Unit-3

AnAlytic Functions
 UNIT 3
Analytic Functions
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Before we introduce the concept of complex variable and functions of a complex
variable, the de nition and properties of complex numbers, which the reader has
studied in the lower classes are brie y recalled.
If x and y are real numbers and i denotes −1, then z = x + iy is called a Complex
number. x is called the real part of z and is denoted by Re(z) or simply R(z); y is
called the imaginary part of z and is denoted by Im(z) or simply I(z).
The Complex number x − iy is called the conjugate of the Complex number
z = x + iy and is denoted by z . Clearly z z = x 2 + y 2 = r 2 , where r is z , viz., the
z+z z−z
modulus of the Complex number z. Also z = z ; R(z ) = , I (z ) = .
2 2i

P (x, y)
r (r, θ)
y
θ
O x M X

Fig. 3.1

The complex number z = x + iy is geometrically represented by the point P (x, y)

with reference to a pair of rectangular coordinate axes OX and OY, which are
called the real axis and the imaginary axis respectively (Fig. 3.1). Corresponding
to each complex number, there is a unique point in the XOY−plane and conversely,
corresponding to each point in the XOY-plane, there is a unique complex number.
The XOY-plane, the points in which represent complex numbers, is called the
Complex plane or Argand plane or Argand diagram.
3.4 Mathematics II

If the polar coordinates of the point P are (r, q ), then r = OP = x 2 + y 2 =

 y
modulus of z or z and θ = ∠MOP = tan −1   = amplitude of z or amp (z).
 x
Since x = r cos q and y = r sin q,
z = x + iy = r (cos q + i sin q ) or re iq.
r (cos q + i sin q) is called the modulus-amplitude form of z and re iq is called the
polar form of z.

3.2 THE COMPLEX VARIABLE

The quantity z = x + iy is called a complex variable, when x and y are two independent
real variables.
The Argand plane in which the variables z are represented by points is called
the z-plane. The point that represents the complex variable z is referred to as the
point z.

3.2.1 Function of a Complex Variable

If z = x + iy and w = u + iv are two complex variables such that there exists one
or more values of w, corresponding to each value of z in a certain region R of the
z-plane, then w is called a function of z and is written as w = f (z) or w = f (x + iy).
When w = u + iv = f (z) = f (x + iy), clearly u and v are functions of the variables x
and y. For example, if w = z2, then
u + iv = (x + iy)2
= (x2 − y2) + i(2xy)
Thus u = x2 − y2 and v = 2xy.
∴ w = f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
If z is expressed in the polar form, u and v are functions of r and q. If, for every
value of z, there corresponds a unique value of w, then w is called a single-valued
function of z.
1
For example, w = z2 and w = are single-valued functions of z.
z
If, for every value of z, there correspond more than one value of w, then w is
called a multiple valued function of z. For example, w = z1/4 and w = amp(z) are
multiple valued functions of z. w = z1/4 is four valued and w = amp(z) is in nitely
many valued for z ≠ 0.

3.2.2 Limit of a Function of a Complex Variable

The single valued function f (z) is said to have the limit l (= a + ib) as z tends to z0,
if f (z) is de ned in a neighbourhood of z0 (except perhaps at z0) such that the values
of f (z) are as close to l as desired for all values of z that are suf ciently close to z0,
but different from z0. We express this by writing lim { f (z )} = l .
z → z0
 Analytic Functions 3.5

Note Neighbourhood of z0 is the region of the z-plane consisting of the set of

points z for which |z − z0| < ρ, where r is a positive real number, viz., the set of points
z lying inside the circle with the point z0 as centre and r as radius.
Mathematically we say lim { f (z )} = l , if, for every positive number ∈ (however
z → z0

small it may be), we can nd a positive number d, such that | f (z) − l| < ∈, whenever
0 < | z − z0 | < d.

Note In real variables, x → x0 implies that x approaches x0 along the x-axis or

a line parallel to the x-axis (in which x is varying) either from left or from right. In
complex variables, z → z0 implies that z approaches z0 along any path (straight or
curved) joining the points z and z0 that lie in the z-plane, as shown in the Fig. 3.2.

Y z

z0

X
O

Fig. 3.2

Thus, in order that lim { f (z )} may exist, f (z) should approach the same value l,
z → z0

when z approaches z0 along all paths joining z and z0.

3.2.3 Continuity of f (z)
The single valued function f (z) is said to be continuous at a point z0, if

lim { f (z )} = f ( z0 ) .
z → z0

This means that if a function f (z) is to be continuous at the point z0, the value of f (z)
at z0 and the limit of f (z) as z → z0 must exist (as per the de nition given above) and
these two values must be equal.
A function f (z) is said to be continuous in a region R of the z-plane, if it is
continuous at every point of the region.
If f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) is continuous at z0 = x0 + iy0, then u (x, y) and v (x, y) will
be continuous at (x0, y0) and conversely. The function f (x, y) is said to be continuous at
the point (x0, y0 ), if lim [ φ (x, y )] = φ (x0 , y0) , in whatever manner x → x0 and y → y0.
x → x0
y → y0

3.2.4 Derivative of f (z)

The single valued function f (z) is said to be differentiable at a point z0, if
3.6 Mathematics II

 f ( z 0 + ∆z ) − f ( z 0 ) 
lim   exists (1)
∆ z→ 0
 ∆z 
This limit is called the derivative of f (z) at z0 and is denoted as f ′ (z0). On putting
z0 + Δz = z or Δz = z − z0, we may write

 f ( z) − f ( z 0 ) 
f ′(z0 ) = lim  .
z → z0
 z − z0 
On putting z0 = z in (1), we get

 f ( z + ∆z ) − f ( z) 
f ′(z ) = lim  
∆ z→ 0
 ∆z 

3.2.5 Analytic Function

A single valued function f (z) is said to be analytic at the point z0, if it possesses a
derivative at z0 and at every point in some neighbourhood of z0.
A function f (z) is said to be analytic in a region R of the z-plane, if it is analytic
at every point of R.
An analytic function is also referred to as a regular function or a holomorphic
function.
A point, at which a function f (z) is not analytic, viz., does not possess a derivative,
is called a singular point or singularity of f (z).

3.2.6 Cauchy-Riemann Equations

We shall now derive two conditions (usually referred to as necessary conditions) that
are necessarily satis ed when a function f (z) is analytic in a region R of the z-plane.

Theorem
If the function f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) is analytic in a region R of the z-plane, then
(i) ∂u , ∂u , ∂v and ∂v exist and (ii) ∂u = ∂v and ∂u = − ∂v at every point in
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
that region.

Proof
f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) is analytic in R.
∴ f ' (z) exists at every point z in R(by de nition)

 f ( z + ∆z ) − f ( z ) 
i.e., L = lim   exists (1)
∆ z→0
 ∆z 
i.e., L takes the same value, when Δz → 0 along all paths.
In particular, L takes the same value when Δz → 0 along two speci c paths QRP and
QSP shown in Fig. 3.3. (2)
 Analytic Functions 3.7

Y
S Q(z + Δz)
Δy

P(z) R
Δx
X
O

Fig. 3.3
It is evident that when z takes the increment Δz, x and y take the increments Δx and
Δy respectively; hence we may write

 {u ( x + ∆x , y + ∆y ) + iv ( x + ∆x, y + ∆y)} − {u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y )} 
L= lim  
( ∆ x + i ∆ y )→ 0
 ∆ x + i∆ y 
Let us now nd the value of L, say L1, corresponding to the path QRP, viz., by
letting Δy → 0 rst and then by letting Δx → 0.

 {u ( x + ∆x, y ) + iv ( x + ∆x, y )} − {u ( x y ) + iv ( x y )} 
Thus L1 = lim  
∆ x→ 0
 ∆x 
  u ( x + ∆x, y) − u ( x, y)   v ( x + ∆x, y) − v ( x, y ) 
= lim    + i 
∆ x→ 0
 ∆x   ∆x 
∂u ∂v
= +i (3)
∂x ∂x
(by the de nition of partial derivatives.)
Now we shall nd the value of L, say L2, corresponding to the path QSP, viz., by
letting Δx → 0 rst and then by letting Δy → 0.

 {u ( x, y + ∆y ) + iv ( x, y + ∆y )} − {u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y )} 
Thus L2 = lim  
∆ y→ 0
 i∆y 
1  u ( x, y + ∆y ) − u ( x, y )   v ( x, y + ∆y ) − v ( x , y ) 
= lim   + 
∆ y→ 0 i
  ∆y   ∆y 
∂u ∂v
= −i + (4)
∂y ∂y
(by the de nition of partial derivatives.)
L exists [by (1)]
∴ L1 and L2 exist at every point in R.

i.e. ∂u ∂u ∂v and ∂v exist at every point in R (i)

, ,
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
L exists uniquely [by (2)]
3.8 Mathematics II

∴ L1 = L2

∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u , by (3) and (4).

i.e., +i = −i
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y

∂u ∂v
∴ =
∂x ∂y

and ∂u ∂v at every point in R (ii)

=−
∂y ∂x

Note
1. The two equations given in (ii) above are called Cauchy-Riemann equations
which will be hereafter referred to as C.R. equations.
2. When f (z) is analytic, f ′ (z) exists and is given by L, viz., by L1 or L2.
Thus f ′(z) = ux + ivx or vy − iuy , where ux , uy , vx, vy denote the partial derivatives.

3. If w = f (z), then f ′ (z) is also denoted as d w .

dz
d w ∂u ∂v
Thus = +i
d z ∂x ∂x
∂
= (u + iv)
∂x
∂w
=
∂x
dw ∂u ∂v
Also =−i +
dz ∂y ∂y
∂
= − i (u + iv)
∂y
∂w
=−i
∂y
4. In the above theorem, we have assumed that w = f (z) is analytic and then derived
the two conditions that necessarily followed. However the two conditions do not
ensure the analyticity of the function w = f (z). In other words, the two conditions
are not suf cient for the analyticity of the function w = f (z).
The suf cient conditions for the function w = f (z) to be analytic in a region R
are given in the following theorem.

Theorem
The single valued continuous function w = f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) is analytic in
a region R of the z-plane, if the four partial derivatives ux, vx, uy and vy have the
following features: (i) They exist, (ii) They are continuous and (iii) They satisfy the
C.R. equations ux = vy and uy = −vx at every point of R.
 Analytic Functions 3.9

Proof
Consider Δu = u (x + Δx, y + Δy) − u (x, y)
= [u (x + Δx, y + Δy) − u (x, y + Δy) + u (x, y + Δy) − u (x, y)]
= Δ x . u (x + q Δx, y + Δy) + Δy . u (x, y + q Δy),
x 1 y 2

where 0 < q1, q2 < 1, (by using the mean-value theorem.)

ux is a continuous function of x and y, by (ii).
∴ ux(x + q1∆x, y + ∆y) = ux(x, y) + ∈1, where
∈1 → 0 as Δx and Δy → 0 or as Δz → 0.

uy is a continuous function of x and y, by (ii).

