored. Data were analysed using SPSS
20.0 in order to find out mean of each dimension. Kuratko et al. (2014) explained that
questionnaire is a diagnostic tool for identifying weak and strong dimensions of
intrapreneurship. If the mean results show 5 which is the top score for all dimensions, it
means that this organisation is implicating intrapreneurship dimensions to their culture and
structure of the organisation. If the means score find any dimensions score lower than 4, it
means that organisation needs to consider specific dimensions for further development and
take actions where necessary. Cronbach‘s α and reliability values of the test were
calculated which has been found to be management support (0,953), work discretion
(0,849), rewards (0,743), time (0,801) and organisational boundaries (0,710). This is the
first study which focuses on university and faculty members‘ level of readiness for an
intrapreneurship; there were not many studies to compare the results. However, studies
which conducted on finding intrapreneurial level of workforce in general business will be
used to compare the results.
FINDINGS & DISCUSSION
Managerial support has shown the readiness of university`s upper management to create an
environment suitable for intrapreneurs to pursue their entrepreneurial activities. The survey
result has shown that management support for employees' perception mean is 3.20. It
shows that university employees understood what is expected from them by the
university's management. It also indicates that management recognises supports and
quickly approves faculty members who bring new ideas and projects. Management
supports innovation and funding is available to start new experimental projects. Hornsby et
al. (2008) and vanVuuren&Bouwmeesters (2007) also found that management support
were the most important dimension for promoting entrepreneurial behaviour within an
organisation.
566
University employees‘ work discretion mean score was 3.21. The results showed that there
were some developments and recognition in terms of work discretion based on faculty
member`s perception. Work discretion requires willingness to tolerate failures of
experimental projects. The management of universities may want to have successful results
for every project but in reality it is not possible. Another issue may rise under the job
descriptions and work empowerment. Employees' job description may alter to provide
more freedom and self-control. Kuratko et al. (2005) and vanVuuren&Bouwmeesters
(2007) found that clear job description and communication will encourage intrapreneurs to
take risk and act more entrepreneurial. Under the work discretion dimension, management
encourages taking risk and this may not be perceived as clearly as they want from
university employees who try to avoid harsh criticism in case of mistakes and failed
projects.
Rewards dimension found to be 3.53 which was the highest mean overall. It shows that
universities are well designed in terms of reward systems. Based on the mean score,
reward systems are effective and clear at universities. vanVuuren&Bouwmeesters (2007)
found that reward was another way tomotivate workeforce to engage in entrepreneurial
activities. Kuratko et al. (2014) concluded that successfully implemented reward system
will encourage people in risk taking and innovation.
Time availability mean score was found 2.98. Ahmad et al. (2012) found that time is a key
resource for new ideas and innovative projects in the business world. The organisations
that cannot provide extra time to purse new ideas may not support entrepreneurial structure
for the future. University employees work load, teaching, research and other administrative
duties may create time problem and they think of no time for innovation and develop new
projects. (Kurulu, 2003) mentioned that many universities has been open without making a
strategic human resources planning for university employee needs especially for the
faculty members. Many universities continue education with small number of faculty
members which create time availability problem under the big responsibilities and
workload (Özkan & Gedikoglu, 2014). If the faculty members are overloaded with many
administrative work and teaching load, they cannot find time to develop new projects or
create an innovation.
Organisational boundaries were found to be the lowest one among other dimensions which
was 2.76. This dimension addresses the chain of commands, the span of control and the
empowerment of teams (vanVuuren&Bouwmeesters, 2007). vanVuuren&Bouwmeesters
(2007) found that organisational boundaries was the lowest comparing with other
dimensions. Ahmad et al. (2012) also found that organisational boundaries were not
significant in intreprenurial behaviour. However, Kuratko et al. (2005) found that
organisation boundaries were significant to enhance intrapreneurial behaviour within an
organisation. If the workforce does not perceive clear structure and flexible organisational
boundaries, it may create obstacles to purse entrepreneurial behaviour (Hornsby et al.,
2008). Therefore, the result indicated that university do not have flexible organizational
boundaries.
In broad perspective, university employees‘ perspectives to the university environment are
very much entrepreneurial in terms of management support, work discretion and rewards.
However, they do not believe universities provide enough free time and flexible
organisational boundaries.
567
RESULTS AND SUGGESTIONS
The findings of study reveal the purpose and measurement of intrapreneurship within a
university. The results also supported that CEAI can be used as a diagnosing tool for
assessing and evaluating university's training needs that should be considered in increasing
entrepreneurial behaviour and number of academic intrapreneurs. Management of
universities need a new strategic approach on human resources, hiring process and training
needs of potential academics in higher education. People who want to choose to have an
academic path must have courses related to strategic human resources management,
entrepreneurship, innovation, creativity, intrapreneurship during their master's and PhD
education. Entrepreneurship is all about how to manage time, money, freedom and human
resources (Hirshfield, 2008) and entrepreneurs/intrapreneurs must get training during their
education and after.
As Drucker (2014) said ―entrepreneurship is a process that can be learned and hence is
teachable‖. Therefore, an entrepreneurial university and academic intrapreneurs should
learn and teach entrepreneurship to the new generations for a better future. Universities
will play a key role for developing education programs for entrepreneurship and
intrapreneurship for future entrepreneurs/intrapreneurs and connecting them with the
society and the business world. The research conducted contributes to understanding of
importance for creating internal environment which will enhance intraprenurial activities at
the universities. It is also concludes that every single person can make a difference as an
intrapreneur and change the future.
There are some limitations of this study such as to focus on privately owned universities,
academics and internal factors. A further study that explores the governmental universities'
entrepreneurship approach with all workforce of university`s (faculty members and
administrative staff) intrapreneurship level, external factors related to change in the
economy and the society would be beneficial.
In conclusion,in a dynamic and competitive higher education system, the universities and
the country will benefit from intrapreneurship. This study proposes that the strategic
humanresource management, education process of faculty members and change in the
internal environment such as time availability and flexible organizational structure could
increase intrapreneurship eco-system at universities.
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DEFINITION, TYPES, SUSTAINABILTY AND RELATION OF TOURISM
WITH ENVIRONMENT, LANDSCAPE PLANNING AND RECREATION
Emine Patan1
Işık Sezen2
Abstract: Tourism can be defined to be the combination of events and relationships resulting from
the travels and accommodation for temporary human activities lasting from at least two days to two
years such as work, recreation, entertainment and sport. Sustainability is referred to the conservation
and transfer of an existing thing to generation next in its present form. Sustainability concept in
tourism is the evaluation of the sources used for tourism by considering this approach.
Tourism has a very close relationship with the environment we live in by positively or negatively
affecting it. In the present study, the concepts of tourism, tourism types and sustainable tourism are
evaluated and relationships between tourism and environment, landscape planning and recreation.
Key words: Definition, Sustainabilty, Tourism, Environment, Landscape Planning, Recreation.
INTRODUCTION
Definition and characteristics of tourism
According to Mieczkowski (1990), the word tourism is derived linguistically from Latin
words such as ―tornare‖ and ―tornus‖, which mean turning around.European languages
borrowed the word tourism from ―tour‖ which means turning back to starting point in
French and was transformed into ―tourisme‖, ―tourismo‖, ―tourismus‖, ―tourism‖,
―tourism‖ in French, Italian, German, English, Russian (Yılmaz, 1999).
Bayer (1992) stated that a generally accepted tourism definition belongs to International
Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism (AIEST, 1954), which is the combination of
all activities caused by travel and accommodation of people aiming not to earn money and
settle permanently where they go (Erdem, 2007).
Development of tourism sector at a certain point is dependent strictly on the attractive

elements the area in question shelters. Therefore, attractive characteristics are the most
required elements constructing the base of today‘s tourism industry. Diversity in touristic
activities and attracting centres increase today due to changing interests of people
depending on developed attractive characteristics(Özgüç, 1994).
Tourism sources from individually or combined effect of visual, natural and cultural
potentials. When such sources are employed efficiently, then tourism as the sector to be
primary factor in the economic development of nations may also become a continuous
income source. Tourism and recreation activities have significant effects on regional
economies (Atayand Özaydın, 1996).
1
Research Assistant, Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, İstanbul
Technical University, 34000, İstanbul, Turkey.
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Design,
Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey.
571
Usta (1997) defined tourism to be a social science studying and evaluating scientifically all
the events and relationships resulting from travels and temporary accommodations out of
permanent living area by employing sciences like economy, management, finance,
accounting, policy, law, architecture, ecology, demography, psychology.
UNWTO sees tourism to be a travel in free time left behind working period and dependent
services and relationships it causes like accommodation, eating – drinking, transportation
and entertainment (Middleton 1998).Tourism was defined by United Nations Environment
Program (UNEP) in 1963 to be all the events and relationships resulting from the travels
and temporary and not income generating accommodations for at least 24 hours (Tolungüç,
1999).
According to Tunçand Sevin (2001), tourism as a concept is defined to be all the events
and relationships caused by changes in location and accommodation of people as
consumers with cultural, sportive, curiosity, health,work, adventure and religious aims.
Niray (2002) defined tourism similarly with the definition of UNEP but stated that a
certain definition outlining tourism is not possible because of its complexity and multi-
aspect and conflicting interactions with other activities.
Gossling (2002) reported that most of the developing countries focused on tourism to
create economicactivity diversity and additional sources. Tourism is the fastest growing
and among the largest sectors in the world. It is fed primarily by natural, cultural and
historical source values.Rapidly growing and having economical weight, tourism takes
place in national policies and today ecological environments can be evaluated for this aim
and ecology and economy are directed in its scope(Bulut, 2006).Tan (2013) suggested that
in tourism people running away from monotone urban life show interests in in the areas
conserving natural, cultural and visual values. Visitors wish to know societies bearing
different cultural values and therefore the locations achieving to conserve their natural and
cultural values are preferred more.
Types of Tourism
Mill and Morrison (1985) classified tourism into categories convenient with the aims in
different types and attractive elements for tourism are connected to be climate, culture,
history, ethnical features and accessibility.Gunn (1988) evaluated different parameters to
classify tourism and stated that attractive elements can determine the types of
accommodation. Such classification includes tour route attractions andlong term
accommodationattractions.
Sustainable tourism
According to Gülez (1988), development of tourism cannot be against natural protection.

Tourism and nature are two contrast concepts which have to agree. Without protecting
nature tourism activities cannot be performed sustainably therefore soft tourism should be
introduced where these two contrast concepts complete each other.
Human population increases too fast to use existing natural and cultural sources
sustainably. Today natural, cultural and visual sources are under threat due to their
572
unplanned use for tourism and recreation. Sustainability in tourism is the evaluation of
sources used for touristic aims in sustainability understanding (Mikaeili-Tabrizi, 1996).
Nepal (2000) stated that UNWTO defined sustainable tourism to be a tourism form which
improves quality of life in hosting country, offers high service quality experience for
visitors and increases environmental quality of the areas. Sustainable tourism
understanding evaluates the sources in a complementary way and considers planning and
management together.
According to Kalem (2001), sustainable tourism, defined to be a tourism understanding

which requires protection and development of possibilities for future while meeting
today‘s needs in the areas hosting tourists, aims to perform touristic activities in
convenience with natural and cultural environment and not to sacrifice local values for the
development of tourism but to benefit from them.
It is essential in sustainable tourism to protect and use natural, cultural and visual sources.
In the evaluation and use of such sources, an absolute balance must be constituted between
economicand ecologic concepts. Use by protecting principle plays important role in the
foundation of this balance (Erdoğan 2003).
Having placed on world agenda with 1992 Rio Conference, "sustainable development‖
concept needs to be applied in all sectors.Sustainable development is the continuation of
economic development without harming environmental values and thus sustainable
tourismmay be the increase of tourism capacity and the quality of tourism products without
negatively affecting natural and human resources feeding the sector (Uçkunand Türkay,
2004).
Relationship between tourism and environment
Atayand Özaydın (1996) stated that base of tourism is environment. Environment is the
combination of natural, cultural and visual sources. Natural sources refer to water reserves
like seas, rivers and lake, areas with protection status, forests and coppice forests, natural
wonders and interesting formations. Cultural sources include monumental structures
belonging to past and today‘s civilisations, civil architecture examples, historical urban
tissues, archaeological sites, past and living cultures and folklores (Bulut, 2006).
There are three different conceptual relationships between a tourism type based on nature
and natural sources nature protection which are conflict, coexistence and symbiosis
(Pekcan 2002).Environment supplies the source obligatory for tourism and is basically
divided into two definitions which are natural environment to formation of which human
beings do not have any contribution and artificial environment human beings formed using
natural environment sources. Tourism can affect both types of environment (Erdoğan,
2003).
Degree of the contribution of tourism to national economy shows the development of