∴ uy (x, y + q2∆y) = uy (x, y) + ∈2, where
∈2 → 0 as Δz → 0
∴ ∆u = ∆x [ux (x, y) + ∈1] + ∆y[uy (x, y) + ∈2],

where ∈1 and ∈2 → 0 as Δz → 0. (1)

Similarly, using the continuity of the partial derivatives vx and vy, we have
∆v = ∆x [vx(x, y) + ∈3] + ∆y [vy(x, y) + ∈4],

where ∈3 and ∈4 → 0 as Δz → 0 (2)

Now Δw = Δu + iΔv
= (ux + ivx) Δx + (uy + ivy) Δy + (∈1 + i∈3) ∆x + (∈2 + i∈4 ) ∆y,

using (1) and (2).

= (ux + ivx) Δx + (uy + ivy) Δy + h1∆x + h2∆y, where
h1 = (∈1 + i∈3) and h2 = (∈2 + i∈4) → 0 as ∆z → 0 (3)

Using (iii) in (3), i.e., putting vy = ux and uy = − vx in (3), we have

Δw = (ux + ivx) Δx + (−vx + iux) Δy + h1Δx + h2Δy
= ux(Δx + iΔy) + ivx(Δx + iΔy) + h1Δx + h2Δy
= (ux + ivx) Δz + h1Δx + h2Δy
∆w ∆x ∆y
∴ = u x + ivx + η1 + η2 (4)
∆z ∆z ∆z
Now ∆x ≤ ∆z and ∆y ≤ ∆z

∆x ∆y
∴ ≤1 and ≤1
∆z ∆z

∆x ∆y
∴ η1 + η2 ≤ η1 + η2
∆z ∆z
3.10 Mathematics II

 ∆x ∆y 
∴ + η2  → 0 as ∆z → 0 [ h1 and h2 → 0 as ∆z →0] (5)
∴
 η1
∆z ∆z 

Now taking limits on both sides of (4) and using (5), we have

dw
= u x + ivx .
dz
i.e., the derivative of w = f (z) exists at every point in R.
i.e., w = f (z) is analytic in the region R.

3.2.7 C.R. Equations in Polar Coordinates

When z is expressed in the polar form reiq, we have already observed that u and v,
where w = u + iv, are functions of r and q. In this case, we shall derive the C.R.
equations satis ed by u(r, q) and v (r, q), assuming that w = u(r, q ) + iv (r, q ) is
analytic.

Theorem
If the function w = f (z) = u(r, q) + iv (r, q) is analytic in a region R of the z-plane,

then (i) ∂u , ∂u , ∂v , ∂v exit and (ii) they satisfy the C.R. equations, viz.,
∂r ∂θ ∂r ∂θ
∂u 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂u at every point in that region.
= and =−
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ

Proof
f (z) = u (r, q) + iv (r, q) is analytic in R.
∴ f ′ (z) exists at every point z in R (by de nition)

 f ( z + ∆z ) − f ( z ) 
i.e., L = lim   exists (1)
∆ z→ 0
 ∆z 

 {u ( r + ∆r ,θ + ∆θ ) + iv (r + ∆r ,θ + ∆θ )} − {u (r ,θ ) + iv (r ,θ )} 
i.e., L = lim  
∆ (r e iθ ) → 0 
 ( )
∆ rei θ 
exists.
i.e., L take the same value, in whatever manner ∆z = ∆(reiq ) → 0.
In particular, L takes the same value, corresponding to the two ways given below
in which ∆z → 0. (2)

∆z = ∆(reiq)
= eiq · ∆r, if q  is kept xed
∴ When ∆z → 0, ∆r → 0, if q is kept xed. Let us nd the value of L, say L1,
corresponding to this way of ∆z tending to zero.
 Analytic Functions 3.11

  u ( r + ∆r ,θ ) − u (r , θ )   v ( r + ∆r , θ ) − v ( r , θ ) 
Thus L1 = lim   + i  
∆ r→0
 eiθ ∆r   eiθ ∆r 
 ∂u ∂v 
= e − iθ  + i  (3)
 ∂r ∂r 
(by the de nition of partial derivatives.)
Now ∆z = ∆ (reiq )   

iq
= re i∆q, if r is kept xed.

∴ When ∆z → 0, ∆q → 0, if r is kept xed.

We shall now nd the value of L = L2, corresponding to this way of ∆z tending
to zero.

  u ( r , θ + ∆θ ) − u ( r , θ )   v (r , θ + ∆θ ) − v (r ,θ )  
Thus L2 = lim   +i  
∆θ → 0
 r e iθ ⋅ i ∆θ   r e i θ ⋅ i ∆θ 
1  ∂u ∂v 
= e − iθ  −i +
 ∂θ ∂θ 
(4)
r
(by the de nition of partial derivatives.)

Since L exists [by (1)], L1 and L2 exist at every point in R.

i.e. ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v exists at every point in R. (i)

, , ,
∂r ∂θ ∂r ∂θ
Since L exists uniquely [by (2)],
L1 = L2

 ∂u ∂v  1  ∂u ∂v 
e − i θ  + i  = e − i θ  −i +
 ∂θ ∂θ 
i.e. , from (3) and (4).
 ∂r ∂r  r
∂u 1 ∂v
∴ =
∂r r ∂θ
∂v 1 ∂u at every point in R
and =− (ii)
∂r r ∂θ

Note
1. When f (z) is analytic, f ′ (z) exists and is given by L, viz., by L1 or L2.
Thus, when f (z) = u(r, q) + iv (r, q) is analytic,
1 −iθ
f ′ (z)= e−iq(ur + ivr ) or e (vθ − iuθ ),
r
where ur , uq , vr , vq denote the partial derivatives.
2. If w = f (z), then
3.12 Mathematics II

dw ∂ ∂w
= e− iθ ⋅ (u + iv) = e − iθ .
dz ∂r ∂r
dw i
Also = − e − i θ (uθ + ivθ )
dz r
i ∂
= − e − iθ (u + iv)
r ∂θ
i ∂w .
= − e − iθ
r ∂θ
3. The two conditions derived in the theorem do not ensure the analyticity of w
= f (z). The suf cient conditions for the analyticity of w = f (z) =u (r, q ) + iv
(r, q ) in R are given below without proof.
(i) ur , uq , vr, vq must exist
(ii) they must be continuous;
(ii) they must satisfy the C.R. equations in polar co-ordinates at every point
in the region R.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3(a)

x2 y
Example 3.1 Find lim f (z ) , when f (z ) = .
z→0 x2 + y2
Let us nd the limit of f (z) corresponding to any one manner, say, by letting y → 0
rst and then by letting x → 0.

 0
Thus lim [ f ( z ) ] = lim  2  = lim (0) = 0 .
y→ 0 x→0  x  x→0
x→0

This does not mean that lim [ f ( z )] exists and is equal to 0.

z→0

However, we proceed to verify whether lim [ f ( z ) ] can be 0, as per the mathe-

z →0
matical de nition, which states that lim [ f ( z ) ] = 0 , if we can nd a d such that
z→ 0
f ( z ) − 0 <∈, whenever 0 < z − 0 < δ .

Now, using polar coordinates,

r 3 cos 2 θ sin θ
f (z) − 0 =
(
r cos2 θ + sin 2 θ
2
)
= r | cos θ || sin θ |
2

< r, sin ce cos θ < 1 and sin θ < 1

∈
∴ f ( z ) − 0 <∈, when r <
2
 Analytic Functions 3.13

∈
i.e., when z−0 <
2
∈
Thus, taking δ ≤ , we have proved that
2

f (z ) − 0 < ∈, when z − 0 < δ .

 x2 y 
∴ lim  2 exists and is equal to 0.
z →0  x + y2 


x3 y ( y − ix) { f ( z) − f (0)}
Example 3.2 If f (z ) = (z ≠ 0) and f (0) = 0, prove that
x6 + y 2 z
→ 0 as z → 0 along any radius vector, but not as z → 0 in any manner.

f ( z ) − f ( 0) x3 y (y − ix) −ix 3 y
Now = = (1)
z (x 6
)
+ y 2 (x + iy ) x6 + y 2

A radius vector is a line through the pole (origin) and hence its equation is y = mx.
To take the limit of (1) as z → 0 along any radius vector, we put y = mx in (1) and
then let x → 0.

 −i x 3 y   −imx 4 
Thus ylim   = lim  2 4 
= mx x + y
x→ 0

6 2
 x → 0  x x + m
2
( ) 

 −imx 2 
= lim  4  = 0 , for various values of m.
x→ 0 x + m2
 

 f ( z ) − f (0) 
∴   → 0 , as z → 0 along any radius vector.
 z 
Now let us nd the limit of (1) by moving along the curve y = x3 and approaching
the origin.

 f ( z ) − f ( 0)   −i x 3 y 
Thus lim   = lim3  6 2 
z →0
 z  yx →
=x
x + y 
0

 −i x 6  i
= lim  6  = − ≠ 0.
x→0 x + x6
  2

Note Since the limiting values are not unique, the limit does not exist.
3.14 Mathematics II

x 2 (1 + i ) − y 2 (1 − i)
Example 3.3 Prove that the function f (z), where f (z ) = ,
x+ y
when z ≠ 0 and f (z) = 0, when z = 0 is continuous at z = 0.
 x 2 − y 2   x2 + y2 
f ( z) =  +i
 x + y   x + y 

Consider L1 = lim [ f ( z)] = lim[ f ( z)]= lim[(1+ i) x]= 0

z→0 y→0 x→0
x→0

L2 = lim [ f ( z )] = lim[ f ( z )]= lim [(−1+ i ) y ]= 0

z→0 x→0 y→0
y →0

1− m 2 1+ m 2  
L3 = lim [ f ( z )] = lim [ f ( z )] = lim  +i  x = 0
z→0 y → mx
x→0
x → 0  1+ m
 1+ m  
L4 = lim [ f ( z )] = lim [ f ( z)] (1)
z→0 y →φ ( x )
x→0

where y = f (x) is any curve through the origin.

∴  f (0) = 0
By Taylor’s series expansion, we get
φ ′ ( 0) φ ′′ ( 0) 2 φ ′′′ ( 0) 3
y = φ ( x) = x+ x + x + ....∞
1! 2! 3!
since f (0) = 0.
 φ ′ (0) φ ′′ (0) φ ′′′ (0) 2 
= x + x+ x + ....∞ 
 1! 2! 3! 
= x . y (x), where y (x) → f′ (0) as x → 0 (2)

Using (2) in (1), we have

 1 −ψ 2 ( x ) 1 + ψ 2 ( x )  
L4 = lim   +i x 
x→0
  1 + ψ ( x ) 1 + ψ ( x )  
=0

Thus lim [f (z)] takes the same value 0, in whatever manner z → 0.

z→0

∴ lim [ f ( z ) = 0 = f (0).
z→0

∴ f (z) is continuous at z = 0.

Example 3.4 Show that the function f (z) is discontinuous at the origin (z = 0), given
that
x y ( x − 2 y)
f ( z) = , when z ≠ 0
x3 + y 3
 Analytic Functions 3.15

= 0, when z = 0.
Consider

 m (1 − 2m) x3  m (1 − 2m)
lim [ f ( z )] = lim [ f ( z )] = lim  =
z→0 y→m x
x→0
x→0
( 3
)
 1 + m x 
3
1 + m3

Thus lim [f (z)] depends on the value of m and hence does not take a unique
z→0
value.
∴ lim [f (z)] does not exist.
z→0
∴ f (z) is discontinuous at the origin.

Example 3.5 Show that the function f (z) is discontinuous at z = 0, given that

2 xy 2
f ( z) = , when z ≠ 0 and f (0) = 0.
x2 + 3 y 4

Consider lim[ f ( z )] = lim [ f ( z )]

z →0 y = mx
x→ 0

 2m 2 x 
= lim  =0
x → 0  1 + 3m 4 x 2 


Note
Just because the value of lim [f (z)], when z → 0 along the line y = mx is 0, we
z→0
should not conclude that the limit exists and hence f (z) is continuous at z = 0.)
Now let us take the limit by approaching 0 along the curve x = y2.

Then lim[ f ( z )] = lim2 [ f ( z )]

z →0 x= y
y→0

 2 y4  1
= lim  4 = ≠0.
y→0 y + 3 y 4
  2

∴ lim [f (z)] does not exist and hence f (z) is not continuous.
z →0

Example 3.6 Show that the function |z|2 is continuous and differentiable at the
origin, but it is not analytic at any point.
Let f (z) = |z|2. Then f (0) = 0.
Now | f (z) − 0| = |z|2 = r2, where z = reiq
< ∈, whenever r < ∈, if
∈ is suf ciently small and positive
i.e. | f (z) − 0| < ∈, whenever 0 < |z| < ∈.
3.16 Mathematics II

∴ lim [f (z)] exists and is equal to 0 = f (0)

z→0

∴ f (z) is continuous at the origin.

 f (0 + ∆ z ) − f (0) 
Also f ′ (0) = lim  
∆z → 0
 ∆z 
 ∆ z 
2

= lim  
 ∆ z 
∆z → 0

 _
= lim ∆ z  [∵| ∆z | 2 = ∆z ⋅ ∆z ]
∆z → 0 

=0 {∵ When ∆x + i ∆y → 0, ∆x − i ∆y → 0}
∴ f (z) is differentiable at the origin.

Now  f ( z + ∆ z) − f ( z )   z + ∆ z 2 − z 2 
lim   = lim  
∆z → 0
 ∆z  ∆z →0  ∆z 
 ( z + ∆ z ) ( z + ∆ z ) − zz 
= lim  
∆z → 0
 ∆z 
 ∆z 
= lim  z + z +∆ z 
∆z → 0
 ∆ z 
 ( ∆ x − i∆ y ) 
= lim ( x + iy ) + ( x − iy ) + ( ∆ x − i∆ y ) 
∆z → 0
 ∆ x + i∆ y 

Let us nd the value of this limit by making ∆z → 0 in two different manners.


L1 = lim ( x + iy )
( ∆ x − i∆ y) + x − iy + ∆ x − i∆ y 
( ) ( )
∆y → 0
∆x → 0 
∆ x + i∆ y 

= liim ( x + iy) + ( x − iy ) + ∆ x  = 2 x.

∆x → 0


L2 = lim ( x + iy )
(∆ x − i∆ y ) + x − iy + ∆ x − i∆ y 
( ) ( )
∆x → 0
∆y → 0 
∆ x + i∆ y 

= liim  − ( x + iy ) + ( x − iy ) − i∆ y  = − 2iy
∆y → 0

L1 ≠ L2 for all values of x and y.

∴ f (z) is not differentiable at any point z ≠ 0.
∴ f (z) is not analytic at any point z ≠ 0.
 Analytic Functions 3.17

Though f (z) is differentiable at z = 0, it is not differentiable at any point in the

neighbourhood of z = 0.
∴ f (z) is not analytic even at the origin.
Hence f (z) = |z|2 is not analytic at any point.

Example 3.7 Show that the function f (z) = x y is not regular at the origin,
although Cauchy-Riemann equations are satis ed at the origin.

f ( z ) = u (x , y ) + iv ( x, y ) = x y . ∴ u ( x, y ) = x y ; v ( x, y ) = 0 .

 ∂u  u ( ∆ x, 0) − u ( 0, 0 ) 
u x (0, 0) =   = lim  
 ∂ x  (0, 0) ∆x →0  ∆x 
0−0
= lim  =0
∆x → 0
 ∆x 
 u (0, ∆ y ) − u (0, 0) 
u y (0, 0) = lim  
∆y → 0
 ∆y 
0−0
= lim  =0
∆y → 0
∆y 
 v ( ∆ x, 0) − v ( 0, 0 ) 
vx (0, 0) = lim  
∆x → 0
 ∆x 
0−0
= limm =0
∆x → 0
 ∆x 
 v (0, ∆ y ) − v ( 0, 0 ) 
v y (0, 0) = lim  
∆y → 0
 ∆y 
0−0
= lim   = 0⋅
∆y → 0
∆y 

Clearly u x = vy and uy = − vx at the origin.

i.e., C.R. equations are satis ed at the origin.

 f (0 + ∆ z ) − f (0)   ∆ x⋅ ∆ y −0 
Now  
lim   = ∆lim
∆z → 0
 ∆z  z →0  ∆ x + i∆ y 
 m ∆ x2 
= lim  
∆y = m ∆x  ∆ x (1 + im) 
∆x → 0
 
3.18 Mathematics II

m
=
1 + im
The limit is not unique, since it depends on m. ∴ f ′(0) does not exist.
Hence f (z) is not regular at the origin.

Note This problem means that C.R. equations are not suf cient for the analyti-
city of the function.

Example 3.8 Prove that the following functions are analytic and also nd their
derivatives using the de nition.
(i) z3; (ii) e−z; (iii) sin z; (iv) cosh z;
n
(v) z (n is a positive integer); (vi) log z.

(i) Let f (z) = u + iv = z3 = (x + iy)3

= (x3 − 3xy2) + i (3x2y − y3)

∴ u = x3 − 3xy2 ; v = 3x2y − y3
ux = 3x2 − 3y2 ; vx = 6xy
uy = − 6xy ; vy = 3x2 − 3y2

Obviously ux, uy, vx, vy exist for nite values of x and y (i.e., everywhere in
the nite plane).
They are continuous everywhere, since they are polynomials in x and y.
Also ux = vy = 3x2 − 3y2 and vx = − uy= 6xy i.e., C.R. equations are satis ed
for all nite values of x and y.
All the three suf cient conditions that ensure the analyticity of f (z) are
satis ed everywhere.
∴ f (z) is analytic everywhere.
Now f ′ (z) = ux + ivx
= 3x2 − 3y2 + i6xy
= 3(x + iy)2
= 3 z2.
(ii) Let f (z) = u + iv = e−z = e −( x + iy)
= e−x (cos y − i sin y)
∴ u = e−x cos y ; v = − e−x sin y
ux = − ex cos y; vx = e−x sin y
uy = − e−x sin y; vy = − e−x cos y
ux , uy , vx, vy exist everywhere, are continuous everywhere ( e−x, sin y and
∴
cos y are continuous functions) and satisfy C.R. equations everywhere.
∴ f (z) is analytic everywhere.
Now f ′(z) = ux + ivx
 Analytic Functions 3.19

= − e−x cos y + ie−x sin y

= − e−x (cos y − i sin y)
= − e−x . e−iy = − e−(x + iy) = −e−z.
(iii) Let f (z) = sin z
i.e. u + iv = sin (x + iy)
= sin x cos iy + cos x sin iy
= sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y.
∴ u = sin x cosh y ; v = cos x sinh y
ux = cos x cosh y ; vx = − sin x sinh y
uy = sin x sinh y ; vy = cos x cosh y

The four partial derivatives are products of circular and hyperbolic functions.
∴ They exist, are continuous and satisfy C.R. equations everywhere.
∴ f (z) is analytic everywhere.
Now f ′ (z) = ux + ivx
= cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y
= cos x cos iy − sin x sin iy
= cos (x + iy)
= cos z.
(iv) Let f (z) = cosh z = cos iz
i.e. u + iv = cos (ix − y)
= cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
∴ u = cosh x cos y ; v = sinh x sin y
ux = sinh x cos y ; vx = cosh x sin y
uy = − cosh x sin y ; vy = sinh x cos y

∴ ux , uy, vx, vy exist, are continuous and satisfy C.R. equations everywhere.
∴ f (z) is analytic everywhere.

Now f ′(z) = ux + ivx

= sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
= sinh (x + iy) = sinh z.
(v) Let f (z) = u (r, q) + iv (r,q) = z n = (reiq )n
= r n (cos nq + i sin nq)
∴ u = r n cos nq ; v = r n sin nq
ur = nr n−1 cos nq ; vr = nr n−1 sin nq
uq = − nr n sin nq ; vq = nr n cos nq
ur , uq , vr , vq exist and are continuous for nite values of r and hence everywhere.
3.20 Mathematics II

1
Also ur = vθ = nr n −1 cos nθ
r
1
and vr = − uθ = nr n −1 sin nθ
r
i.e., C.R. equations are also satis ed everywhere.
∴ f (z) is analytic everywhere.

Now f′ (z) = e−iq (ur + ivr)

= e−iq · nr n−1 (cos nq + i sin nq)
= nr n−1 e−iq · einq
= nr n−1 ei(n−1) q
= n[reiq]n−1 = nzn−1.

(vi) Let f (z) = u + iv = log z = log (r eiq)

= log r + iq
∴ u = log r; v = q
1
ur = ; vr = 0
r
uq = 0; vq = 1
∴ ur , uq , vr , vq exist, are continuous and satisfy C.R. equations everywhere except
at r = 0 i.e. z = 0
∴ f (z) is analytic everywhere except at z = 0.
f ′ ( z ) = e − iθ (ur + ivr )
1 
= e − iθ  + i ⋅ 0
r 
1 1
= = , z ≠ 0.
reiθ z

3.2.8 Important Note

In the above problems, we observe that the derivatives of some of the elementary
functions of a complex variable are similar to those of corresponding functions of a
real variable. This is true with respect to other elementary functions also.
This is due to the fact that the de nitions of f ′(z) in Complex Calculus and f ′(x) in
Real Calculus are identical, except that there is a slight difference in the interpretation
of the concerned limits.
Also, due to the same reason, the rules of differentiation, such as the sum rule,
product rule, quotient rule and function of function rule are the same as those in Real
Calculus.
Hence, when a function f (z) is known to be analytic, it can be differentiated in the
ordinary manner as if z is a real variable.
 Analytic Functions 3.21

Further since integration is the inverse operation of differentiation, ∫ f (z )dz can

be evaluated as in Real Calculus, using the usual formulas and rules of integration.
However the arbitrary constant of integration need not be a real constant; it may be
a complex constant.

Example 3.9 Find where each of the following functions ceases to be analytic.