tourism in a country. Any kind of expense made in tourism sector can create a movement
in economy and affect national economies in various forms. As economic importance of
tourism grows its social and environmental effects also increase. Research shows
environmental protection is required in the development of tourism (Külekçi, 2012).
573
Relationship between tourismand landscape planning
Kuntay (2004) stated that unfavourable effects of tourism on natural and culturalvalues
should be reduced to minimum. For the sustainability of tourismnatural and
culturalresources should be protected and improved by making landscape planning
decisions.As stated by Christopher (1979), in making protection –use decisions, each
site/landscape must be given character using their own events and sustaining their
background.
Use – protection strategies should be developed before landscape/physical plans. Today

plans are seen to be the arrangement of uses in a given area, however, in order to catch the
agenda in consistently developing world, detailed perspective and strategies to realise
decisions should be developed by collecting data about the area.
Usluand Kiper (2005) reported that in tourismculturaldifferences and local identities are
attractive for tourists and as local products they are presented to them. In this respect,
protection of unique natural and cultural landscape elements and their identity in an area is
an important step to develop sustainable tourism in the mentioned area. For this aim
protection of urban or rural tourism potentials requires the protection and improvement of
unique values like plant tissue, architectural characteristics etc. which are convenient to
unique landscape values.
Relationship between tourismand recreation
According to Altan (1984), recreation is composed of re and create meaning creating

again. As a term, it refers to free time activities regaining or refreshing someone physically
or psychologically. In general it is defined to be an extensive action including various
activities such as relaxing, entertainment, evaluation of free time and walking around.
Edginton and Ford (1985) stated that in modern meaning, recreation is a social institution,
collection of information and a professional study field independent from work, meeting
important needs of people and full and happiness inspiring living tool. From this
perspective, recreation can be defined to be activities people do voluntarily in their free
time and are satisfied individually.
Most important aspect of recreation activities is that participants of theseactivates adopt

them as recreation activities consciously and thus, the advantage of such an approach is to
know which activity is performed where, when and how long (Sağcan, 1986).
According to Karaküçük (1995), recreation is a set of voluntary, willing, individual or

group activities performed by humans to protect, regain or survive physical and
psychological well-being affected badly under heavy working load, routine life style and
unfavourable environmental effects or to entertain in independent and inbound leisure time
without working to provide individual satisfaction and out of the time for obligatory needs.
Gündüz (1998) evaluated various activities under the headline of recreation performed to
refresh the body and psychology torn in daily life. Recreationis thought in many times to
be a kind of occupation or pure entertainment showing differences from the habits of daily
574
life. There are several definitions in addition to general definitions of recreation(Özel,
2004).
According to Koçand Şahin (1999), recreation is all the activities performed in spare times
willingly to refresh humans depending on the social, economic and cultural conditions and
opportunities. As human gets away from nature and lives in urbanized cultural areas their
instinct directs them to relax and refresh.
Karaküçük (1999) classified recreation based on its functions and other various criteria.
Whatever the aims and desire for recreation an individual has, there is always a suitable
recreation type for her/him. When considered the variety of human needs and desires and
recreation types meeting them, then itcan be stated that no certain grouping is possible for
the classification of recreation.
Topuzlu (1989) defined main resource of the relationships between tourismand recreation
to be leisure time when they are both performed. Even though there are many different
expressions about the definitions of the relationships between these two concepts, some
may be given to outline the general frame.
According to Bayer (1992), recreation and tourism are the concepts to complete each other
and be evaluated together. Scientific works on recreational activities have been introduced
in literature for the last 50 or 60 years, but recreational tourism planning is a more recent
concept.
According to Gürdal (1997), basis of all planned and completed worksaimed with
recreation and tourismis use and protection of natural and culturalsource values. Tourism
and recreation are two concepts which can be developed in one other‘s outlines and use the
same source values on the basis. The important thing to be realised in this respect is to
research how to develop recreational possibilities and use them for tourism in settlements
with natural and cultural potentials without deteriorating natural development process.
Özkan (2002) stated that tourismand recreation ingeneral increase human quality of life.In
expanding urban areas due to increasing human population serious environmental
problems began to be seen. Such developments also increased the needs of today‘s people
for recreation and people desire to get away from the environments having negative
impacts on their life is short periods and prefer to go to natural or semi-natural landscapes
(rural areas).
CONCLUSION
In several related studies one of the largest and industrial forces, tourism can again be
related to the development in many studies. Tourism is a very effective tool to promote
countries undertaking roles to show their natural, cultural, historical, archaeological and
folkloric values.
Tourism is the basic indicator of civilisation and social welfare. In order to make tourism
sustainable existing natural and cultural values should be protected and transferred to
generation next. Classification and types of tourism show diversity and many researchers
575
tried to classify tourism types by considering its different aspects. Since tourism activities
are performed in living environment, a strict relationship is present between them. Tourism
can affect environment both positively and negatively and tourism activities may both
harm or improve environment depending on their violence.
When evaluating the relationship between tourism and landscape planning, tourism needs
to protect and improve natural and cultural sources for its sustainabilityand to do this,
decisions in landscape planning should be efficient.Tourismand recreation were introduced
for similar reasons but have different aspects and became similar concepts supporting each
other, developing in one other‘s border and using the same source values. Both of them are
performed in rural and urban areas and use and sustain natural and cultural source values.
It is suggested as a conclusion that there is a strong relationship between tourism and

environment, landscape and recreation, such a relationship positively or negatively
interacts, all natural and cultural source values should be protected and transferred to
generation next in order to achieve the sustainability of tourism, environment and
landscape and efficiency of the decisions in landscape plans is important.
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578
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPORTS, RECREATION AND ADVENTURE
TOURISM IN TOURIST-GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA
Aida Bidţan1
Haris Gekić2
Abstract: Sports, recreation and adventure tourism are activities that relax tourists and put them
away from everyday stress situations, and it all takes place through swimming, hiking, relaxing in
nature, altitude residence, paragliding, rock climbing, rafting, cycling tours, golf, tennis, aqua
aerobics, volleyball, skiing, etc. Natural and anthropogenic tourist potentials which exist in the BiH
tourism and geographic regions are suitable for the development of these specific forms of tourism.
Sports events are unavoidable side effects in the development of these forms of tourism.
Entertainment - recreational tourist regional offer, in a broader sense, includes an offer that is used
to meet all other needs of tourists, participants and organizers of such events. Moreover, sports,
recreation and adventure programs, which are implemented as an integral part of tourism offer of
the tourist-geographical regions, are certainly renting and using various sports facilities and
equipment, schools of various sports skills, sports games, tournaments and contests followed by
sports-entertainment attractions, which certainly lead to job creation and employment of
professional staff and young population structure. It is necessary to ensure available public space for
a part of these activities, then equipped sports and recreational fields or recreational sports
equipment and halls for other activities, which also makes room for employment in BiH regions in
which it is wanted to develop these specific forms of tourism.
The aim of this study is to determine the possibilities for development of sports, recreation and
adventure tourism in BiH tourist-geographical regions followed by their diversity and classification
with respect to which natural-geographical tourist attractions will be developed. The priorities and
problems of their tourist valorisation will be determined, as well as the way they are promoted
among both foreign and domestic tourists. In this study, noticable are the following tourist-
geographical methods: analysis, synthesis, causal methods, classification, tourist valorization, field
research and mapping methods.
Key words: sports tourism, entertainment, recreation, potentials
INTRODUCTION
The modern tourist understanding of each tourist is globalism and using every free moment
for finding new contents, release of adrenaline and new experiences. This changes the
previous stationary mass tourism where tourists were offered the sea, sun and sand. In this
respect, there are alternative types of tourism which cease to be mass, where tourists as
individuals or small groups aspire to and take place in the intact nature where they can be
engaged in sports activities and spend their long-awaited vacation in a dynamic way.
1
Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Zmaja od Bosne 33 – 35,
71000 Sarajevo, aidabidzan@gmail.com
2
Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Zmaja od Bosne 33 – 35,
71000 Sarajevo, hgekic@gmail.com
579
The subject of this paper are opportunities for development of sports and recreation and
adventure tourism in terms of the existing tourism supply and demand in the world and
consequently in the national environment. In many societies, the higher reaches of personal
mobility remain the exclusive domain of the privileged (Hall, 2004). Similarly,
participation in many sport and recreational pursuits is rigidly defined by social class, race
and gender (Gibson, 2005).
To develop sports and recreation and adventure tourism as efficiently as possible in an

area, it is necessary that these areas have the following factors: intact natural environment,
customer service, organized transport, facilities and sites, organized entertainment,
accommodation of different categories, hereditary involvement in sports, built
superstructure and a good organizer of these specific forms of tourism. These forms of
tourism can be of different levels, namely: international, national, regional or local
character, which depends on their organization and marketing. Sport and tourism are the
mass social and economic phenomena which are in many ways interlinked. This
relationship is reflected through: factors of tourism and sports, functions that generate
tourism and sport, as well as their economic effects. Although sport in tourism occurs in
various forms, a dominant role in modern tourism has "sport for all", which in our
terminology can be identified with sports recreation. Sports recreation with numerous
attractions is the main lever of active holidays in tourism industry. New tendencies in the
development of tourism show that changes in tourism trends are replacing traditional
motives of holiday with the motives and content of active holidays. As adventure sport and
sports recreation are the key motives and content of active holidays, their development
affects the content and quality of active holidays in tourism. The aim of this paper is to
show the possibilities of development and improvement of the quality of sports and
recreation and adventure tourism, as well as tourism in general in the tourist-geographical
regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH).
Sports and recreation and adventure tourism are all those forms of active or passive
involvement in sports activities on an individual or organized basis in commercial or non-
commercial purposes, which cause travel outside the usual places of residence, and it is a
form of tourism trends in which sport is the main motivation for travel (Kesar, 2011).
Moreover, sports and recreation and adventure tourism can be defined as "tourism in which
sport is the main motive for travel and accommodation for tourists in a tourist destination"
(Bartoluci, 2003). Sport and tourism are complex and dynamic phenomena that have in
recent decades beenengaged in an expanding interplay of mutual interests at a range of
spatial and temporal scales. Sport is constantly in a state of change, subject to socio-
economic forces, innovation and experimentation (Higham & Hinch, 2009).
These specific forms of tourism are activities that relax tourists and move them away from
everyday stress situations, and it is realised through swimming, hiking, relaxing in nature,
visiting high-altitude area, diving with special equipment, paragliding, rock climbing,
580
rafting, cycling tours, golf, tennis, aquaerobic, volleyball, skiing, skating, etc. For sports
and recreational, and adventure tourism activities, certain preconditions are necessary, such
as the following tourist potentials: natural, anthropogenic, financial, information,
knowledge, etc.
Adventure tourism distinguishes itself from normal tourism on five counts. Firstly, there is
a degree of readiness or preparedness on the part of the individual. This involves
certifications, trip planning and the organising of skilled personnel to undertake the
adventure. Secondly, adventure tourism is more expensive because of the costs
surrounding the training and renting or buying of equipment. The third distinction is that
adventure tourism requires planning when entering remote areas that are not usually visited
by the average tourist. Fourthly, an adventure activity, such as skiing on a mountain or
surfing on the beach, depends on seasonal weather cycles. Fifthly, the professional
adventure tour suppliers are required to employ experienced and certified adventure guides
(Swartbrooke, et al., 2003).
According to Cashmore (2002), most people think of adventure as an adrenaline rush

and that the followers thereof are driven by a death wish. According to Standeven
(1999), adventure activities indicate a “quest for excitement” and they provide an
opportunity to produce pleasurable forms of tension and excitement, which offer an
important counterbalance to the routines of daily life in modern society. Whiles
interacting with the environment, participants engage in hiking, rafting, kayaking,
mountain biking and many more. There is a growing trend towards adventure-
orientated holiday behaviour in people seeking a more intensive recreational
experience (George, 2004; Hudson, 2003).
SPORTS, RECREATION AND ADVENTURE TOURISM WITHIN NATURAL