(ii) z − 4 ; z+i
2
(i) z (iii) (iv) z3 − 4z − 1;
; ;
(z 2
−1 ) z2 +1 ( z − i) 2

2
(v) tan z.

z
(i) Let f (z ) =
z −1
2

∴ f ′(z ) =
(z 2
)
−1 ⋅1− z ⋅ 2 z
=
(
− z 2 +1 )
(z ) (z )
2 2
2
−1 2
−1

f (z) is not analytic, where f ′(z) does not exist, i.e., where f ′(z) → ∞.
f ′(z) → ∞, if (z2 − l) 2 = 0, i.e., if z = ± l.
∴ f (z) is not analytic at the points z = ± 1.

z2 − 4
(ii) Let f (z ) =
z 2 +1

∴ f ′(z ) =
(z 2
) (
+1 ⋅ 2 z − z2 − 4 ⋅ 2 z ) =
10 z
(z ) (z )
2 2
2
+1 2
+1
∴ f (z) is not analytic where z2 + 1 = 0
i.e. at the points z = ± i .

z+i
(iii) Let f (z ) =
( z − i )2
( z − i ) 2 ⋅1 − ( z + i ) ⋅ 2 ( z − i )
∴ f ′(z ) =
( z − i )4
− ( z + 3i)
= → ∞, at z = i
( z − i )3
∴ f (z) is not analytic at z = i.

(iv) Let f (z) = z3 − 4z − l

∴ f ′(z) = 3z2 − 4, that exists everywhere.
∴ f (z) is analytic everywhere.
3.22 Mathematics II

(v) Let f (z) = tan2 z

2 sin z
∴ f ′ ( z ) = 2 tan z sec 2 z =
cos3 z

∴ f ′(z) → ∞, when cos3z = 0, i.e., when z =

( 2n −1) π
2

∴ f (z) is not analytic at z =

( 2n − 1) π
; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
2

Example 3.10 Prove that every analytic function w = u(x, y) + iv (x, y) can be
expressed as a function of z alone.
z = x + iy and z = x − iy
z+z z−z
∴ x= and y=
2 2i
Hence u and v and also w may be considered as a function of z and z

∂w ∂u ∂v
Consider = +i
∂z ∂z ∂z
 ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y   ∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y 
= ⋅ + ⋅  +i ⋅ + ⋅ 
 ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z 
1 1  1 1 
=  ux − u y  + i  v x − vy 
2 2i   2 2i 
1 i
= (u x − v y ) + (u y + vx )
2 2
= 0, by C.R. equations, as w is analytic.

This means that w is independent of z , i.e. w is a function of z alone.

This means that if w = u(x, y) + iv (x, y) is analytic, it can be rewritten as a function
of (x + iy). Equivalently a function of z cannot be an analytic function of z.

Note Let the analytic function w be given by

w = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) (1)
 z + z z− z   z + z z− z 
=u ,  + iv  ,  (2)
 2 2i  2 2i 

In order to get w as a function of z alone, we may replace z by z in the R.H.S.

of (2).
Then w = u (z, 0) + iv (z, 0) (3)
Equation (3) can be obtained from (1) by replacing x by z and y by 0.
 Analytic Functions 3.23

Thus we get the following rule known as Milne-Thomson rule. If a function of x

and y can be expressed as a function of z = x + iy, it can be done by simply replacing
x by z and y by 0 in the given function.

Example 3.11 Show that u + iv = x − iy (a ≠ 0) is not an analytic function of

x − iy + a
z, whereas u − iv is such a function at all points where z ≠ − a.
Now u + iv = z = a function of z. Since a function of z cannot be analytic,
z +a
(u + iv) is not an analytic function of z.

u − iv = conjugate of (u + iv) = z = f (z), say.

z+a
f (z) is a function of z alone and f ' (z) = a , that exists everywhere except at
( z + a )2
z = −a.
∴ f (z) is analytic, except at z = −a.

Example 3.12 Show that an analytic function with

(i) constant real part is a contant; and
(ii) constant modulus is a constant.

Let f(z) = u + iv be the analytic function.

(i) Given u = constant = c, say

∴ ux = 0 and uy = 0.

By C.R. equations, vy = ux = 0 and

vx = −uy = 0
Since the partial derivatives of v with respect to both x and y are zero,
v is a constant = c′, say
∴ f(z) = c + ic′
= constant.

(ii) Given | f(z)| = u2 + v2 = c

∴ u2 + v2 = c2 (1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x and y, we get
2u ux + 2v vx = 0
and 2u uy + 2v vy = 0
i.e., u ux + v vx = 0 (2)
and −u vx + v u x = 0 (by C.R. equations)
3.24 Mathematics II

or v ux − u v x= 0 (3)
(2) and (3) form a system of two homogeneous algebraic equations in the
unknowns ux and vx.
u v
The system possesses only a trivial solution, since = − (u2 + v2 ) ≠ 0
v −u
∴ Solution of equations (2) and (3) is ux = 0 and vx = 0
Now f '(z) = ux + ivx = 0
∴ f (z) = a constant.

EXERCISE 3(a)

Part A
(Short Answer Questions)
1. Explain brie y the concept of the limit of a function of a complex variable.
2. What is the basic difference between the limit of a function of a real variable
and that of a complex variable.
3. De ne the continuity of a function of a complex variable.
4. When is a function of a complex variable said to be differentiable at a point?
5. De ne analytic function of a complex variable.
6. State the Cauchy-Riemann equations in Cartesian Coordinates satis ed by an
analytic function.
7. State the suf cient conditions that will ensure the analyticity of a function
w = f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
8. State the Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar coordinates satis ed by an
analytic function.
9. If w = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) is an analytic function of z, prove that

dw ∂ w ∂w .
= =− i
dz ∂ x ∂y

dw
10. If w = u (r, q ) + iv (r, q ) is an analytic function of z, prove that eiθ
dz
∂w i ∂w .
= =−
∂r r ∂θ

Prove that the following functions are not analytic:

11 f (z) = z ; 12. f(z) = x + iy ;

x2 + y2
13. f (z) = ex(cos y − i sin y)
14. f (z) = cos x cosh y +i sin x sinh y
 Analytic Functions 3.25

15. f ( z) = log x 2 + y 2 + i 2 cot −1   .

( ) y
 x

Determine where the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satis ed for the following
functions:
16. x2 + iy2; 17. (x3 − 3y2x) + i(3x2y − y3);

20. z − 1 .
x y
18. +i 2 ; 19. xy2 + iyx2;
x +y
2 2
x + y2 z +1

21. Find the value of a, b, c, d so that the function f (z) = (x2 + axy + by2) + i (cx2 +
dxy + y2) may be analytic.
 px
1
(
22. Determine p such that the function f ( z) = log x2 + y 2 + i tan −1   is
2  y 
)
analytic.
23. If u + iv is analytic, show that v − iu and −v + iu are also analytic.
24. If u + iv is analytic, show that v + iu is not analytic.

Part B
xy ( x − y)
25. Given that f ( z ) = and f (0) = 0, show that lim  f ( z )  exists.
x2 + y2 z→0

xy
26. Show that lim  f ( z )  does not exist, if f ( z) = 2 and f (0) = 0.
z→0 x + 4y2
 x y2 
27. Show that lim  2 4 
does not exist, even though the function approaches
z →0
x + y 
the same limit along every straight line through the origin.
x y ( y − i x)
28. Prove that the function f ( z ) = , when z ≠ 0 and f (z) = 0, when z = 0
x2 + y2
is continuous at the origin.
x3 − y3
29. Given that f ( z) = and f (0) = 0, show that f (z) is not continuous at z = 0.
x3 + y 3

x2 y
30. If f ( z ) = , z ≠ 0 and f (0) = 0, show that f (z) is not continuous at z = 0.
x4 + y2
xy
31. Show that the function f (z) is not continuous at z = 0, if f ( z ) = 2 ,
2x + y2
z ≠ 0 and f (0) = 0.

32. Show that the function f (x, y) is discontinuous at (0, 0), given that

x 4 y ( y − x)
f ( x, y ) = and f (0, 0) = 0.
(x 8
+ y2 ) ( y + x)
3.26 Mathematics II

33. Show that the function f (z) de ned by

x y (y − i x)
f (z ) = , z≠0 and f (0) = 0
x2 + y2
is not analytic at the origin, though it satis es Cauchy-Riemann equations at
the origin.
x 2 y3 ( x − i y )
34. Show that function f (z) de ned by f (z ) = , z ≠ 0 and f (0) = 0
x 6 + y10
is not analytic at the origin, though it satis es Cauchy-Riemann equations at
the origin.
x 3 ( 1 + i ) − y 3 ( 1 − i)
35. Prove that the function f (z) de ned by f (z ) = , z ≠ 0 and
x2 + y2
f (0) = 0 is continuous at the origin. Prove also that the Cauchy-Riemann
equations are satis ed by f (z) at z = 0 and yet f ′ (z ) does not exist at z = 0.
Prove that the following functions are analytic and also nd their derivatives
using de nition.
36. f (z) = z2; 37. f (z) = ez; 38. f (z) = cos z; 39. f (z) = sinh z.

40. If f (z) and f (z ) are both analytic, show that f (z) is a constant.

3.3 PROPERTIES OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

3.3.1  De nition
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
+ = 0 is known as Laplace equation in two dimensions.
∂x 2 ∂ y 2

∂2 ∂2
+ 2 is called the Laplacian operator and is denoted as ∇ .
2

∂x ∂y
2

Using this operator, the Laplace equation is usually written as ∇ 2φ = 0.

It is recalled, from Vector Calculus, that
− ∂ − ∂ − ∂
∇≡i + j +k and hence
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ 2 = ∇ ⋅∇ = + + in three dimensions.
∂ x2 ∂ y 2 ∂ z 2
∂ 2φ 1 ∂ φ 1 ∂ 2φ
The Laplace equation in polar co-ordinates is de ned as + + = 0.
∂ r 2 r ∂ r r 2 ∂θ 2

Property 1
The real and imaginary parts of an analytic function w = u + iv satisfy the Laplace
equation in two dimensions, viz. ∇ 2 u = 0 and ∇ 2 v = 0.
 Analytic Functions 3.27

Since w = u + iv is analytic in some region of the z-plane, u and v satisfy Cauchy-

Riemann equations.

∂u ∂v
i.e. = (1)
∂x ∂y

∂u ∂v
and =− (2)
∂y ∂x

Differentiating both sides of (1) partially with respect to x, we get

∂2u ∂2v
= (3)
∂ x2 ∂ x ∂ y
Differentiating both sides (2) partially with respect to y, we get
∂ 2u ∂2v
= − (4)
∂ y2 ∂y∂x
∂ 2 v and ∂ v are equal, when
2
The second order mixed partial derivatives
∂ x∂ y ∂ y∂ x
they are continuous.
∂ 2 v and ∂ v and adding (3) and (4), we get
2
Assuming the continuity of
∂ y∂ x ∂ y∂ x

∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ =0
∂ x2 ∂ y2

i.e. u satis es Laplace equation or u is a solution of the Laplace equation ∇ 2φ = 0.

Similarly, differentiating (1) partially with respect to y and (2) partially with respect to
 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u 
x and adding  with the assumption of continuity of and , we get
 ∂x∂ y ∂ y ∂ x 

∂2v ∂2v
+ =0
∂x 2
∂ y2

i.e. v also satis es Laplace equation or v is also a solution of the Laplace equation
∇ 2φ = 0.