TOURIST POTENTIALS IN TOURIST-GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF BOSNIA
AND HERZEGOVINA
Bosnia and Herzegovina has valuable tourism potentials and sports facilities. First of all,
there is a rich cultural and historical heritage, natural attractions, especially mountains and
favourable climate, as well as the proximity to major European generating center, which in
general contributed to the recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a tourist destination.
All natural and geographical areas where tourists can engage in sports, recreational and
adventure activities belong to the sporting potentials in tourism. The following table 1 will
show natural tourist potentials and forms of sports and recreational activities that can be
performed on them.
581
Table 1: Natural tourism potentials and forms of sports, recreation and adventure tourism
Natural tourism potentials Forms of sports, recreation and adventure
tourism
Mountains hunting, mountain biking, hiking, skiing,
boarding, paragliding, mountaineeiring etc.
Sea Swimming, sailing, surfing, fishing, diving
Lakes rowing, swimming, fishing
Rivers fishing, rafting, swimming, kayaking
Forest orienteering etc.
Source: compiled by authors
The development of sports and recreational tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina started on
the basis of health tourism based on particularly favourable healing natural potentials of
thermal and mineral springs. The tradition of spa tourism is more than 130 years old and it
started in the areas of climate and health centers primarily to protect and improve health,
rehabilitation, and treatment with the help of natural factors. The Romans opened most of
the spas in the area of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Table 2: Sports, recreation and adventure tourism on natural tourist potentials in tourist-
geographical regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Tourist- Natural Tourism Potentials
geographical Sports and recreational tourism Adventure tourism
region
Sarajevo Igman, Bjelašnica, Trebeviš, Great alley, Treskavica, Bjelašnica,
Vilsonovo alley, Dariva, Crnorijeţka Visoţica, Crnorijeţka plateau,
plateau, Well of Bosna canyon Miljacke
Mostar Vran, Raduša, Prenj, Veleţ, Ţvrsnica, Canyon of Neretva, Diva
Neretva, Trebiţat, Bregava, Grabovica, canyon of
Rakitnica,
Banja Luka Kozara, Vlašiš, Ţemernica, Lisina, canyon Tijesno, Zveţajska
Motajica, Uzlomac, Vrbas, Sana, Balkana glen, glen of Crna rijeka,
Kozara, Vlašiš etc.
Bihaš Grmeţ, Plješevica, Lanište, Klekovica, Una, Una, Sana, Plješevica
Sana
Tuzla Konjuh, Majevica, Ozren, Javornik Konjuh
Podrinje Jahorina, Zelengora, Sutjeska, Javor, Drina, Jahorina, Zelengora, Volujak,
Šehotina Drina
Posavina Drina, Sava Drina, Sava
Doboj Ozren, Trebava, Motajica, Zvijezda
East Herzegovina Bregava, Trebišnjica, Hutovo blato, lakes: Zelengora, Volujak, Magliš
Alagovac, Bileško, Klinje
South West Šator, Dinara, Kamešnica, Vran, Livanjsko i Šator, Kamešnica, Vran,
Bosnia Kupreško polje Livanjsko i Kupreško polje
Maritime Neum-Klek bay Neum-Klek bay
West Ţvrsnica, Ţabulja, Trebiţat, Nature Park Ţvrsnica, Ţabulja
Herzegovina Blidinje
Travnik Vranica, Bitovnja, Raduša, Rostovo, Vlašiš Vranica, Bitovnja, Raduša,
Rostovo, Vlašiš
582
As we can see from Table 2, Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as its tourist-geographical
regions are rich in natural tourism potentials, both geomorphological and hydrographic
where various forms of sports and recreation and adventure tourism can be developed.
Generally, Bosnian tourism lacks proper functioning tourist development of space in the
immediate and wider environment of tourism and catering facilities, which must be
resolved quickly if one seriously wants to start the development of these forms of tourism.
Further, we should note that an average altitude of Bosnia and Herzegovina is about 693
m. More than 4/5 (85.8%) of the territory of our country has an altitude over 200 m. The
highest peak is Magliš, 2386 m, and more than 30 peaks have an altitude of more than
1,700 m.
So that, thanks to these natural resources, the tourism on Bosnian and Herzegovinian
mountains can include a wide array of activities for tourists of various sporting preferences
from hikers and climbers to speleologists, but they all have in common a love of nature and
spending time in the fresh air. The tradition of hiking, mountain climbing and skiing in our
region exists over a hundred years, as evidenced by numerous documents and objects. The
expansion of sports and recreational tourism started after the XIV Winter Olympic Games
in Sarajevo, in 1984. Mountains Bjelašnica, Igman, Jahorina and Trebeviš were ready for
Alpine and Nordic skiing as well as ski jumps and bobsled. We will give a description of
tourist activities on the two most important Bosnian and Herzegovinian mountains: Igman
and Bjelašnica.
On Igman, on Veliko polje (Big Field), there is a 30 km long track for Nordic cross-
country skiing and biathlon, while on Malo polje (Small field), there are ramps of 90 and
70 m which were destroyed in the war, but the Sarajevo Canton Government is planning to
renew them soon. Igman and Bjelašnica together form the ski complex which is a unique
space, even in the world scale. Namely, it is said that there does not exist a combination of
sharp slopes for alpine ski disciplines and wide expanses like here, and only a few
kilometers away the tracks for those who enjoy cross-country skiing. Moreover, for
visitors in summer, Veliko polje offers two football fields, a universal sports court for
basketball, handball and volleyball, as well as four tennis courts, then tracks for walking
and biking, special courts for grilling with wooden benches and tables. Moreover, on Malo
polje there is a universal football and volleyball court. As for accommodation, this
mountain has 105 beds, which is not enough if one wants to seriously develop tourism
(http: // www. zoi84.ba/stranica/ski-centar, www.bhtourism.ba/Turist_br26. pdf).
In addition to Igman, Bjelašnica is an extremely popular tourist destination for hiking and
skiing. The main zone has a few facilities from the time of the Winter Olympic Games,
including hotels and ski resorts. Besides the classic Alpine ski disciplines, paragliding, for
which conditions are excellent, has been becoming increasingly popular in recent years.
Bjelašnica has 8,345 m of ski trails for all alpine disciplines. The quality of the tracks is
still current. As the paths are illuminated, night skiing is also possible on them. During the
583
summer season, the following is available to tourists: hiking, mountain bikeing, party
organizing, eco-fairs, playing tennis in a completely natural setting, organizing mini
football, volleyball and other tournaments, as well as many other services. For nature
lovers, there can also be organized excursions to Bjelašnica with the possibility of riding
the cable car up to the top of Bjelašnica, and touring of the surrounding villages.
In 2015 in the winter ski season which lasted 112 days, according to the organizers of
slopes, Igman and Bjelašnica were visited by a record number of 300,000 visitorsţ; in
addition to domestic tourists, most tourists came from Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia,
Germany, Austria and Slovenia. Experts say that for the tourism trends best suited are
mountains of medium height, and it is beneficial that they affect almost one quarter
(24.3%) of the BH space. We particularly refer to the convenience for winter sports which,
as a rule, provides subalpine relief. Northwestern and northeastern slopes of the mountains
of altitudes above 1,000 or 1,100 m, as well as the southwestern and southeastern slopes
above altitudes of 1,400 and 1,500 m have a large number of days with the required
thickness of snow cover for winter-sports tourism.
The mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina are among its most attractive natural tourism
potentials 1 , and this is especially true for the mountains in Sarajevo, Travnik and
southwestern Bosnia region. They have miles of ski trails for all alpine disciplines where
the difference in altitude from the top to the finish goes even over 1,000 m on some of the
mountains. Staying on Bosnian-Herzegovinian mountains is interesting at any time of year,
especially in winter due to the outstanding sports and recreational conditions. Vast pastures
covered with snow are excellent facilities for skiing and sledding in the winter, and in
summer it is just a feast for the eyes to all visitors, which provides a range of opportunities
for some sports, such as mountain biking, paragliding, hiking, climbing, indoor soccer, and
the like. Further, it must be noted that the tourist-geographical position of the mountains
compared to densely populated and economically developed areas, especially cities, is very
important, and the following example shows it. Namely, the increase in tourist -
recreational role of the mountains (Bjelašnica, Igman and Jahorina) near Sarajevo strongly
contributes to their good position in relation to the Sarajevo-Zenica basin, the most densely
populated and economically most developed basin of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Moreover,
a favorable tourist and geographical position in relation to urban areas have Vlašiš
(Travnik, Zenica, Jajce), Ţajuša and Stoţer (Kupres, Bugojno, Jajce and Split), Ravno
Rostovo (Bugojno and Novi Travnik), Lisina (Mrkonjiš Grad, Šipovo, Jajce), Kozara
(Prijedor, Banja Luka, Bosanski Novi), etc.
In recent years, accommodation capacities and infrastructure have been built on many
mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as tourist facilities for many sports,
1
This refers to the largest number of mountains in the country, while a smaller number on their
entire surface is arid, barren, and it reduces their tourist attraction (eg. some mountains in
Herzegovina).
584
particularly those related to snow, tourist propaganda is increased and the like, which
should contribute to an increase in tourist traffic in the mountainous areas of the country.
Among natural tourism resources, very attractive are both gorges and canyons of the
following rivers: the Drina, Vrbas, Una and Neretva rivers and their tributaries, and they
are among the better known and larger geomorphological tourism potentials of this kind in
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Important Bosnian-Herzegovinian roads lead along these tourism
potentials which increases the possibility of its tourist valorization, especially the increase
of the opportunities for adventure tourism.
In addition to geomorphological tourism potentials for the development of sports and

recreation and adventure tourism, an important role is played by hydrographic tourist
potentials. Small but significant coast of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as a part of the
Mediterranean and European and world tourist value together with thermo-mineral springs,
among which were created spa tourist spots, and lakes, some rivers and tourist attractive
waterfalls and river springs, make major hydrographic motives of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
An integral part of tourist attractions of hydrographic motives of Bosnia and Herzegovina

are their aesthetic and rare elements, as well as the enrichment of the landscape. Our
country has a very short coastline, then lakes that do not have a large surface area, and with
the exception of the Sava River, other short rivers that are partially have fast flow and
variable flow during a year. These rivers have a specific significance for tourism
development. Here, first of all, it is refered to rafting on the Drina, Neretva, Una and
Vrbas.
Our little coastline located in the Gulf of Neum-Klek, which belongs to the coastal tourist-
geographical region, has an area of 8 km2, width 1 - 1.3 kilometers, and length of 6.2 km
(Ţehajiš, J., 1987). Coasts and coastallines in tourism are undoubtedly the most complex
and most stable tourist potentials, and coastal tourism in our country is of great
importance. The duration of the swimming season after considering all the parameters that
affect it in Neum, is limited by the average daily temperature of sea water above 18 0C.
When the average daily air temperature and sea water above 180C are taken as limiting
values of the beginning and end of the bathing season, it can safely be argued that the
bathing season is not limited to the summer period. Hydroclimatic opportunities in Neum
represent the potential for the development of bathing tourism even during the spring or
autumn season. Date of the tourist season in Neum is on May 19, after which, on average,
there are not daily temperatures of the sea water below 180C. The end of the tourist season
is determined by October 10, after which there is the expected emergence of an average
daily temperature below 180C, and therefore the swimming season lasts for 144 days, or
almost five months. Thanks to all these specific attractive hydroclimatic complexes of
warm sea coast and the sea, in this area it is possible to develop the following types of
sports and recreational and adventure forms of tourism: bathing and recreation, cruising,
surfing, sport fishing, diving and the like. However, the dominant form of tourism in Neum
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was presented almost entirely by bathing tourism, with a day trips or longer stay of tourists
in a hotel or private accommodation, oriented to narrow terraces, which are defined by the
beaches beneath the town of Neum.
Out of hydrografic tourism potentials, we need to mention the lakes. Being natural or
artificial, they have the emphasized recreational properties of attractiveness. As such, they
are the basis for the development of bathing, fishing, stationary, excursion, youth, sports
and manifestation tourism. Their role is higher in domestic than in foreign tourist trends. It
is known that a real tourist attraction are only not devastated lakes. Natural lakes of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, and within that mostly mountain, as most artificial water accumulations
have uncontaminated water. These lakes are suitable for swimming and other sports
recreation activities on the water.
High water temperatures and good insolation of some lakes in BH provide favorable
conditions for bathing and swimming. Thus, for instance, in the Mostar tourist-
geographical region on Boraţko Lake, the water temperature at the surface is 18 - 220C for
3 - 4 months (sometimes reaches up to 280C), which makes it equated with the largest and
most attractive tourist lakes in Macedonia, and in the Travnik tourist-geographical region
on Veliko jezero (Big Lake) on the river Pliva, in August, the warmest month, it is 17,9 0C
although, often in very hot summer days it reaches 200C. These lakes also have the
optimum depth for swimming, as the average depth of Veliko jezero is 18.3 m and
Boraţko Lake is 10.3 m, while the maximum depth in Veliko jezero is 36.2 m, and in
Boraţko Lake is 13.8 m. Certainly, it need to be pointed out that Bosnia and Herzegovina
is rich in rivers. Our rivers are of a large and multifaceted significance. Tourist attraction
of the rivers of Bosnia and Herzegovina is based on their convenience for recreation
through swimming, water sports, fishing and more. To the group of the rivers of
independent tourism potentials in our country we need to include the Drina with Sutjeska,
Una with Unac and Sana, Vrbas and Pliva with Janje and the Neretva, which are very
suitable for adventure tours like rafting, kayaking and so on.
The mountain river Neretva, which is located in the Mostar tourist-geographical region, in
the upper part of its water stream, in the canyon upstream from Konjic, provides a unique
experience for adrenaline-filled rafters. Track length for rafting on the Neretva from
Glavatiţevo to Konjic is about 23 km and takes about 5 hours with the beautiful canyon
and waterfalls, which can be seen on the descent. Part of the flow from Glavatiţevo to
Bjelimiši is a kind of an air spa which is very well visited throughout the year. The
opening of the fishing season on the Neretva River is in April and it closes in November of
the current year. As it is rich in fish, it is quite visited by anglers from all over Bosnia and
Herzegovina. In the lower part of the rafting route in the village Dţajiši 4 km from Konjic,
there is a beach that is visited during the summer season. While sailing on the Neretva
rafters can enjoy the beauty of the Mali and Veliki Canyon with unspoiled nature and
scenes that are not visible from the road, as well as in four adrenaline rapids which are
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arranged so that each subsequent is more extreme than the previous one. Skippers who run
the boats are trained professionals and will certainly take the crew from start to finish.
Twenty odd agencies do rafting on the Neretva. For those looking for more adrenaline, the
right time for rafting are April and May with high water levels of the Neretva.
Especially attractive tourist product of the Podrinje tourist and geographical region is
rafting1 down the Drina. Holiday packages can be of one or more days with the possibility
of rest and recreation next to the river. From Ustikolina to Goraţde tourists will enjoy the
hidden beauty, unspoiled nature and an unforgettable adventure. This river and its
tributaries: Praţa, Kolina, Kosovska river are abundant in a variety of fish species and are a
real pleasure for fishermen. The Drina river with its cold, clear and greenish water is
suitable for sports and recreation and adventure tourism (swimming, rafting, white water
rafting or fishing). On the banks of the Drina River there are pedestrian zones, city
beaches, as well as volleyball and football on the sand in larger cities. On the river itself or
on the coast, numerous events are held such as Zvornik regattas and ―Zvorniţko ljeto―-
Zvornik (Zvornik summer), then Drina - Praţa rafting and Ïnternacionalni festival
prijateljstva¨- Goraţde (international festival of friendship), Drina Regatta and jumps from
the Višegrad bridge - Višegrad, etc. Hydroelectric power plants Višegrad, Peruţac and
Zvornik halted to some extent the strength of the Drina River, turning it into usable energy
for people, but at the same time creating beautiful artificial lakes, suitable for sports and
recreation and adventure tourism.
In the Bihaš tourism geographical region, the Una river by many is the most beautiful river
in the whole country, dear to heart of all communities which formed, in the course of
history, along 207 km of its flow. The Una is to Krajina what the Neretva is to
Herzegovina - life, and the life force of the Una is respected throughout the history of this
tourist and geographical region. Štrbaţki buk and the Veliki kanjon (Grand canyon), the
most beautiful parts of the river, can be detected only by kayak, canoe or raft. The first big
waterfall of its river flow is near Martin Brod, a village located on the bottom of the
canyon, where the Unac river flows into the Una. In this very part, the Una is the most
breathtaking because tuff created a multitude of channels, rapids and islands, as well as
several major waterfalls of which the greatest height is approximately 55 meters. Those
natural waterfalls represent a unique value which for decades successfully attracts lovers of
natural beauty to the Una, but also fishermen and artists which are seeking for the
inspiration for their works in the Una.
Traditionally, the Una Regatta (international tourist kayak race) is held at Martin Brod,
which was interrupted at the beginning of the nineties, but after the war it has been re-
established again. Martin Brod is known throughout Europe for its rafting, sport favored by
restless water of the river Una that is full of rapids, so that each year it attracts a large
1
Raft is the unusual vessel built of wooden logs capacity of about 15 people, lasts one day, with the
possibility of fishing from the raft and enjoying the gastronomic offer of local specialties.
587
number of athletes throughout Europe. International Tourist Una regatta lasts for seven
days and usually takes place in July. The regatta's route is as follows: ―Kulen Vakuf― camp
in the municipality of Bihaš - Štrbaţki buk - Bihaš - Ostroţac the Uni / Cazin - Bosanska
Krupa - Novi Grad - Hrvatska Kostajnica (the Republic of Croatia). This river is ideal for
the development of sports and recreation and adventure tourism.
Moreover, another river worth mentioning is the Vrbas River which flows through two
tourist-geographical regions: Travnik and Banja Luka. The main left tributaries of the
Vrbas are the Pliva, Crna rijeka (Black River) and Krupa, and the main right tributaries are
the Bistrica and Ugar which are in addition to thier main rivers suitable for the
development of some forms of sports and recreational tourism. On it each year is held
¨Ljeto na Vrbasu¨ (summer on the Vrbas) in Banja Luka where the main activities are races
of dayak and kayak racing boats, diving from the town bridge, rafting regatta, swimming
across the river Vrbas, beach volleyball, football, basketball, sports fishermen competition,
parachute jumping, promotion activities of sports clubs and others.
This traditional event is held in the second half of July with an aim of promoting and
protecting the river Vrbas, and enriching the tourist offer of the town. The central events
are taking place on the beach ―Zelena― below the walls of the fortress Kastel. The event
each year gathers a large number of artists, athletes, entertainers and other Banja Luka
associations and individuals whose activities on the Vrbas and its banks prepare a rich
cultural, entertaining and sports program. The event every year attracts an increasing
number of participants, visitors and media that in this way point to the importance of the
Vrbas River for the city of Banja Luka and its citizens and beyond. This river is ideal for
the development of sports and recreation and adventure tourism,too.
As for the biogeographical tourism potential, it certainly contributes to the development of

various sports and recreational and adventure forms of tourism, such as hunting, fishing,
photo safaris, sports manifestations etc, and thus they must be adequately valorized.
Biogeographical tourism potentials can be independent and complementary. They are more
pronounced as complementary tourist potentials while complementing the attractiveness of
other natural and anthropogenic tourist potentials. For instance, forest areas rich in
wildlife, meadows, fish-rich waters and so enrich the tourist offer of the observed regions.
Among independent biogeographical tourist potentials are protected natural areas, and
among them the most attractive national parks: Sutjeska, Kozara, Una which enable
operation of various forms of sports and recreation and adventure tourism without
compromising the parks. Besides, nature and hunting reserves are important for the tourist
movements, as well as larger areas of forest near densely populated cities, which enable
recreation for the local population (Fig.1.).
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Fig.1. Sports, recreational and adventure tourism in tourist-geographical regions
of Bosnia and Herzegovina
The diverse habitats throughout the country made up of lowland, mountain, karst, wetlands
areas along rivers and lakes and plateau regions and rich flora and fauna are excellent
preconditions for the development of tourism. The rich habitats are inhabited by various
types of wildlife for hunting, that are attractive, big as well as small game, such as: deer,
fallow deer, roe deer, chamois, ibex, mouflon, wild boar, bear, wolf, wood grouse (western
capercaillie), stone marten or white breasted marten, European pine marten, hare, hazel
grouse, pheasant, rock partridge, grey partridge, quail, woodcock, wild geese, wild duck,
fox, wild cat, badger ...
The tradition of hunting tourism in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina exists from the
Austro-Hungarian rule, only to take on unsustainable trends and directions in the last 50
years of the last century. Hunting associations, especially separate hunting areas and revirs
should be concerned with the organization of hunting and hunting-tourist offer of Bosnia
and Herzegovina. The best hunting tourism offer are in the hunting grounds of the
following areas: Travnik, Podrinje, east Herzegovinia, Posavina, Bihaš and Banja Luka
tourist and geographical regions (Bugojno, Zavidoviši, Romania, Bijele Vode, Zelengora,
etc.).
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In addition to hunting, Bosnia and Herzegovina has ideal conditions for the development
of fishing tourism. Mountain rivers are especially interesting to the lovers of this sport and
are characterized by exceptionally pure, transparent water whose temperature is even in the
summer period only a few degrees above zero. They are inhabited by the rarest fish species
such as grayling, brown trout and Danube salmon, but in the lower parts of these waters
common nase, common carp, Danube roach, common barbel which in these areas reach a
much larger extent. Type of fishing that specifically binds to these rivers is Fly Fishing.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has one of the best revirs in the Balkans and beyond for the
implementation of this sport fishing. On this revirs, there are conducted various
competitions from clubs to state as well as European and international. Fishing techniques
of fly fishing give a special charm and it is made of a special principle which true anglers
respect, and it says ―catch, kiss and return to the water― and of course do not forget to take
a photo. In general, that relationship of fishermen and fish leaves behind the priceless
charm and culture of sport in that as many fishermen as possible feel the power and magic
of fishing and fly fishing; on the other hand fish stocks remain at a high level that
represents a great wealth for sports fishermen. Among the most important revirs in Bosnia
and Herzegovina are revirs on the rivers Ribnik, Pliva, Sanica, Una, Unac, Klokot, Sana,
Krušnica, Neretva, Uloga, Doljanka, Šuica, Lašva, Dragaš, Bregava, Fojnica, and so on.
Anthropogenic tourist resources that are essential for sports and recreation and adventure
tourism include purpose-built facilities for professional or amateur sport, and these are:
stadiums, arenas, sports - recreational centers, racetracks, tennis courts, outdoor sports
grounds, training grounds for exercise, running tracks, and so on. In addition to the rich
natural and anthropogenic tourist potentials for the development of these two specific
forms of tourism, there should in line with them be organized a number of events which
would constantly upgrade them every year. Moreover, for the implementation of sports and
recreational tourism there should exist appropriate sports equipment and playgrounds,
which would be rented and thus new jobs would be created, which would improve more
balanced regional development of Bosnia and Herzegovina. We will mention only some of
the sports and recreational programs that should be carried out as an integral part of the
tourism offer of a tourist and geographical region, namely: rental of various sports
facilities, use of sports facilities and equipment, school of various sports skills, sports
games, tournaments and various competitions, sports and entertainment attractions
(Bartoluci, 2003).
Integral part of tourism are also sport and recreational programs and events. Due to their
diversity and specificity, experts who may well create, organize, and implement such
programs must be professionally trained (educated). In doing so, emphasized is the role of
sports animators as holders of sports animation programs, since their role is not just about
knowledge of sports activities but also all other animation activities and communication
with the guests, the requirements placed upon them are quite high. In addition to the
specific knowledge and skills of tourism and sports and recreational programs, they must
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possess certain psychological and physical characteristics, talent and sense of contact with
the guest, and a certain level of sports education.
CONCLUSION
Active holiday is a synonym of tourist rest, and it includes sports facilities including a
number of activities in attractive natural surroundings. In this context, exploring the needs
of a modern man lacking physical activity and contact with nature, who lives too fast -
stressfully, we come to the conclusion that tourism should achieve a number of objectives
that will eventually lead to the recovery and satisfaction. Sports recreation play a dominant
role in meeting the needs for movement and proper activity, which is now imperative for a
quality vacation. Therefore, it is not unusual for sport and tourism to experience an
expansion because of the increasing interest, but also the needs of the increasing number of
tourists.
The development of sports and recreation and adventure tourism in Bosnia and
Herzegovina would contribute to the economic development of our country through the
following factors: new jobs, improvement of infrastructure and suprastructure, increase of
consumption, an opportunity to improve the image, cultural exchange and others. Bosnia
and Herzegovina has exceptional comparative advantages for the development of different
forms of sports and recreation in tourism. This is supported by the trends of modern tourist
demand, especially from Western European countries gravitating toward us.
However, for the future of sports and recreation and adventure tourism, it is necessary to
innovate obsolete tourist-sports offer by new facilities and content to the modern
requirements of the tourist demand. The quality of sports and recreation offer need to be
innovated through numerous sports and recreation and adventure programs, which can be
successfully programmed and implemented by experts of sports and recreation. Previous
experiences in Bosnia and Herzegovina, even in some receptive tourist countries, show
that investment in these forms of tourism are the quality and profitable investment.
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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GREENING THE ECONOMY IN
TRANSITION COUNTRIES IN SE EUROPE: A CASE STUDY OF BOSNIA
AND HERZEGOVINA
Melika Arifhodzic1
Abstract: In order to become members of EU, countries in transition in SE Europe have been under
pressure of introducing measures and laws relating to environmental protection. The urge is getting
higher as the natural resources and biodiversities, which are amongst the highest in level in the
continent, are under constant threat due to improper use or unplanned exploitation. Considering the
still existing traces left from the legacy of centrally planned economy and political systems, the
paper will question how some models of sustainable development in Europe are applicable in these
countries. Through various shifts of social, economic and political indicators the paper will analyze
their influences in relation to implementation of sustainable development policy as well as activities
in connection to green economy introduction. An intensive approach will be employed in case of
Bosnia and Herzegovina and the results of various studies and cases from the practice will prove
that all these mentioned factors play a key role in planning of sustainable development. The
conclusion is that an approach that takes into consideration all named factors, integrating research-
based and practice-based knowledge should be proposed for these countries.
Key words: Environmental protection, Sustainable Development, Transition, Green Economy, SE

Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
1. INTRODUCTION
The pressure of the EU to the countries in transition to make environmental law and
policies harmonization to European laws is getting stronger. This balance is posed as
obligatory for these countries if they want to become EU members. This is a very
demanding task for them: besides a burdening transition process from centrally planned
economy to free market, the adoption of the entire EU Environmental Acquis also requires
extensive changes to the existing institutional and legal framework. In recent times,
concept of green economy has become an inseparable part in many EU strategic
documents and plans. Green economy has become an answer to environmental concerns as
it uses efficiently natural and ecosystem resources and services; it is socially inclusive,
energy efficient and significantly reduces risk to the environment. In this paper we will try
to generally evaluate the appropriateness of the green economy introduction in the
countries in transition in SE Europe, particularly in Bosnia and Herzegovina. We will
briefly overview to which extent differences in political and economic background, ethnic
issues and influencing legacy from the previous system affect the prospects of greening the
economy of the countries.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, after the Dayton peace Agreement some progress has been
made in terms of legal framework in environmental policies but a broader and systematic
―green‖ transition is lacking (FBiH Report). The negative traces from the past still burdens
the reforms, making the process of transition as well as adopting the Environmental Acquis
slow in general. However, after years of the stagnation of SAA agreement, Bosnia was
given the boost to the process of accession to EU which could be used to start using pre-
1
PhD Candidate, Faculty of Political Science, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
593
accession funds and help the country to make the needed institutional reforms. In the paper
we will in particular discuss potentials of the country to green its economy and whether the
introduction of the principles of green economy at this stage could smooth the process of
transition achieving positive results for the overall economy.
2. TOWARD SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GREEN ECONOMY

IN THE SEE TRANSITION COUNTRIES
The transition process, although assisted by EU and many other international

organizations, in most of the South Eastern European countries has not produced results in
the expected time framework. Although the former Yugoslavian countries with so called
‗mixed‘ economy system extent economic liberalization, political decentralization and
permitted private ownership, poised with better prediction to make a successful transition
to the market economy (Susan Woodward), this did not happen, except for Slovenia and to
certain extent Croatia, which became the EU member in 2013.
The countries had common characteristics in their social and political background: they
had for several decades socialistic and communist regimes on power as one party system
and centrally planned economy. On the other hand, they featured substantial differences in
terms of internal political organization, matters of public and private ownership, foreign
policy affairs, etc. Also, with regard to geostrategic alliances, they did not choose the same
path. While these different circumstances made each country to choose its own course in
converting their systems into democratic and market economy societies, the process has
been immensely burdensome for all: Serbia, FYR Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Montenegro, Kosovo and Albania have all been undergoing a slow economic development,
suffering from the high unemployment rate, low investment activities, unstable and
inefficient institutions, weak private sector and infrastructure, insufficient investment in
research work and an education system that will meet the market demands, etc.
In recent times, green economy has become an answer to environmental concerns and a
driving policy of many developed countries in the world as it uses efficiently natural and
ecosystem resources and services; it is socially inclusive, caring for marginalized such as
women and poor, energy efficient significantly reducing risk to the environment, it creates
new investments and consequently more jobs. Another definition talks about green
economy as ―the one that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while
significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities‖ (UNEP 2010). Or
even simpler: green economy can be thought of as one which is low carbon, resource
efficient and socially inclusive. The concept features prominently in a range of medium
and long-term strategies and programs, including the 7th Environment Action Program, the
Europe 2020 Strategy, UNEP, EU Framework Program for Research and Innovation
(Horizon 2020), policies and programs in areas such as transport and energy, etc.
The high level of economic growth in many developed countries has been accomplished by
utilization of technologies and traditional principles of development that heavily rely on
natural resources thus causing misbalance in environment. In that sense it could be said
that the more economy of a country is developed the greater is the urge for natural
resources whose overuse causes environmental degradation. In many developed countries,
the transition to high levels of economic and technical development has been achieved by
adopting production and consumption patterns that heavily misbalances the environment.
Conversely, countries which live within the limits of the planet have not (yet) managed to
reach the level of the high development.
594
For example, a country's energy consumption is strongly related to its level of economic
development as in the case of SEE countries, mainly because SEE countries are less
economically developed. These countries spend two to three times less energy per capita
than EU countries, he higher a country's gross domestic product (GDP) the greater its
energy needs. At the same time, to produce $1 of GDP they require more energy relative to
non-SEE EU countries. The Figure 1 shows that the countries of SEE are far less efficient
than other countries in the continent. This inefficient use will require a strong focus on
efficiency plans and programs and uptake of the most sustainable technologies and
practices.
Fig. 1. Energy efficiency in SEE
The need of urgent development of the countries in transition poses a threat to the natural
resources as the development in general is heavily leaned on their exploitation. It is
obvious that there is an urging need for a new economic model that would be both
sustainable and at the same time allows the economic and employment growth. In this
context, the principles of green economy for the sustainable development comes as an only
solution, taking into consideration the constant growth of human population, needs for the
economic and technology development, and at the same time clean and healthy
environment for the whole planet and future generations. The lack of sustainable
development leads to inefficient economic development and to growing waste of resources
and energy, on one hand, while, on the other hand, it entails huge costs with regard to
pollution, harming human health and exhausting resources. It also creates a growing
societal gap and increases the proportion of the poor and socially excluded.
Additionally, overused resources of highly developed countries direct them to rely to the
resource of those less developed to meet their consumption demands. The urge for
sustainable development of these countries in transition is therefore of mutual interest and
requires a joint action as stated in the Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development for: ―the fulfillment of basic needs, improved living standards for all, better
protected and managed ecosystems and a safer, more prosperous future. No nation can
achieve this on its own; but together we can – in a global partnership for sustainable
development‖.
595
Fig. 2 Ecological Footprint per Capita
The challenge SE European countries will face is to advance economic prosperity and
human development significantly, to come close to the EU standard without expanding its
footprint to the same levels as EU countries (see the Figure 2). Until now, the lower level
of Ecological footprint of countries in transition was not yielded as a result of any mid-
term or short-term planning or strategic visions of the governments, but due to the different
economic and politic circumstances. However, the prospects of growing economy in future
pose a threat to resources and this urges for sustainable development strategies.
Experiences of the countries with advanced or finalized stage of transition may be used as
lessons or replication models to the countries in the process. Some, due to the complex
institutional and ethnic structures such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, demand a specific
tailor-made approach. Owing to its institutional complexity coupled with ethnic
disagreements dating from the recent past, the process, even when it comes to the
Environmental Acquis, calls for a particular strategy.
2.1 Environmental Acquis in Bosnia and Herzegovina
As stated in the Progress Report for Bosnia and Herzegovina (EC, 2014), the country is at
a very early stage in aligning with the EU climate and Environmental Acquis and
administrative capacity in these sectors remains weak. According to the BiH Constitution,
the state level was not mentioned as the one authorized for environment, which
automatically places environmental issues under the jurisdiction of the two entities,
Federation of BiH and Republika Srpska. This makes environmental administration and
regulatory control systems in many cases duplicate one another and very complex. In
2002-2004, a very important step forward was done toward harmonizing with the EU
Environmental Acquis, under the leadership of EU (CARDS Program), when a set of
environmental laws was adopted for each entity: that of environmental protection and
environment protection fund, air, water protection and waste management. From that time,
some bylaws and legal improvements to the legal frameworks for waste management, air,
and water and energy have been done by entities. Although an Inter-Entity Environmental
Body was established with certain coordination authorization, in reality not much has been
done in environmental legislation at the state level: even though the adoption of the Law
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on Environmental Protection is one of the immediate priorities and requirements assumed
in the processes of EU accession, the country has failed to adopt it. Besides, there is
continuing lack of a national strategy for sustainable development. Instead, ethnic based
interests continued to occupy the priority in the BiH policy agenda and this striving
affected environmental sector in both entities.
However, this year (2015) for Bosnia and Herzegovina was marked with efforts to activate
BiH‘s Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA), after years of stagnation1. Upon the
initiative which was made by Germany and the UK, a step forward was made to assist
Bosnia and Herzegovina to overcome current social and economic problems, although the
violation has not been cleared from the Constitution due to ethnic tensions. In a renewed
and tailored-made approach, Bosnia and Herzegovina commits to implement various
socio-economic, legislative and public institution reforms. One of the policy areas for
cooperation referred to in Title VIII of SAA is the environment in which is stated: ―The
Parties shall develop and strengthen their cooperation in the environmental field with the
vital task of halting further degradation and start improving the environmental situation
with the aim of sustainable development. Cooperation could also centre on the
development of strategies to significantly reduce local, regional and trans-boundary air and
water pollution, including waste and chemicals, to establish a system for efficient, clean,
sustainable and renewable production and consumption of energy, and to execute
environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment‖. (SAA, Article
108).
In the following chapter we will make a general overview of the country‘s potentials to
green its economy and question whether the introduction of the principles of green
economy at this stage could bring positive results to the overall economy.
3. NEEDS AND PROSPECTS OF GREENING THE ECONOMY IN BOSNIA

AND HERZEGOVINA
In this paper we only made a general overview of some prospects and needs for green
economy introduction in Bosnia and Herzegovina, including CO2 pollution decrease,
resource efficiency, renewable energy. The following paragraphs for sure do not exhaust
the potentials and chances for green economizing the country‘s resources. Also, the lack of
coherent and consistent environmental data and analysis remains a serious impediment for
a thorough analysis. For this purpose, we have compiled data from different reports and
studies, and the following are the findings of the World Bank, IEA, UNECE,
ENERDATA, SNC (Second National Communication) applying different methodologies.
3.1 Carbon dioxide
One of the main principles of green economy is decrease of carbon dioxide emission. In
Bosnia and Herzegovina, the level of carbon dioxide before the last war amounted to 24.9
mil. t. Although the recent figures are not even close to these, they show continuous
increase: emissions in 2005 were 3.6 per cent higher than in the previous year and 15.0 per
cent higher than in 2000. In 2007, the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated total
1
SAA has been signed in 2008, ratified in 2010, and entered into force in 2015. The agreement had
to be frozen before it could enter into force because in 2009 Bosnia was found in violation of the
European Convention on Human Rights in the famous Sejdic and Finci ECtHR case.
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CO2 emissions at 16.3 Mt, broken down as follows: energy sector (52 percent),
construction and agriculture (16 percent), transport 14 percent), industry (13 percent), and
residential (5 percent). Emissions have tripled since 1995, and increased by 21% between
2000 and 2004 as energy consumption increase due to an increased energy demand that
emerged with renewed economic growth. At the same time, the percentage on coal
dependency is same to the one from 1990, which amounts between 60 to 65 percent of
TPES (Total Primary Energy Supply) with the total share of all fossil fuels reaching over
94% in 2009. The country‘s reliance on domestic coal has remained almost unchanged
since 1990 (between 60 to 65 percent of TPES). Coal accounts for 75 percent of emissions,
followed by oil products (21 percent) and natural gas (4percent). As a result BiH‘s carbon
intensity is one of the highest in the Western Balkans.
Although the greenhouse gas emissions in Bosnia and Herzegovina are estimated to grow
by almost 30 per cent between 2005 and 2030 (UNECE 2011) until now there is no
strategic switch or plan to lower-carbon fuels.
A challenge in coming years is presented in the outdated coal-fired power plants in order to
reduce adverse environmental impact. Improvements can be made in
transmission/distribution process (21% loss in 2008), and increase of efficiency of thermo
plant, as 22% is significantly low (Enerdata).
3.2 Renewable Energy
Having in mind that the main source of CO2 is the energy production sector, the increase
of renewable energy sources would significantly affect the total CO2 emissions. BiH has
great potentials in renewable energy, at the moment using mainly hydropower potential.
There is a signifiant potential of solar energy application on the BiH territory. The
technical potential totals 685 PJ, which is 6.2 times higher than the total primary energy
needs in the energy balance of BiH.
Wind power has one of the most significant energy potentials in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Several studies that have been done for Podvelezje area, showed that economic potential of
wind energy could reach 600 MW of electrical power by 2020.
Based on the research results from INC, it is estimated that the economic hydropower
potential of major waterways in BiH is around 18,000 GWh/year and for small streams is
3,500 GWh/year. Only 40% of the total economic potential is currently realized.
Bosnia and Herzegovina continues to operate without a national renewable energy action
plan, as required by the Energy Community Treaty. Significant hindrance to full renewable
energy sector development lies in limited incentives for renewable energy projects in both
entities, openness to private sector investment and market regulation.
3.3 Resource/Energy Efficiency
In terms of resource efficiency, which is one of the crucial aspects of green economy
principles, in Bosnia and Herzegovina both public and private sector organizations and
companies inefficiently use their resources and energy, as a consequence having high cost
for energy and at the same time causing environmental degradation. Lack of a systematic
approach to energy efficiency enhancement is evident as well as insufficient utilization
energy management.
High levels of losses in the process of energy transformation are estimated at about 50
percent of TPES. Inefficient conversion of primary energy (particularly in power
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generation) is due largely to outdated equipment and technologies due to lack of
maintenance and spare parts, and the slow replacement of obsolete units, and to the limited
share of combined heat and power (CHP) in the energy mix. Energy end-use is inefficient:
public buildings are generally poorly insulated and the estimated potential for energy
savings ranges between 30 percent and 35 percent, thus indicating a huge potential for
reducing the burden of energy expenses in both public and private sectors. In addition,
since the gas distribution network is not fully connected, the majority of the heating
requirement of the households is fulfilled by the inefficient use of electricity.
Improving EE would also yield positive economic value through increased employment,
more competitive economies, and eventually increased power exports. However, primarily,
a financing support mechanism for EE investments should be established. Obstacle to
improving energy efficiency in BiH is the lack of a clear regulatory and policy framework,
although the both entity governments have recognized the importance of the issue, and
efforts have been made to develop an appropriate legal framework.
4 CONCLUSION
Green economy is low-carbon, resource efficient, and socially inclusive. In a green