Note A real function of two real variables x and y that possesses continuous
second order partial derivatives and that satis es Laplace equation is called a
harmonic function.
If we assume the continuity of the second order partial derivatives of u and v,
the above property means that when w = u + iv is analytic, u and v are harmonic.
Conversely, when u and v are any two harmonic functions, chosen at random, u + iv
need not be analytic.
If u and v are harmonic functions such that u + iv is analytic, then each is called
the conjugate harmonic function of the other.
3.28 Mathematics II

Property 2
The real and imaginary parts of an analytic function w = u(r, q ) + iv (r, q) satisfy the
Laplace equation in polar coordinates.
Since w = u(r, q ) + iv(r, q) is analytic in some region of the z-plane, u and v satisfy
Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar coordinates.
∂u 1 ∂v
i.e. = (1)
∂ r r ∂θ
∂v 1 ∂u
and =− (2)
∂r r ∂θ
1 ∂u ∂v
or =− (3)
r ∂θ ∂r

Differentiating (1) partially with respect to r,

∂ 2u 1 ∂ 2 v 1 ∂v
we get = − 2 (4)
∂r 2
r ∂ r ∂θ r ∂ θ

Differentiating (3) partially with respect to q,

1 ∂ 2u ∂2 v
we get =− (5)
r ∂θ 2
∂θ ∂ r

Using (1), (4) and (5), we get

∂ 2 u 1 ∂u 1 ∂ 2 u 1  ∂ 2 v ∂2v 
+ + = − = 0,
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂ θ 2 r  ∂ r ∂ θ ∂ θ ∂ r 
assuming the continuity of the mixed derivatives.
Thus u satis es Laplace equation in polar coordinates.
Similarly we can prove that v also satis es Laplace equation in polar co-ordinates.
Property 3
If w = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is an analytic function, the curves of the family u(x, y) = a and the
curves of the family v(x, y) = b, cut orthogonally, where a and b are varying constants.
Consider a representative member of the family u(x, y) = a, corresponding to a = a1.
i.e. u(x, y) = a1
Taking differentials on both sides, we get
du = 0
∂ u ∂ u
i.e. dx + dy = 0
∂x ∂y
 ∂u 
 
dy ∂x
∴ =− = m1 , say, where m1 is the slope of the curve u (x, y) = a1 at (x, y).
dx  ∂u 
 ∂y 
 Analytic Functions 3.29

Similarly, considering a typical member of the second family whose equation is

v(x, y) = b1, we can get

 ∂v 
dy  ∂ x 
m2 = =− , where m2 is the slope of the curve v (x, y) = b1 at (x, y).
dx  ∂v 
 ∂ y 

 ∂u   ∂ v 
 ∂ x   ∂ x 
Now m1 m2 = ⋅
 ∂u   ∂ v 
 ∂ y   ∂ y 

 ∂v  ∂v 
 ∂ y 
 ∂ x 
= ⋅ , by C.R. equations, since (u + iv) is analytic.
 ∂v   ∂v 
−   
 ∂x  ∂ y
= −1
This is true at the point of intersection of the two curves u(x, y) = a1 and v (x, y)
= b1 also.
Thus a typical member of the family u (x, y) = a cuts orthogonally a typical
member of the family v (x, y) = b.
∴ Every member of the family u (x, y) = a cuts orthogonally every member of the
family v (x, y) = b.

Note The two families are said to be orthogonal trajectories of each other.

Property 4
If w = u (r, q) + iv (r, q ) is an analytic function, the curves of the family u(r, q) = a
cut orthogonally the curves of the family v (r, q) = b, where a and b are arbitrary
constants.
Proceeding as in property (3), we get

 ∂u 
 dθ   ∂ r 
 d r  = −  ∂u 
(1)
1
 ∂θ 

 ∂v 
 dθ   ∂ r 
and
 d r  = − (2)
2
 ∂v 
 ∂θ 
3.30 Mathematics II

In polar coordinates the condition for orthogonality of two curves is

 dθ   dθ 
 r d r  ⋅  r d r  = − 1 .
1 2

From (1) and (2), we have

∂u ∂v
r r
 dθ   dθ  ∂r ∂r
 r d r  ⋅  r d r  = ∂u ⋅ ∂ v
1 2
∂θ ∂θ

1 ∂u  1 ∂u 
r⋅ r−
r ∂θ  r ∂θ 
= ⋅ ,
∂u ∂v
∂θ ∂θ
(by C.R. equations in polar coordinates.)
= − 1.
Hence the property follows.

3.3.2 Construction of an Analytic Function, When Its Real or

Imaginary Part is Known
Method 1
Let u (x, y), the real part of the analytic function f(z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) be known.
In this method, we rst nd v (x, y) and then nd u (x, y) + iv (x, y) as a function of

z. Since u (x, y) is given, ∂u and ∂u can be found out.

∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v
dv = dx + dy
∂x ∂y
 ∂u   ∂u 
=  −  d x +   dy (1)
 ∂ y  ∂x
The expression (Mdx + Ndy) is an exact differential if ∂ M = ∂ N .
∂y ∂x
This condition for exactness is satis ed by the R.H.S. expression of (1), as

∂  ∂u  ∂  ∂u 
− =
∂ y  ∂ y  ∂ x  ∂ x 

∂ 2 u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
i.e., − = or + = 0,
∂ y2 ∂ x2 ∂ x2 ∂ y2
which is true by property (1) discussed above.
∴ R.H.S. of (1) is an exact differential. Now, integrating both sides of (1), we get
 Analytic Functions 3.31

 ∂u   ∂u  
v = ∫  −  dx +   dy  + c, where c is an arbitrary (real) constant of integration.
 ∂y   ∂x  

Then f (z) = u(x, y) + iv (x, y) is found out by using Milne-Thomson rule.

Note If v(x, y) is given, we can nd u(x, y) rst by a similar procedure and then
nd f (z).

Method 2 (Milne-Thomson method)

Let u(x, y) be the real part of the analytic function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). In this
method, we rst nd f ' (z) as a function of z and then nd f(z) by ordinary integration.
The imaginary part of f(z) gives v(x, y).

Since u(x, y) is given, ∂u and ∂u can be found out.

∂x ∂y

∂u ∂v
f ′( z) = +i [ f (z) is analytic]
∴
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= −i
∂x ∂y

= ux (x, y) − iuy (x, y)

= ux (z, 0) − iuy(z, 0), by Milne-Thomson rule.

∴ f ( z ) = ∫ ux ( z , 0) − iu y ( z , 0)  dz + c , where c is an arbitrary (imaginary) contant

of integration.
Separating the real and imaginary parts of f (z), we can nd v (x, y).

Note
1. The real part of f (z) obtained should be identical to the given u (x, y).
2. If v (x, y) is given, we can rst nd

f ( z ) = ∫ v y ( z , 0) + iv x ( z , 0)  dz + c ,

by a similar procedure and then nd u (x, y) by separation of f (z).

3.3.3 Applications
Properties (1) and (3) of analytic functions discussed above provide solutions to a
number of ow and eld problems.
If we consider two dimensional steady ow such as uid ow, electric current ow
and heat ow, the paths of uid particles are called stream lines and their orthogonal
trajectories are called equipotential lines. In the study of two dimensional irrotational
motion of an incompressible uid in planes parallel to the xy-plane, if v represents
the velocity of a uid particle, we can nd a function f (x, y) such that
3.32 Mathematics II

∂φ ∂φ
v= i + j
∂x ∂y

The function f (x, y) which gives the velocity components is called the velocity
potential. The function y (x, y), which is such that f (x, y) + iy (x, y) is analytic, is
called the stream function.
The function w = f (z) = f  (x, y) + iy  (x, y), which represents the ow pattern is
called the Complex potential.
The curves f (x, y) = a and y (x, y) = b are called equipotential lines and stream
lines respectively.
In the study of electrostatics and gravitational elds, the curves f  (x, y) = a and
Ψ (x, y) = b are respectively called equipotential lines and lines of force.
In heat ow problems, the curves f  (x, y) = a and Ψ  (x, y) = b are respectively
called isothermals and heat ow lines.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3(b)

Example 3.1 Prove that the following function u = x3 − 3xy2 + 3x2 − 3y2 + 1 is
harmonic. Also nd the conjugate harmonic function v and the corresponding
analytic function (u + iv)
u = x3 − 3xy2 + 3x2 − 3y2 + 1
ux = 3x2 − 3y2 + 6x; uxx = 6x + 6
uy = − 6xy − 6y ; uyy = − 6x − 6
∴ uxx + uyy = 0 and so u is a harmonic function.

Since v is the conjugate harmonic of u, u + iv is analytic.

∴ By C.R. equations, ux = vy and uy = − vx

∂v ∂v
Now dv = dx + dy
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
=− dx + dy
∂y ∂x
= (6 xy + 6 y) dx + (3 x2 − 3 y2 + 6 x) dy

∴ v = ∫  (6 xy + 6 y) dx + (3 x2 − 3 y 2 + 6 x) dy  + c

= ∫ ( M dx + N dy ) + c, say.

To evaluate the integral in the R.H.S., we integrate all the terms in M partially with
respect to x, also integrate only those terms in N not containing x and add them.
Thus v = 3x2y + 6xy − y3 + c
 Analytic Functions 3.33

Let w = u + iv
= (x3 − 3xy2 + 3x2 − 3y2 + 1) + i (3x2y + 6xy − y3 + c)
= z3 + 3z2 + 1 + ic, by Milne-Thomson rule.

Example 3.2 In a two dimensional uid ow, nd if xy(x2 − y2) can represent the
stream function. If so, nd the corresponding velocity potential and also the complex
potential.
If y = xy(x2 − y2) represents the stream function, it should be the imaginary part of
an analytic function and hence harmonic.

  y = x3y − xy3

  yx = 3x2y − y3; yxx = 6xy

yy = x3 − 3xy2; yyy = −6xy

∴ yxx + y yy = 0.
i.e., y is a harmonic function.
∴ y can represent the stream function. Let f be the corresponding velocity potential.
Then f + iy is analytic.
∴  fx = yy and fy = −yx (by C.R. equations)

∂φ ∂φ
Now dφ = dx + dy
∂x ∂y

∂ψ ∂ψ
= dx − dy
∂y ∂x

= ( x 3 − 3xy 2 ) dx − (3x 2 y − y 3 ) dy

∴ φ = ∫ ( x 3 − 3xy 2 ) dx − (3x 2 y − y 3 ) dy 

x4 3 2 2 y 4
= − x y + +c
4 2 4
If f (z) represents the complex potential,
f (z) = f + iy

 x4 3 y4 
=  − x 2 y 2 + + c + i( x 3 y − xy 3 )
 4 2 4 

1
= z4 + c (by Milne-Thomson rule)
4
3.34 Mathematics II

Example 3.3 Find if f = (x − y) (x2 + 4xy + y2) can represent the equipotential for
an electric eld. Find the corresponding complex potential w = f + iy and also y, if
possible.
If f represents the equipotential for an electric eld, it should be the real part of an
analytic function and hence harmonic.
  f = (x − y) (x2 + 4xy + y2)
  fx= (x − y) (2x + 4y) + (x2 + 4xy + y2)
  fxx= 4x + 2y + 2x + 4y = 6x + 6y
fy = (x − y) (4x + 2y) + (x2 + 4xy + y2) (−1)
  fyy = −4y − 2x − 4x − 2y = −6x −6y
∴  fxx + fyy = 0
i.e., f is a harmonic function.
∴ f can represent the equipotential of an electric eld.
The corresponding complex potential
w = f + i y is analytic
dw
∴ = φ x + iψ x
dz
= φ x − iφ y
= [(x − y) (2x + 4y) + (x2 + 4xy + y2)]
− i[(x − y) (4x + 2y) − (x2 + 4xy + y2)]
= 3z2 − i·3z2
∴ w = ∫ 3(1 − i ) z 2 dz + ic
= (1 − i ) z 3 + ic

Now w = f + iy = (1 − i) (x + iy)3 + ic
= (1− i) (x3 + 3ix2y − 3xy2 − iy3) + ic
= (x3 − 3xy2 + 3x2y − y3) + i(3x2y − y3 − x3 + 3xy2 + c)
∴ y = 3(x2y + xy2) − (x3 + y3) + c.

Note The value of f obtained from w is the same as the given value of f.

Example 3.4 Prove that v = log [(x − 1)2 + (y −2)2] is harmonic in every region which
does not include the point (1, 2). Find the corresponding analytic function w = u + iv
and also u.

v = log [(x − l)2 + (y − 2)2]

2 ( x − 1) ( x − 1)2 + ( y − 2)2  .2 − 4 ( x − 1)2

vx = ; vxx =  
( x − 1)2 + ( y − 2)2 ( x − 1) + ( y − 2)2 
2 2

 
 Analytic Functions 3.35

( x − 1)2 + ( y − 2)  .2 − 4 ( y − 2)
2
2 ( y − 2)
vy = ; v yy =  
( x − 1)2 + ( y − 2)2 ( x − 1)2 + ( y − 2)2 
2

 

vx, vy, vxx and vyy do not exist at the point (1, 2).
But in every region not containing (1, 2),

vxx + v yy =
{
2 ( y − 2) − ( x − 1)
2 2
} + 2 {( x −1) − ( y − 2) }
2 2

( x − 1)2 + ( y − 2) 2  ( x − 1)2 + ( y − 2)2 

2 2

   
=0

∴ v is harmonic in every region not containing the point (1, 2).

w = u + iv is the corresponding analytic function.

dw ∂u ∂v
∴ = +i
dz ∂x ∂x
∂v ∂v
= +i (by C.R. equations)
∂y ∂x

2 ( y − 2) + i 2 ( x − 1)
=
( x −1)2 + ( y − 2)2
− 4 + i 2 ( z −1) (by Milne-Thomson rule.)
= ,
( z − 1)2 + 4
2i {( z − 1) + 2i }
=
( z − 1+ 2i ) ( z − 1− 2i)
2i
=
z − 1 − 2i

2i
∴ w=∫ dz + c
z − 1 − 2i
= 2i log ( z − 1− 2i) + c.

i.e. u + iv = 2i log {( x − 1) + i ( y − 2)} + c

1  y − 2 
2
{
= 2i  log ( x − 1) + ( y − 2) + i tan −1 
2 2
}  +c
 x − 1  

  y − 2 
=  −2 tan −1  {
+ c  + ilog ( x − 1)2 + ( y − 2)2
 x − 1  
}

3.36 Mathematics II

 y − 2
∴ u = − 2 tan −1  + c, where c is a real constant. Also we note that
 x − 1 
v is the same as the given value.

Example 3.5 Find v such that w = u + iv is an analytic function of z, given that

− y2
u = ex ⋅ cos 2 xy. Hence nd w.
2

− y2 )
u = e( x ⋅ cos 2 xy
2

−y ) − y2 )
ux = e( x (−2 y sin 2 xy) + 2 x e( x ⋅ cos 2 xy
2 2 2

− y2 ) − y2 )
u y = e( x
2
(−2x sin 2xy ) − 2 y e ( x
2
⋅ cos 2 xy

dv = (vx dx + vy dy)
= − uy dx + ux dy

∴ v = ∫ e
(x 2
− y2 ) ⋅ 2 x sin 2 xy + e( x 2
− y2 ) ⋅ 2 y cos 2xy  dx
 

+  −e
(x 2
−y 2
) ⋅ 2 y sin 2xy + e( x 2
−y 2
) ⋅ 2 x cos 2xy dy + c
 

∫ [ Md x + Nd y ], where Mdx + Ndy is an exact differential in which N

To evaluate
does not contain any term independent of x, it is enough to evaluate just ∫ Mdx
treating y as a constant.

v = ∫e
(x − y2 ) 2 x sin 2 xy dx + e( x − y2 ) ⋅ 2 y cos 2xy dx + c
∫
2 2
∴

(x ) ⋅ 2 x sin 2xy dx + e( x ) ⋅ d sin 2xy + c ,

{ }
− y2 − y2
= ∫e ∫
2 2

treating y as a constant.

= ∫e
(x 2
− y2 ) ⋅ 2 x sin 2xy dx + e ( x 2
− y2 ) sin 2xy −

(x − y2 ) ⋅ 2 x dx + c ,
∫ sin 2 xy ⋅ e
2

integrating by parts.

=e
(x 2
−y 2
) sin 2 xy + c

Now w = u + iv

=e
(x 2
− y2 ) cos 2 xy + i {e ( x 2
− y2 ) sin 2 xy + c}

= ez + c
2
(by Milne-Thomson rule.)
 Analytic Functions 3.37

Example 3.6 Find the analytic function w = u + iv,

if v = e2x (x cos 2y − y sin 2y). Hence nd u.
v = e2x (x cos 2y − y sin 2y)
vx = e2x . cos 2y + 2e2x (x cos 2y − y sin 2y)
vy = e2x (− 2x sin 2y − 2y cos 2y − sin 2y)
dw
= u x + ivx = v y + iv x , (by C.R. equations.)
dz
= 0 + i[2 ze 2 z + e2 z ], (by Milne-Thomson rule.)

∴ ( )
w = i ∫ 2 ze 2 z + e 2 z dz + c, where c is real

 e2 z e2 z  e2 z 
= i  2 z ⋅ − 2⋅  +  + c, by Bernoulli’s formula
 2 4  2 

= iz e2z +c
i.e., u + iv = i ( x + iy) e 2( x + iy ) + c

= (ix − y) e2x (cos 2y + i sin 2y) + c

= [− ( x sin 2 y + y cos 2 y) e 2 x + c] + i ( x cos 2 y − y sin 2 y) e 2 x
∴ u = −(x sin 2y + y cos 2y) e2x + c.

Example 3.7 Determine the analytic function f (z) = u + iv, given that 3u + 2v
= y2 − x2 + 16xy.
3u + 2v = y2 − x2 + l6xy
∴ 3ux + 2vx = − 2x+l6y (1)
and 3uy + 2vy = 2y + 16x
i.e., 2ux − 3vx = 2y + 16x (2)
(by C.R. equations.)
Solving (1) and (2), we get
ux = 2x + 4y and vx = −4x + 2y
f ′ (z) = ux + ivx
= (2x + 4y) + i(−4x + 2y)
= 2z − i4z, (by Milne-Thomson rule.)

∴ f ( z) = ∫ (2 z − i 4 z ) dz + c1 + ic 2

= z2 − 2iz2 + c1 + ic2
= (1 − 2i)z2 + c1 + ic2
Since 3u + 2v does not contain any constant,
3.38 Mathematics II

3
3c1 + 2c2 = 0 ∴ c2 = − c1
2

 3 
∴ f (z ) = (1− 2i) z 2 + 1− i  c1 , where c1 is a real constant.
 2 

Example 3.8 Determine the analytic function f (z) = P + iQ, given that P − Q =
cos x + sin x − e− y and f (p/2) = 0.
2 cos x − e y − e − y

f (z) = P + iQ
∴ if (z) = − Q + iP
∴ (1 + i) f (z) = (P − Q) + i(P + Q)
i.e., f (z) = u + iv, say.
Thus, if we construct the analytic function f  (z) with u = P − Q as the real part,
1
then f (z ) = φ (z ) .
1+ i
cos x + sin x − e− y
u=
2 ( cos x − cosh y )

∴ ux = 
(
1  (cos x − cosh y ) ⋅ ( cos x − sin x) + sin x ⋅ cos x + sin x − e 
−y


)
2
 (cos x − coshh y )2 

uy = 
−y
(
1  (cos x − cosh y ) e + sinh y cos x + sin x − e
−y
) 
2 
 (cos x − cosh y )2 

Now f′(z) = ux + ivx

= ux − iuy, (by C.R. equations)

=
(cos z − 1) ( cos z − sin z ) + sin z ( cos z + sin z − 1) − i ( cos z − 1)
2 (cos z − 1)
2

=
(1+ i ) (1 − cos z ) = 1 + i =  1 + i  2  z
  cos ec  
2 (1 − cos z )
2
2 (1 − cos z ) 4 2

 1+ i   z
∴ φ (z ) = 
 4   ∫ cosec 2   + dz + c
 2

 1+ i   z
=− 2 cot   + c
 4   2
1 z
i.e., f (z ) = cot + c ′
2 2
 Analytic Functions 3.39

π  1 π 1
Since f   = 0, c ′ − cot = 0 ∴ c′ =
 2 2 4 2

1 z
∴ f (z ) =  1 − cot 
2 2

Example 3.9 Verify that the families of curves u = c1 and v = c2 cut orthogonally,
when w = u + iv = z3.
u + iv = z3 = (x + iy)3
= x3 + 3ix2y − 3xy2 − iy3
∴ u = x3 − 3xy2 and v = 3x2y − y3
Consider the family of curves u = c1
i.e. x3 − 3xy2 = c1 (1)
Differentiating (1) with respect to x, we get

 dy 
3 x 2 − 3  y 2 + 2 xy  = 0
 dx 

dy x2 − y2
∴ = m1 =
dx 2x y

Consider the family of curves v = c2.

i.e. 3x2y − y3 = c2 (2)
Differentiating (2) with respect to x, we get

 dy  dy
3  2 x y + x2  − 3 y 2 =0
 dx  dx

dy 2xy
∴ = m2 = − 2
dx x − y2
m1m2 = −1

∴ The families of curves u = c1 and v = c2 cut orthogonally.

y
Example 3.10 If u = x2 − y2 and v = − prove that both u and v satisfy
x + y22

Laplace equations, but that (u + iv) is not a regular function of z.

u = x2 − y2
∴ ux = 2x; uxx = 2; uy = − 2y; uyy = − 2
∴ uxx + uyy = 0
i.e., u satis es Laplace equation.
3.40 Mathematics II

y
v=−
x2 + y2

2 xy  ( x 2 + y 2 ) ⋅1 − x ⋅ 2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) ⋅ 2 x 
vx = ; vxx = 2 y  
(x 2
+y )
2 2  ( x 2 + y 2 )4 

2 y ( y 2 − 3x 2 )
=
(x + y2 )
2 3

 ( x 2 + y 2 ) ⋅1 − 2 y 2  y2 − x2
vy = −   =
 ( x 2 + y 2 )  ( x 2 + y 2 )
2 2

(x + y2 ) ⋅ 2 y − ( y 2 − x2 ) ⋅ 2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) ⋅ 2 y
2 2

v yy =
(x + y2 )
2 4

2 y (3 x 2 − y 2 )
=
( x 2 + y 2 )3

∴ vxx + v yy = 0
i.e. v satis es Laplace equation.
Now ux ≠ vy and uy ≠ − vx
i.e. C.R. equations are not satis ed by u and v.
Hence u + iv is not a regular (analytic) function of z.