economy, growth in income and employment are driven by public and private investments
that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency, and
prevent the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. At the same time, by introducing
green projects it increases chances for employment. This concept, taking into consideration
natural resources of the most SEE countries and their expected growth, features as the best
possible reconciliation pattern for economic growth and environmental and resource
protection. Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the light of economic, social and political transition
process is in a specific position among the countries in the region. The country suffers
obstacles to the development and integration mainly due to an inefficient political system
which is the result of the Dayton Peace Agreement. This extremely complex institutional
architecture of the country remains inefficient and is misused (Commission Staff Working
Document, 2010), and presents the main impediment for BiH not only for Environmental
Acquis, but for its progress in general.
At the same time the urge for development is growing and new prospects have been
opened with the new approach of EU and the country‘s commitment. In the paper we
overviewed main points for turn to green economy. It is clear that the green economy can
become an answer to both environmental and economic growth concerns and driving
policy of the country as it uses efficiently natural and ecosystem resources and services
and it is socially inclusive. The following are just main and urgent points to be applied in
order to green the country: a)Establishment of State Agency for Environment and adoption
of the Law on Environment on state level; b)Support to reconstruction or replacement of
existing thermo plant capacities; c) Establishing an EE framework for increase of energy
efficiency in public and private sector; d) Adopt a National Renewable Energy Plan; e)
Official policy of renewable energy promotion and energy efficiency; f) Wide promotion
of sustainable development importance; g) Stregthening legal and institutional framework
(incentives) for renewable energy use; h) Greening‘ the public procurement
The system of the green economy cannot be copied from the developed countries, due to
factors that origin from different historical backgrounds. It should be systematically and
strategically introduced and EU should facilitate the system of introduction. One of the
ways to induce the green economy is through ‗greening‘ the public procurement. In
599
addition, taxing environmentally damaging activities can raise revenues and establish
environmental discipline.
For Bosnia and Herzegovina, the new boost toward the candidateship might open a new
path toward the economy recovery as it offers concrete support to the reforms, primarily
through the access of the funds. This moment could be used to start intensively ―green‖ the
market, products and establish a systematic and strategic protection of the environment that
will open the way to finalize the Environmental Acquis.
REFERENCES:
1. Carter Francis and Turnock David (2002): Environmental Problems in Eastern
Europe, London: Routledge
2. Susan L. Woodward (1995): Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the
Cold War, Washington: Brookings Institution
3. European Commission (2014): Bosnia and Herzegovina Progress Report,
Retrieved from:
http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2014/20141008-bosnia-and-
herzegovina-progress-report_en.pdf
4. EEA, (2015), The European environment — state and outlook 2015: synthesis
report, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen
5. International Energy agency (2012) Energy in the Western Balkans
http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/balkans2008.pdf
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from: http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/news_docs/jrc-2014-trends-in-global-co2-
emissions-2014-report-93171.pdf
7. Second National Communication of Bosnia and Herzegovina under the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change (2013), retrieved from:
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/bihnc2.pdf
8. WWF International(2014): Living Planet Report, Available at:
http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/wwf_lpr2014_low_res_full_rep
ort.pdf
9. Cenic, Svetlana (2012): Resource Efficiency Gains and Green Growth
Perspectives in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Study, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung
10. United Nation Economic Commission for Europe (2011): 2nd Environmental
Performance Review: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Geneva: UN Publications
11. UNECE, (2011), 2nd Environmental Review, Geneva and New York
12. UNEP, (2011), Towards a green economy: pathways to Sustainable Development
and Poverty Eradication, retrieved from:
http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/documents/ger/ger_final_dec_2011
/Green%20EconomyReport_Final_Dec2011.pdf
13. JRC/PBL: Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR)
https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/scientific-tool/emissions-database-global-atmospheric-
research ( 20 August, 2015)
14. United Nations Conference on Environment & Development (1992): AGENDA 21
Rio de Janerio, Brazil, retrieved from:
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf (22 June,
2015)
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VERNACULAR REGIONS AS A DETERMINANT FOR DEVELOPMENT
OF CREATIVE TOURISM IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Snjeţana Musa1
Ţeljka Šiljković2
Azra Čelik3
Abstract: Creative tourism is an escape from unvaried offer and mass cultural tourism. It is based
on direct encounters between ―tourists‖ and ―locals‖ with exchange of authentic experiences. This
fact indicates its relationship and reliance on specificity which is manifested by separation of the
vernacular region. Creative tourism was recognized as a selective form of tourism twenty years ago,
but in this area it has just begun.
An important role for a good plan of tourism developing in certain tourist destination, especially for
the problem of seasonality, plays the valorisation of the cultural and historic heritage. Since the
intangible heritage is the base of creative tourism, the customs, beliefs, games, gastronomy,
embroidery, dance, crafts and other skills are the key elements of modern tourism demand.
There is no mass tourism or selective tourism offer in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Creative tourism
could be developed and based on the distinctive vernacular regions. Separating the vernacular
regions is an important issue which will be discussed about by the authors in this paper at the level
of only recognition, by using the survey method. Based on the results, this paper will present the
determinants and potentials for the development of creative tourism. Problem on the way of
development is the need of recognizing that potential by the local community, making a strategic
plan, but also building the awareness of local people about the potential and possibilities of
valorisation of the same in terms of tourism offer. It is necessary to educate the local population for
the purpose of this type of tourism.
Key words: creative tourism, intangible heritage, vernacular region B&H, education
INTRODUCTION
Cultural tourism is considered as a form of tourism based on many fields of interest. It is

represented by visiting institutions (museums, galleries, historical amenities, theaters,
concert halls etc.), cultural heritage of a visited community and the lifestyle of domicile
population (historical cities and neighborhoods, streets, monuments, costums, language,
gastronomy). In that way tourists can be introduced to lifestyle, history, art, architecture
and religion of people who live a different life than themselves. According to the dominant
interest, cultural tourism can be classified into: religious, cultural, historical, urban, life-
seeking and life-participating, ethnic, educational, museum, art, manifestation, congress
and so on.
Cultural tourism is being supported by the EU, European Council and Unesco through
many projects, organizations, cooperations and financing. This is because cultural tourism
increases the interaction between different countries and helps in understanding the term
'multiculturality'. Europe has recognized that culture is a significant resource in tourism. In
1
Full professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Mostar, Mostar,
2
Full professor, Department of Geography, University of Zadar, Zadar, Croatia.
3
MA student, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo,
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support of this fact come many examples of preservation of tangible and intangible cultural
heritage and projects such as 'Roads of culture' and 'European cities of culture'.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is still in its initial phase of cultural tourism development. In
order to interlace culture and tourism into cultural tourism there needs to be a planned
strategical development. Domicile inhabitants laso have a significant role and should
develop a collective awareness about the impact and significance of culture on tourism
development. Only when culture is recognized as an important element of tourism in
domicile surroundings, then it can become an object of interest for tourists.
The affirmation of culture inside governmental institutions, private sectors and media is the
next step towards accomplishing newpartnerships giving support, creating inovative
solutions, investing in the cultural sector and promoting the importance of culture to
public. For further development of cultural tourism, intersectoral connection of culture and
tourism is crucial in terms of collaboration between different sectors that are interested in
improving and connecting cultural institutions with the holders of tourism.
The making and presenting of a tourism product based on cultural features as well as the
care for preservation and protection of the above mentioned is the final goal of cultural
tourism.There are three types of cultural tourism according to world literature: formal,
functional and vernacular.
A vernacular cultural region is considered to be a certain space which a certain population
is connected to and identifies itself with that space. This region, as well as the other two
mentioned does not have clearly defined borders. It can be formed on physionomical ,
economical, political or historical basis.
Although it can consist of a nodus (central point), this region type is often not as organized
as a functional region. Differently from formal cultural region, there is rarely a cultural
homogenity in vernacular regions.
Vernacular region is closely connected with the area a man lives in. Man and space are to
inseparable categories, which interact with one another. Over time, man has adapted to
space or better said, space was adapted for human needs. In this connection of given space
and needs a different way of life was born. One can consider vernacular region as different
areas with its all-natural resources that affected the rich and varied expression of man, both
in tangible and intangible terms.
Vernacular region is a region whose existence is based on the perception of its inhabitants.
It is a product of spatial perception of inhabitants and a result of collective awareness of
belonging to a given area.
Land differentiation of Bosnia and herzegovina according to the character of vernacular
region is made on the principal of association to a particular place acting as a 'mental
image' – a region that exists in people's minds.
The meaning of 'vernacular regionalization' and main characteristics
Vernacular regionalization is a process of identifying regional units of a certain spatial