Note The reason for the above situation is that u and v are not the real and
imaginary parts of the same analytic function. In fact, u is the real part of z2 and v is
the imaginary part of 1 .
z

Example 3.11 If u (x, y) and v (x, y) are harmonic functions in a region R, prove that

the function  ∂u − ∂v  + i  ∂u + ∂v  is an analytic function of z = x + iy.

 ∂y ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

u and v are harmonic functions.

∴ uxx, uxy, uyy and vxx, vxy, vyy are all continuous (and hence exist) (1)
and uxx + uyy = 0 and vxx + vyy = 0 (2)
Consider P + iQ = (uy − vx) + i(ux + vy)
Px = uyx − vxx and Py = uyy − vxy
Qx = uxx + vyx and Qy = uxy + vyy.
The four partial derivatives Px , Py, Qx and Qy exist and are continuous in the region
R [by (1)].
 Analytic Functions 3.41

Px = Qy, if uyx − vxx = uxy + vyy

i.e. if vxx + vyy + (uxy − uyx) = 0
i.e. if vxx + vyy = 0 [by (l)],
which is true, by (2).
Py = − Qx, if uyy − vxy = − (uxx + vyx)
i.e. if uxx + uyy − (vxy − vyx) = 0
i.e. if uxx + uyy = 0 [by (l)],
which is true, by (2).
Thus the C.R. equations are satis ed by P and Q (3)
∴ By (1) and (3), P + iQ is analytic.

Example 3.12 Show that the families of curves r n = a sec nq and r n = b cosec nq
intersect orthogonally, where a and b are arbitrary constants.
The given equations can be rewritten as r n cos nq = a and r n sin nq = b.
i.e. u(r, q ) = a and v(r, q ) = b, say.
Now u(r, q) + iv(r, q) = r n (cos nq + i sin nq )
= r n einq
= (reiq )n or z n, which is an analytic function.
∴ By property (4), the families of curves u(r, q) = a and v(r, q) = b cut
orthogonally.

 ∂ ∂2 
Example 3.13 If f (z) is a regular function of z, prove that  2 + 2  | f ( z )|2
 ∂x ∂y 
= 4| f ' (z)|2.

Let f(z) = u+iv

f ′ ( z ) = u x2 + vx2
2
∴ | f (z)|2 = u2 + v2 and
Since f(z) is a regular (analytic) function,
ux = vy and uy = − vx (C.R. equations) (1)
and uxx + uyy = 0 and vxx + vyy = 0 (Laplace equations) (2)

∂
Now (u 2 ) = 2u u x
∂x

∂2
(u 2 ) = 2(u u xx + ux2 )
∂x 2
∂2 2
Similarly, (u ) = 2(u u yy + u 2y ),
∂y 2
3.42 Mathematics II

∂2 2 ∂2 2
(v ) = 2(vvxx + vx2 ) and (v ) = 2 (vv yy + v y2 )
∂x 2 ∂y 2

 ∂2 ∂2   ∂2 ∂2  2  ∂2 ∂2  2
+
 ∂x 2 ∂y 2  | f ( z ) |2
= +
 ∂x 2 ∂y 2  u + +
 ∂x 2 ∂y 2  v

= 2u (u xx + u yy ) + 2(u x2 + u y2 ) + 2v(v xx + v yy ) + 2(v x2 + v 2y )

= 2(u x2 + u y2 + v x2 + v y2 ), by (2)
= 2(u + v + v + u ), by
2
x
2
x
2
x
2
x (1)
= 4(ux2 + vx2 )
= 4 f ′ (z ) .
2

Example 3.14 If f (z) = u + iv is a regular function of z, prove that ∇ 2{log

| f (z)|} = 0.
f (z) = (u + iv) is analytic.
∴ ux = vy and uy = − vx (C.R. equations) (1)
and uxx + uyy = 0 and vxx + vyy = 0 (Laplace equations)
1
logf ( z )= log (u 2 + v2 ) (2)
2
∂ 1  2uu x + 2v ⋅ v x  uu x + v v x
∴ logf (z )= ⋅  = 2
∂x 2  u 2 + v 2  u + v2

∂2
logf (z )= 
(
 u 2 + v2 ) {uu xx }
+ ux2 + vv xx + vx2 − ( uu x + vvx )( 2uu x + 2vv x ) 
∂x 2 (u )
2
2
+ v2
1 2
= {u u xx + v v xx + u x2 + vx2 } − (u u x + v v x ) 2 (3)
u 2 + v2 ( )
2
u + v2
2

Similarly,

∂2 1 2
log f ( z ) | = 2 {u u yy + vv yy + u 2y + v 2y } − (u u y + v v y ) 2 (4)
∂y 2 u + v2 ( )
2
u + v2
2

Adding (3) and (4), we get

{
∇ 2 log f ( z) = } 1
u + v2
2
[u (uxx + u yy ) + v(vxx + v yy ) + u x2 + v 2x + u y2 + v 2y ]

2
− [(u ux + v vx ) 2 + (u uy + v v y )2 ]
(u 2
+v )
2 2

1 2
= [2(u x2 + vx2 )] − [(u u x + v v x )2 + ( − u vx + v u x ) 2 ],
u +v ( )
2 2 2
u + v2
2

by (1) and (2).

 Analytic Functions 3.43

2 (u x2 + vx2 )
= − ( )
2
( )
{u 2 u x2 + vx2 + v 2 ux2 + vx2 }
u 2 + v2(u + v ) 2 2 2

2 (u + v ) 2 (u + v ) (u + v )
2 2 2 2 2 2

= −
x x x x

u +v (u + v )
2 2 2 2 2

=0

Example 3.15 Find the equation of the orthogonal trajectories of the family of
curves given by 3x2y + 2x2 − y3 − 2y2 = a, where a is an arbitrary constant.
If w = u + iv is analytic, the families of curves u = a and v = b are known as the
orthogonal trajectories of each other. The given family can be assumed as u = a. We
have to nd the equation v = b, such that u + iv is analytic.
u = 3x2y + 2x2 − y3 − 2 y2
ux = 6xy + 4x ; uy = 3x2 − 3y2 − 4y
dv = vx dx + vy dy
= − uy dx + ux dy, (by C.R. equations)
2 2
= (3y + 4y − 3x ) dx + (6xy + 4x) dy

∴ ( )
v = ∫  3 y 2 + 4 y − 3 x2 dx + ( 6 xy + 4 x ) dy 

= 3xy2 + 4xy − x3
∴ The required equation of the orthogonal trajectories is 3xy2 + 4xy − x3 = b, where
b is an arbitrary constant.

EXERCISE 3(b)

Part A
(Short Answer Questions)
1. State any two properties of an analytic function.
2. De ne a harmonic function and give an example.
3. How are analytic function and harmonic function related?
4. Write down the Laplace equations in two-dimensional cartesian and polar
coordinates.
5. What do you mean by conjugate harmonic function? Find the conjugate har-
monic of x.
Verify whether the following function’s are harmonic.
6. xy 7. ex sin y 8. x2 + y2 9. cos x sinh y
y
10. e cosh x.
The following functions are harmonic. Find the corresponding conjugate
harmonic functions:
3.44 Mathematics II

11. x2 − y2 12. e x cos y 13. sin x cosh y 14. 2x( 1 − y)

2 2
15. log (x + y )
Find the analytic function f (z) = u + iv, given that
16. v = amp(z) 17. u = y2 − x2 18. u = e y cos x 19. v = sinh x sin y
x
20. u = 2 .
x + y2

Part B
21. Prove that the function u = x (x2 − 3y2) + (x2 − y2) + 2xy is harmonic. Also nd
the conjugate harmonic function v and the corresponding analytic function
(u + iv).
22. Prove that the function v = 3x2y + x2 − y3 − y2 is harmonic. Also nd the con-
jugate harmonic function u and the corresponding analytic function (u + iv).
x
23. Show that φ = x 2 − y 2 + can represent the velocity potential in an
x + y2
2

incompressible uid ow. Also nd the corresponding stream function and

complex potential.
24. Show that y = x2 − y2 − 3x − 2y + 2xy can represent the stream function of an
incompressible uid ow. Also nd the corresponding velocity potential and
complex potential.
25. Show that the equation x3y − xy3 + xy + x + y = c can represent the path of elec-
tric current ow in an electric eld. Also nd the complex electric potential
and the equation of the potential lines.
26. Find the analytic function w = u + iv, if u = ex (x sin y + y cos y). Hence nd v.
27. Find the analytic function w = u + iv, if v = e−x (x cos y + y sin y). Hence nd u.
28. Find the analytic function w = u + iv, if u = e−2xy·sin (x2 − y2). Hence nd v.
29. Find the analytic function w = u + iv, if v = e−2y (y cos 2x + x sin 2x). Hence
nd u.
2x
30. Find the analytic function f (z) = u + iv, given that u + v = 2 and f (1) = i.
x + y2

31. Find the analytic function f (z) = u + iv, given that 2u − 3v = 3y2 − 2xy − 3x2
+ 3y − x and f (0) = 0.

sin 2 x
32. Find the analytic function f (z) = P + iQ, if P − Q = .
cosh 2 y − cos 2 x

sin x sinh y
33. Find the analytic function f (z) = P + iQ, if Q = , if f (0) = l.
cos 2 x + cosh 2 y
34. Verify that the families of curves u = c1 and v = c2 cut orthogonally, when
w = u + iv = z4.
 Analytic Functions 3.45

35. Verify that the families of curves u = c1 and v = c2 cut orthogonally, when w
1
= u + iυ = .
z
36. Show that the families of curves r n = an cos nq and r n = bn sin nq cut orthogo-
nally, where a and b are arbitrary constants.
37. Find the equation of the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves given
by 2x − x3 + 3xy2 = a.
38. Prove that u = e−y cos x and v = e−x sin y satisfy Laplace equations, but that
(u + iv) is not an analytic function of z.
39. If f (z) is an analytic function of z in any domain, prove that

 ∂2 ∂2  p−2
 ∂x 2 ∂y 2  | f (z ) | = p | f ′ (z ) | | f (z ) | .
+ p 2 2

40. If f (z) is an analytic function of z in a region R, prove that

∇ 2 { Re f (z )}2 = ∇ 2 {Im f (z)}2 = 2 | f ′ (z ) |2 .