identity or collective experience of belonging to a certain area. Because it contains unique
physical, geographical social-geographical and cultural determimants, space is the basis for
the creation, design and maintenance of spatial identity. The term 'vernacular' comes from
Latin origin nad is being used since the early 17th century meaning 'innate' or 'native'.
Todays growing interest in authentic and genuine, traditions and customs may be
understood as a reaction to the process of globalization and the sense of alienation.
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Spatial identity is a term that indicates awareness and the feeling of belonging to a certain
area. It is a result of specific historical-geographical events, natural-geographical
conditions, economic terms and other factors. All of these factors affect on the existence of
a specific sense of belonging to a given area with the population. Physical identity is a
mindful cathegory presented by objective reality, giving names to villages, highlighting
visual symbols and cultural heritage.
Characteristics
Vernacular region is a region whose existence is based on the perception of its inhabitants.
It is a product of spatial perception of inhabitants and a result of collective awareness of
belonging to a given area. This is a separate space entity based on cultural artifacts and
antropogenic features that are interconnected and united that much so that each region gets
an individual spatial character that differs from others. This is a type of a traditional
(historical-geographical region) that objectively exists as a separate and identifiable area.
These regions are presnet in the minds of people even in physical terms, despite numerous
administrative-teritorial and general social-cultural changes.
Some regions fit into the existing political and administrative differentiation of the country.
While some lost their spatial integrity and historical-geographical boundaries by
integrating into new administrative frameworks. However, changes of regional system
don't necesarilly lead to the destruction of existing regional conciousness because it can
still continue to exist.
The subjected type of region is very complex. It is a result of long-term development of
identity combined with teritoriality. Studies of complex traditional units/systems must
include a wide range of criteria and elements such as language, religion, social status,
tangible culture, political-geographical events, natural environment, transportation system
and other. This regional conciousness is a form of homogenic sense of collective/group
conciousness that arises from a homogenity of certain areas.Elements that make up the
regional conciousness are: common way of life (ie. Divided existence that grows out of
mutual human contact long enough), external expression or materialization (landscapes,
type of construction...).
Vernacular region is closely connected with the area a man lives in. Man and space are to
inseparable categories, which interact with one another. Over time, man has adapted to
space or better said, space was adapted for human needs. In this connection of given space
and needs a different way of life was born. One can consider vernacular region as different
areas with its all-natural resources that affected the rich and varied expression of man, both
in tangible and intangible terms.
Since Nature with no Man would be Space and only Space (Kojeve 1990:358), vernacular
region becomes an authentic expression of a man in a certain area. All features different
from Nature that give a unique personality to man's creative expression could be called
'vernacular'.
Vernacular regionalization of cultural tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Vernacular cultural region is a mental image of a region that exists in the minds of people
from the outside and from the experience of the authors of this paper and the results of the
thesis by A. Hanjališ under the supervision of S. Musa the principle of vernacular region
classification is defined as following:
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1. Uniqueness
2. Association to homeland
3. Dominance of a certain national monument cathegory from a specific period
According to such regionalization Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into eleven regions:
These are:
1. Podrinje – 'Region of old bridges between East and West' located in Goraţde,
2. High Herzegovina - 'Region of the Olimpic games and woodcarving' located in
Konjic,
3. Low Herzegovina – 'Region of Virgin of MeŤugorje, sun, wineyards and stone'
located in Mostar
4. Tropolje – 'Region of fighters, delicious food and preserved tradition' located in
Livno
5. Skopaljska land – 'Region of Otomans waqf and dedication' located in Gornji
Vakuf
6. Central Bosnia – ' Medieval Bosnian kingdom' located in Travnik
7. Sarajevo – 'Capital city region' located in Sarajevo
8. Salt region – 'Region of pile dwelling and saltworks' located in Tuzla
9. Posavina – 'Region of ebony and cultural heritage' located in Brţko
10. Banjaluka –'Region of Zmijan embroidery and trapist cheese' located in Banja
Luka
11. Bihaš – 'Region of chestnut and old towns' located in Bihaš
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Fig. 1.Vernacular region of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Authors: S.Musa, A. Hanjališ, 2014.
The area of BiH is very interesting because of the particular natural-geographical

conditions and specific historical-geographical circumstances which caused forming
certain characteristics of the spatial identification. In the process of determining the
vernacular region, historical and geographic processes and trends had great significance,
which explained the emergence of vernacular region in the context of belonging to
different territorial-administrative units. Due to the change of government and political
currents, many cultural and ethnic changes occured, which have changed the names of
geographic features. Since the names are reflecting the geographical perception of space
and in meaning they carry a certain historical period, in the process of regionalization the
names of the areas ( ie. Toponyms) and the originf of the terms were analized.
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Last stage of the process of defining the vernacular regions was population survey of 800
respondents. The survey covered a number of issues, among which the most important was
to research what that refers to the sense of belonging to a certain vernacular region.
Analysis of spatial identification on the basis of a questionnaire
The names of vernacular region in this paper are derived from historical facts that are tied
to the Middle Ages and early Ottoman period. Mentioning a particular region, a person
already has some knowledge or association of space, or "mental image" of the cultural
identity of its people, historical events or economic activities. All regions of Bosnia and
Herzegovina have already been identified by a specific product, the traditional gastronomic
specialty, historical event, person or cultural-historical inheritance. All of these elements of
culture cointain history, culture and traditional way of life of this country that for centuries
lived at the crossroads between East and West.
In order to complete the analysis of spatial identity and vernacular region survey was
conducted on a sample of 800 respondents, whose age and education are different.
Symbols of regions listed below chosen by respondents can be considered as authentic for
the explored area and indicate its tradition and cultural heritage.
Podrinje is a symbol for:
1. Bridge in Višegrad, Ivo Andriš and book „Brigde over the Drina― (23%)
2. River Drina and rafting (11%)
3. Spa tourism in Srebrenica – Crni Guber (8%)
4. Grain fields in Semberija (8%)
5. Horse farm Borike and bosnian mountain horse (8%)
6. Brigde over Ţepa (6%)
7. Bijeljinas cabage (6%)
8. Plum rakia- šljivovica (5%)
9. Festival „Apple days― in Goradţe (4%)
10. Fruit-growing, arables and climate (4%)
11. Train Širo, narrow-gauge railroad
Višegrad-Sarajevo (4%)
12. Fishing (4%)
13. Forests and canyons (2%)
14. Wool vests and socks (1%)
15. Cornel juice and apple jam (1%)
16. Mineral springs in Srebrenica and silver mines (1%)
17. Cheese torotan made in Janja (1%)
18. Plums, pears and apples (1%)
19. Peasant shoe (1%)
20. Cheese made in Ţajniţe, Tjentište and Sokolac (1%)
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Fig.2. Podrinje Fig. 3. High Herzegovina
Source: Authors Source: Authors
High Herzegovina is symbol for:
1. Lamb roast (24%)

2. Rafting on Neretva (9%)
3. Honey made in Konjic (8%)
4. Granite in Jablanica and centenary tradition of carving (8%)
5. Tradition of wood carving in Konjic (7%)
6. Hercegovina prosciutto (6%)
7. Rama landscape (6%)
8. Fishing (5%)
9. Rakia (4%)
10. Hercegovina herdsman - štukor (4%)
11. Cheese made in Hercegovina (3%)
12. Titos secret underground city – bunker ARK (3%)
13. Seat events in Nevesinje (3%)
14. Nevesinje and Aleksa Šantiš (2%)
15. Cheese presukaţa made in Gacko and Konjic (2%)
16. Gataţko cattle (2%)
17. Hercegovina peasant shoe (1%)
18. First fig in Bileša on the way to the sea (1%)
19. Traditional costume from Kalinovik (1%)
20. Necroplis in Konjic (1%)
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Low Hercegovina is a symbol for:
1. Old brigde in Mostar (21%)

2. Virgin from MeŤugorje (14%)
3. The colorful landscape of stone and karst (8%)
4. Specific accent (8%)
5. Indigenous wine varieties (Ţilavka and Blatina), wine roats and basements (7%)
6. Snakes and summer heat (6%)
7. Vegetables from Capljina (5%)
8. Mandarins, watermelons, figs, peaches,
rosehips (pomegranate) and olives (4%)
9. Neretva River (5%)
10. Mostar and Trebinje cobbles (3%)
11. Arslanagiša Bridge in Trebinje (3%)
12. Lindjo (3%)
13. Mostar cup and "Cherry Days" (3%)
14. Necropolis (2%)
15. Grape rakia - loza (2%)
16. Cheese torotan Trebinje (1%)
17. Sage and scream (1%)
18. Stolac (1%)
19. Herzegovinian tobacco - Ravnjak (1%)
20. Trout at Buna in Blagaj (1%)
21. Donkey (1%)
Tropolje is a symbol for:
1. Livno cheese (24%)

2. Mowing on Kupres (13%)
3. Plains and horses (10%)
4. Glamoţko traditional dance (8%)
5. Potatoes from the arable karst fields
(Kupres and Glamoţ) (6%)
6. Kupres traditional costume (6%)
7. Rakia (6%)
8. Livno and Duvno gang (6%)
9. Humaţka board and museum of the
monastery (4%)
10. Snowy winter (3%)
11. Skiing on Kupres (3%)
12. Wool socks (3%)
13. Kupreško herbs (3%)
14. Necropolis (3%)
15. Hip jam (1%)
16. Kupreški peasant shoe (1%)
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Fig. 4. Low Herzegovina Fig. 5. Tropolje
Source: Authors Source: Authors
Skopaljska land is a symbol for:
1. Ajvatovica shrine (19%)

2. Woodland and hunting (16%)
3. Tito's villa (16%)
4. Story of the "stone wedding" (12%)
5. "Sicanje" (tattoos) (11%)
6. Vaqf of Mehmed Bey Stoţanin (10%)
7. Rakia (9%)
8. Hasan Kjafi Prušţak (7%)
9. Sauerkraut
Fig. 6. Skopaljska land

Source: Authors
609
Central Bosnia is a symbol for:
1. Travnikševapis and coffee on the Blue water (5%)

2. The cultural and historical heritage, old towns and forts (8%)
3. Visoţko smoked meat (5%)
4. Water mills on the Piva Lake (4%)
5. Spa in Olovo and Fojnica (4%)
6. Kakanj Cement (3%)
7. The medieval kingdom and fight for the throne (3%)
8. Zenica steelworks (8%)
9. Medieval mines Kreševo, Vareš and Olovo (3%)
10. Mineral water springs (4%)
11. Zgošţanska tombstone (1%)
12. Vlasiš cheese and Travnik cream (11%)
13. Bosnian dog Tornjak (2%)
14. Waterfall in Jajce (7%)
15. Tito's Museum in Jajce (5%)
16. Potatoes from Fojnica (1%)
17. Buckwheat with Crnorijeţke plateau (4%)
18. Monasteries and monks (3%)
19. Thermal and mineral water springs (Tesanj, Maglaj) (6%)
20. Tanning in Visoko (6%)
21. Bosnian Lily and Kotromanics dynasty (7%)
Fig. 7. Central Bosnia

Source: Authors
610
Sarajevo is a symbol for:
1. Kazandţiluk street (12%)

2. Mix of cultures and religions (8%)
3. Bosnian cuisine (10%)
4. Bosnian coffee and coffee
pot Sarajevo (8%)
5. Adhan and bells (6%)
6. Ilidţa and spa (4%)
7. Olympic mountains (7%)
8. Bosnia Spring (4%)
9. Pigeons (6%)
10. Flat bread (Muslims), maces and
halls (the Jews), Christmas,
and Easter bread (Catholics),
Easter pretzels and
ţesnica (Ortodox) (1%)
11. Sebilj in Bascarsija (5%)
12. The fountain near Gazi Husrev-Bey's Mosque (2%)
13. Potatoes from Romanija (1%)
14. Bosnian carpet (4%)
15. Haggadah (4%)
16. Ševapi and burek (11%)
17. Sarajevo antentat (7%)
18. Crafts
Fig. 8. Sarajevo
Source: Authors
611
Salt region is a symbol for:
1. Salt production and salt works (19%)

2. Salt Lake (13%)
3. Meša Selimoviš (9%)
4. The girls' cave (9%)
5. The story of the goat (6%)
6. Mines and factories (5%)
7. Gracanica's crochet - folk art (5%)
8. Meadow honey from the area of Majevica (5%)
9. Apple jam (4%)
10. Kladanj male water (4%)
11. Mine Banoviši (4%)
12. Healing waters of Tuzla and Gracanica - Karanovac (4%)
13. Cheese (4%)
14. Kalenderovaţki cheese from the Motajica mountain (3%)
15. Kalesijan traditional dance and songs (3%)
Source: Authors
16. Gracanica cheese (3%)
Posavina is a symbol for:
1. Lowland landscape (16%)

2. Gradaţaţka plum (9%)
3. Grain and corn fields (7%)
4. Willow, poplar and posavian acacia (7%)
5. Fish specialties (7%)
6. Oil refinery in Modriţa (6%)
7. Jam apple (6%)
8. Agriculture (5%)
9. Plum rakia (5%)
10. The tower in Gradaţac (5%)
11. Honey (5%)
12. Domaljevaţka weaving - folk art (4%)
Source: Authors
13. Slavonski Brod Refinery (4%)
14. Railway junction in Doboj (3%)
15. Production of furniture, baskets and decorative objects from the cane (3%)
16. Medical Spa: Gradaţaţka Ilidţa and Srbac (2%)
17. Okra, sunflowers, peppers, tomatoes, eggplant and cabbage (2%)
18. Walnuts, pears and apples, jam (2%)
19. Fields melons (watermelon) (1%)
20. Mineral water in Srebrenik (1%)
612
Fig. 9. Salt region
Source: Authors
Fig. 10. Posavina

Source: Authors
613
Banja Luka region is a symbol for:
1. Banja Luka Kastel (13%)

2. Banja Luka ševapi (13%)
3. Vrbas (12%)
4. Beer (10%)
5. The monument on Kozara (8%)
6. Trappist cheese (7%)
7. Chestnut honey from Kostajnica (7%)
8. Folk dances and handicrafts (6%)
9. Anniversary ZAVNOBiH session in
Mrkonjic Grad (7%)
10. Thermal waters in the Dvorovi in
Bijeljina (7%)
11. Zmijanje (6%)
12. Prijedorska holly - native apple varieties
(4%)
Fig. 11. Banja Luka

Source: Authors
Bihaš region is a symbol for: :
1. Temperamental people (11%)

2. Hospitality (10%)
3. Old towns and towers (9%)
4. Tito's cave in Drvar (8%)
5. Una Regatta (8%)
6. Krajiška potkriţa (4%)
7. Krajiška spicy sausage (7%)
8. Advanced industrial production (6%)
9. River Una and Sana (6%)
10. The characteristic accent (5%)
11. Cheese basa made in Bihac (5%)
12. Chestnut forests (5%)
13. Grmeţka bullfight (4%)
14. Honey (4%)
15. Gruel of wheat flour (4%)
16. Water mills to grind corn in Martin Brod
(2%)
17. Podgrmeţ cream (2%) Fig. 12. Bihaš
Source: Authors
614
Potential of vernacular region for creative tourism development
Very important role on the supplier side in creative tourism have traditional crafts and art.
Every place worldwide has specific tradition and areas which have unique rituals, crafts,
art or anything else which is material or non-material heritage. These specifics are a key
resource for the development of creative tourism and key for attracting creative tourists to
the certain destination.
Complete tourist infrastructure, resources for creative tourism and other types of tourism
play an important role on the supply side. The demand in tourism, not only in the creative,
is often limited by poor infrastructure, which is why they decide to go to other destinations.
Therefore it is very important to the overall tourism development to give special attention
to the basic tourism infrastructure.
Recent, the phenomen which appeared on the tourism market is creating an creative
tourism product, but still many destination don't consider creative tourism as a special type
of tourism. World and regional development programs can recognize creative areas so
UNESCO has a program which refers to creative cities. UNESCO has a program for
creative cities. Creative clusters that ―feed on diversity and change and so thrive in busy,
multi-cultural urban settings that have their own local distinctiveness but are also
connected to the world‖ (UNESCO 2006)
Because of the complexity of the creation of creative tourism products and services,
several approaches are taken by DMOs, tour operators and other organizations towards
creative tourism development (Ohridska-Olson, 2010):
Destination based: creative tourism product is destination dependent. Such
approach is typical tourism to creative cities, creative landscapes, corridors, or
programs of tour operators that use the resources in a place already in the program
of tour to the destination not specifically designed for creative tourism.
Activity based: the creative tourism product is geographically dispersed. These
are creative tourism programs based on a concrete activity.
The creative tourism business model beside demand and suplly factor containes also
tangible and intangible benefits. While tangible benefits from creative tourism can be
measured accordingly with the OECD (OECD 2000) definition for tourism expenditure
being ―the expenditure made by, or on behalf of, the visitor before, during and after the trip
and which expenditure is related to that trip and which trip is undertaken outside the usual
environment of the visitor‖, the intangible benefits coming from creative tourism are much
more difficult to measure.
The tangible benefits from creative tourism can be summarised as follows (Ohridska-
Olson, 2010)::
• Cultural capital – increase of creative and cultural assets (tangible and intangible);
• Market expansion – growth of the geographical reach for cultural and creative industries
through creative tourism;
• Innovation – increase of innovation programmes to include creative tourism for the
benefits of the community;
• Cultural heritage preservation – cultural heritage is preserved mainly to serve as a
renewable resource for creative tourism;
• Sustainability – one of the most important benefit from creative tourism due to it
characteristics as a process of creation and renewable activity;
615
• Brand visibility – local arts and crafts brands are usually not very known and valorised
through tourism. Creative tourism helps brand visibility and hence, increases the brand
equity for small communities;
• Job creation – in addition to the traditional tourism jobs, creative tourism create
employment for artists, craftsman and other professional groups;
• Exports – in addition to the normal tourism exports, creative tourism contributes with
exports of the cultural and creative industries, otherwise not related with tourism exports
The intangible benefits from creative tourism are:
• Local identity and uniqueness – the focus on unique local arts and crafts and authenticity
contribute to the emphasis on local identity;
• Social capital – by increasing social values that promote social cooperation to create and
operate creative tourism products and services, the social increases dramatically thanks to
creative tourism;
• Cultural values preservation – instead to destroy cultural values to ―please‖ the visitor,
the local communities learnt that preserving their local cultural values help develop
creative tourism;
• Local cultural diversification – in order to compete successfully on the creative tourism
marketplace, which is much more sensitive to uniqueness of the tourism offerings,
communities are forced to emphasize and preserve their local cultural identity, pride of
place and thus provide a clear diversification of the creative tourism resources;
The financial results for the destinations are the fifth element of the creative tourism‘s
business model. Creative tourism contributes to the local economy by generation of
incomes for the local population and revenues for the municipal budgets through taxation.
Creative tourism contributes to the development of certain destination whether tangible or
intangible benifits.
Fig. 13. Typology of cultural heritage assets

Source: Prats, 2007, Velasco Gonzales, 2009.
616
Creative tourism is percived very often as part of cultural tourism and therefore he does not
attach too much attention, however creative tourism stands out as a special thematic
tourism within the culture. The reason for this is that the key resources of the creative
tourism part of the cultural identity of a people, communities and regions. So, the creative
tourism business plan is different that traditional cultural tourism business model.
Tab. 1. Creative and traditional cultural tourism models
Creative tourism business model main Traditional Cultural Tourism business

characteristics model main characteristics
Resource Set: Based on local creative Resource Set: based on existing cultural
capital in constant development. Any heritage resources with predetermined
artistic or creative process can be resource characteristics: buildings, events,
for creative tourism: knitting, crocheting, monuments etc.
traditional dance etc.
Target markets: small groups and Target markets: large groups and
individuals with creative interests individuals with general interests in culture
Benefits for the cultural heritage: Benefits for the cultural heritage: mass
nondestructive participation, visitors‘ cultural tourism already represents a danger
responsibility, creation of new cultural for many cultural heritage sites
heritage
Sustainability: very high, since creative Sustainability: limited, since the resources
tourism is based on a continuous process of for cultural tourism in many cases are not
creation renewable
Source: Authors
So the difference between creative and cultural tourism is existing. Creative tourism
business model clealry shows that any cultural tourism destination can profit from the
creative tourism too. Even though the creative tourism is percieved as variety of cultural
tourism, creative combines different kinds of tourism that creates a favorable basis for the
development of various types of tourism so that they can connect creative and adventure
tourism, cultural and creative tourism, archaeological and creative tourism, gourmet and
creative tourism. Many tourist destination can improve their offer, gain more arrivals and
profit with the creative tourism concept.
Regarding this charachteristic of the creative tourism in all 11 vernacular region of Bosnia
and Herzegovina can be singled out several elements on which it is possible to form an
offer for creative tourists, as follows:
1. Podrinje – weaving, knitting and creative workshops of new artistic techniques,

festivals;
617
2. High Herzegovina - wood carvings, knitting, wool spinning, embroidery, cheese
production;
3. Weak Herzegovina - making cheese škripavac, cheese torotana, blacksmiths,
shoemakers, tanners, goldsmiths, copper carving, wickerwork (making baskets),
making peasant shoes, making Bukara (containers for wine), wine, tobacco
Herzegovina;
4. Tropolje - making Livanjski cheese, Bosnian (Livno) silver wire embroidery,
blacksmiths, mowing, rakia , wool products, making carpets;
5. Skopaljska region – shrine areas, rakia, blacksmiths, craft perski
6. The Central Bosnia - ševapi, smoked meat, cheese, buckwheat, medieval stories,
spas, mines, folklore dancing, bullfighting
7. Sarajevo - coppersmiths, goldsmiths, making nanulas , tanners, making souvenirs,
jewelers, Ilidţa, festivals, creative workshops of new art trends, folk society,
traditional cuisine, Sarajevo beer,
8. Salt region - Museum of salt, the saltworks , abandoned factories, mines, cheese,
kalenderovaţki cheese, Kalesijan folk dance and songs
9. Posavina - grain fields, fish, agriculture, honey, weaving, wickerwork, spas,
10. Banjaluţko krajište - Zmijanje embroidery, Trappist cheese, Banjaluţko beer,
honey, making dajak boats, wool producst;
11. Bihaško krajište -Krajiška spicy sausage, cheese basa, cream, bullfight;
Fig. 14. Businnes model of creative tourism
618
In the Fig. 14. is shown cretive tourism business model. The model has 5 elements:
demand factors, supply factors, tangible benefits, intangible benefits and the finance results
at the end. Following this model the supply side needs to involve all its factors and
resources to create a unique tourism offer for creative tourist who are looking for the
possibility to participate in the local culture. Demand side, the creative tourist are looking
for way to express their creativity or to increase the creativity. The creative tourism is
holding few tangible and intangible benefits which are shown in the Fig 14.
All mentioned traditional crafts and other culture elements in vernacular regions of Bosnia
and Herzegovina should be involved in such model which would result with increased
success for local businesses but also would result with increased prosperity for local
community.
CONCLUSION
Based on terrain experience, the collected data and information, analysis of tourism
potential, performed survey and regionalization, it is concluded that Bosnia and
Herzegovina has a significant potential to develop creative tourism based on its heritage.
The wealth of Bosnia and Herzegovina lies in the diversity of its peoples, different
customs, religious and cultural influences. Interactions of people created a mosaic of
cultures and traditions. To be make a creative tourism out of culture and tourism it is
necessary to develop a planned development strategy.
Vernacular of the region of Bosnia and Herzegovina in this paper shaped by the principle
of a sense of belonging and the first association of the homeland. Mentioning a particular
region, a person already has some knowledge or association of space, or "mental image" of
the cultural identity of its people, historical events or economic activities.
All regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina have already been identified by a specific food
product, traditional gastronomic specialty, the particular historical event, famous
personalities or cultural – historical heritage. These are the region which gave rise to the
potential for the development of creative tourism.
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International Tourism and Hospitality Management Conference

CHAIRS OF THE CONFERENCE

MEMBERS OF SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

MEMBERS OF THE ORGANIZATION COMMITTEE

CIP - Katalogizacija u publikaciji

INTERNATIONAL Tourism and Hospitality Management

Bibliografija uz pojedina poglavlja i uz tekst.

International Tourism and Hospitality Management Conference (ITHMC 2015) organized

In addition to the Conference scientific sessions, Conference participants had the

it is my pleasure to welcome you to the International Tourism and Hospitality Management

I also want to welcome our dear guests:

• Prof. dr. Faruk Mekić, Vice-Rector for Scientific/Artistic Research of the

I wish you all a successful work and a pleasant stay in Sarajevo.

Elricke van Loggerenberg,

12:05 Branislav Draškovid

SID Hunting Tourism Development in the Tuzla SID

Determining the Economic Significance of Lion

Thermal Mineral Water as a Natural Potential

Above-ground biomass spatial variability

The Potentials for Tourism Development in the Municipality

16:00 Coffee Break

The Comparative Dynamic Analysis of

The Analysis of Relations Between Control and

Determining Management Qualifications of

[Type a quote1 from the

Do Memorial Sites from the Second World War Possess

The Evaluation of Urban Aesthetics Tülay Polat Üzümcü, Ersin

18:00 Poster Presentations

TITLE AUTHOR(S) TITLE AUTHOR(S)

Inclusion of Local Foods at Menus of Hotels

9:30 Changes in Pattern of Second Home Development in

Lejla Žunid Countries Arising From Socialist Federal Republic of

Securing Hotel Guests’ Satisfaction: The Bahattin Ozdemir, Ayla

The Mediation Role of Employee

Ranko Mirid, Nusret

[Type a 3quote from the

11:00 Coffee Break

The Effects of Team – and Customer-Member

Planned Development of Tourism in Tuzla Are University Employees Ready to be an “Intrapreneur”? A

12:05 SID SID

[Type4a quote from the

Armand Viljoen, Melville

16:00 Coffee Break

Climate Impact on Origin and Tourism Valorisation of

[Type a5 quote from the

Investigation of Altruistic Value Perception of

18:00 Poster Presentations

[Type a quote from the

SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE'S TOURISM IN TIME AND SPACE RETROSPECTIVE - AN INSIDER'S

Key words: former Yugoslavia, tourism geography, timeframes, cross-border- / sustainable

Tab. 2. Length of borders between nation-states on the territory of former Yugoslavia,

Croatia 956 X - - 14 252 670 1.892

Kosovo - - X 170 79 380 - 629

Macedonia - - 170 X - 62 - 232

Montenegro 225 14 79 - X 45 - 363

Serbia 345 252 380 62 45 X - 1.084

Slovenia - 670 - - - - X 670

THE CONTEMPORARY FRAGMENTED SPACE

THE GLOBALIZED SPACE OF THE POSTMODERN SOCIETY