3.4 CONFORMAL MAPPING

3.4.1 Mapping
A continuous real function y = f (x) can be represented graphically by a curve in the
Cartesian xy-plane. Similarly a continuous real function z = f (x, y) is represented
graphically by a surface in three dimensional space.
In the same fashion, if we wish to represent a function of the complex variable w =
f (z) or u + iv = f (x + iy), a four-dimensional space is required, since w = f (z) involves
four real variables two independent variables x and y and two dependent variables u
and v. As it is not possible, we make use of two complex planes for the two variables
z and w. These are called the z-plane and the w-plane respectively. In the z-plane, the
point z = x + iy is plotted and in the w-plane, the point w = u + iv is plotted.
A function w = f (z) is not, as usual, represented by a locus of points in the four-
dimensional space, but by a correspondence between points of the z-plane and points
of the w-plane. To each point (x, y) in the z-plane, the function w = f (z) determines
a point (u, v) in the w-plane if f (z) is a single-valued function. If the point z moves
along some curve C in the z-plane, the corresponding point w will, in general, move
along a curve C′ in the w-plane. Similarly if the point z moves over a region R in
the Z-plane, the corresponding point w moves over a region R′ in the w-plane. The
correspondence thus de ned is called a mapping or transformation of elements
(points, curves or regions) in the z-plane onto elements in the w-plane. The function
w = f (z) is called the mapping or transformation function. The corresponding points,
curves or regions in the two planes are called the image of each other.
To visualise the nature of a function f (z), we study the properties of the mapping
de ned by w = f (z). To get a clear idea of the mapping given by w = f (z), we usually
3.46 Mathematics II

consider the images of lines parallel to either co-ordinate axis, of concurrent lines
passing through the origin, of concentric circles |z| = constant and of regions enclosed
by such curves in the z-plane. Also we can investigate the maps onto the z-plane of
lines parallel to the u-axis and v-axis of the w-plane. The images of u = c1 and v = c2
that lie in the z-plane are called the level curves of u and v.

3.4.2 Conformal Mapping

y v
C2 C1 C2' C1'

P Q P' Q'
z0 w0
O x O u

Fig. 3.4
Consider the transformation w = f (z), where f (z) is a single valued function of z.
Under this transformation, a point z0 and any two curves c1 and c2 passing through
z0 in the z-plane will be mapped onto a point w0 and two curves c′1 and c′2 in the
w-plane. If the angle between c1 and c2 at z0 is the same as the angle between c′1, and
c′2 at w0, both in magnitude and sense, then the transformation w = f (z) is said to be
conformal at the point z0. The formal de nition is given as follows.

3.4.3  De nition
A transformation that preserves angles between every pair of curves through a point,
both in magnitude and sense, is said to be conformal at that point. A transformation
under which angles between every pair of curves through a point are preserved in
magnitude, but altered in sense is said to be isogonal at that point.
The conditions under which the transformation w = f (z) is conformal are given by
the following theorem:
Theorem
If f (z) is analytic and f ′ (z) ≠ 0 in a region R of the z-plane, then the mapping performed
by w = f (z) is conformal at all points of R.
Proof
Let z0 be a point in the region R of the z-plane where f (z) is analytic and let f′ (z0) ≠ 0.
y v
C1 C1'
Q (z0 + ∆z) Q' (w0 + ∆w)

θ α θ' α'
P P'
(z0) (w0)
O x O u
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.5
 Analytic Functions 3.47

Let c1 be a continuous curve through z0 and c′1 be its image through w0.
Let Q be a neighbouring point z0 + Δz on c1 and Q′ be its image w0 + Δw on c′1.
Let the chords PQ and P′Q′ make angles θ and θ′ with the x-axis and u-axis
respectively. Then Δz is a complex number whose modulus is the length PQ (= r)
and amplitude is θ.
∴ Δz = r eiθ
Similarly, Δw = r′ eiθ'
Since f (z) is analytic at z0,

 f ( z0 + ∆z ) − f ( z0 )   ∆w 
f ′ (z0 ) = lim   = ∆lim   exists (1)
∆ z →0  ∆z 
 
∆z → 0 z
Since f′ (z0) ≠ 0, it can be expressed in the polar form as R eif.
∴ From (1), we get
 r ′ e iθ ′   r ′  ′ 
R eiφ = lim  iθ  = lim   ei (θ − θ ) 
r →0  
 r 
∆z → 0 r e
  

 r′
∴ R = lim   (2)
r →0  r 

and φ = lim (θ ′ − θ ) (3)

r →0

Let the angle made by the tangent to c1 at z0 with the x-axis be α and that to c′1 at
w0 with the u-axis be α′.
When r → 0 or Δz → 0, Q approaches P and hence the chord PQ tends to be the
tangent at z0 to the curve c1 and so θ → α. Similarly θ′ → α′.
Hence, from (3), we get
f = α′ − α (4)
If c2 is another curve through z0 in the z-plane and c′2 is its image through w0 in the
w-plane and if the tangents to c2 and c′2 at z0 and w0 make angles b and b′ with the
x-axis and the u-axis respectively, then
f = b′ − b (5)
From (4) and (5), we get
α′ − α = b′ − b or b − α = b′ − α′.
i.e. the angle between c1 and c2 is equal to the angle between c′1 and c′2, both in
magnitude and sense. This means that the mapping w = f (z) preserves angles between
any two curves through the point z0.
∴ The mapping w = f (z) is conformal at z0.

Note
1. If f (z0) = 0, it cannot be expressed in the polar form, since the amp {f (z0)} is
unde ned. Hence the proof of the theorem is not valid. Thus, though f (z) may
be analytic at z0, the mapping w = f (z) will not be conformal at z0, if f (z0) = 0.
3.48 Mathematics II

[See Worked Example 3.3 in Section 3(c)]

2. The point, at which the mapping w = f (z) is not conformal, i.e. f ′ (z) = 0, is
called a critical point of the mapping.
It is known that if the transformation w = f (z) is conformal at a point, the inverse
transformation z = f −1 (w) is also conformal at the corresponding point.

dz
The critical points of z = f −1
(w) are given by = 0 . Hence the critical
dw

dw dz
points of the transformation w = f (z) are given by = 0 and =0
dz dw
[See Worked Example (3.3) below].
r′
3. From equation (2) in the proof of the theorem, we get R = approximately,
i.e. r' = Rr r

or |Δw| = |f ' (z0)| ∙ |Δz|.

This means that, under the transformation, an in nitesimal length Δz in the

neighbourhood of z0 is magni ed by the factor |f ′ (z0)|. Consequently, in ni-
tesimal areas near z0 in the z-plane are magni ed by the factor |f′ (z0)|2.
4. From equation (4) in the proof of the theorem, we get
a′ = a + f or a + amp [f ′ (z0)]
This means that, under the transformation, the tangent to a curve through z0 is
rotated through an angle f = amp [f ′ (z0)], i.e. the direction of a curve through
z0 is rotated through an angle f = amp [f ′ (z0)].
5. From Notes (3) and (4), we observe that the image of a small gure near z0
under the mapping w = f (z) can be obtained by rotating it through an angle
= amp[f ′ (z0)] and by magnifying it by a factor = | f′ (z0) |. Hence the shape of
the image of a small gure near z0 is approximately the same as that of the
original gure under a conformal transformation.

3.5 SOME SIMPLE TRANSFORMATIONS

1. Translation
The transformation w = z + c, where c is a complex constant, represents a
translation.
Let z = x + iy, w = u + iv and c = a + ib
Then u + iv = x + iy + a + ib
∴ u = x + a and v = y + b
These two equations may be called the transformation equations.
Hence the image of any point (x, y) in the z-plane is the point (x + a, y + b) in the
w-plane.
 Analytic Functions 3.49

If we assume that the w-plane is super-imposed on the z-plane, we observe that

the point (x, y) and hence any gure is shifted by a distance c = a 2 + b 2 in the
direction of c i.e., translated by the vector representing c. Hence this transformation
transforms a circle into an equal circle. Also the corresponding regions in the z- and
w-planes will have the same shape, size and orientation.

2.  Magni cation

The transformation w = cz, where c is a real constant, represents magni cation. The
transformation equations are given by
u + iv = c (x + iy)
i.e., u = cx and v = cy
∴ The image of the point (x, y) is the point (cx, cy).
Hence the size of any gure in the z-plane is magni ed c times, but there will be
no change in the shape and orientation. This transformation also transforms circles
into circles.

3.  Magni cation and Rotation

The transformation w = cz, where c is a complex constant, represents both
magni cation and rotation.
Let z = r eiq, w = R eif and c = reiα,
Then Reif = (ρ e iα)(r eiθ)
= (ρ r) · ei (q + a)
∴ The transformation equations are
R = ρr and f = q + a.
Thus the point (r, q) in the z-plane is mapped onto the point (ρr, q + a). This means
that the magnitude of the vector representing z is magni ed by ρ = |c| and its direction is
rotated through angle a = amp (c). Hence the transformation consists of a magni cation
and a rotation. Clearly circles in the z-plane are mapped onto circles by this transformation.
Also every region in the z-plane is mapped onto a similar region by this transformation.

4.  Magni cation, Rotation and Translation

The general linear transformation w = az + b, where a and b are complex constants,
represents magni cation, rotation and translation. The transformation w = az + b
can be considered as the combination of the two simple transformations w1 = az and
w = w1 + b.
w1 = az represents magni cation by |a| and rotation through amp (a).
w = w1 + b represents translation by the vector representing b.
Thus any gure in the z-plane will undergo magni cation, rotation and translation
by the transformation w = az + b. In particular, circles will be mapped into circles by
this transformation.
3.50 Mathematics II

5.  Inversion and Re ection

1
The transformation w = represents inversion with respect to the unit circle |z| = 1,
z
followed by re ection in the real axis.
[The inverse of a point P with respect to a circle with centre O and radius r is
de ned as the point P′ on OP such that OP · OP′ = r2]

Let z = reiθ and w = Reif

1 1
Then w= gives R eiφ = e−iθ
z r
∴ The transformation equations are

1
R= and f = − q.
r
1 
Thus the image of the point (r, q ) in the z-plane is  , − θ  under this transformation
r 
If we assume that the w-plane is super-imposed on the z-plane and that P is
1  1
(r, q) and P′ is  , θ  , then OP ′ = .
r  OP

i.e., OP · OP′ = 1

∴ P′ is the inverse of P with respect to the unit circle |z| = 1, as shown in Fig. 3.6.

y (v)

P (r, θ)
P' ( 1r' θ)
O x (u)
1 – θ)
P" ( r'

Fig. 3.6
1 
If we consider the point P ′′  1 , − θ  , it is the re ection of the point P ′  , θ  in
r  r 
1
the real axis. Thus the transformation w = consists of an inversion of z with
z
respect to the unit circle |z| = 1, followed by re ection in the real axis.
Also it is observed that the interior (exterior) of the unit circle |z| = 1 is mapped
onto the exterior (interior) of the unit circle |w| = 1.
 Analytic Functions 3.51

3.6 SOME STANDARD TRANSFORMATIONS

1. The Transformation w = z2
w = z2 ∴ u + iv = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + 2ixy
Hence the transformation equations are
u = x2 − y2 (1)
and v = 2xy (2)
Consider a line parallel to the x-axis, given by the equation
y=b (3)
The equation of the image of (3), which will be an equation in u and v, is got by
eliminating x and y from (1), (2) and (3).
Using (3) in (1) and (2), we have
u = x2 − b2 (4)
and v = 2bx (5)
Eliminating x from (4) and (5), we have
2
 v
u =   − b 2 , i.e. v2 = 4b2 (u + b2) (6)
 2b 
Equation (6) represents in the w-plane a parabola whose vertex is (− b2, 0), focus
is (0, 0) and axis lies along the u-axis and which is open to the right. [Fig. 3.7]
If b is regarded as an arbitrary constant or parameter, (3) represents a family of
lines parallel to the x-axis. In this case, (6) represents a system of parabolas, all
having the origin as the common focus, i.e. equation (6) represents a family of
confocal parabolas.
Consider the equation x = a (7)
This represents a line parallel to the y-axis. The image of line (7) is got by
eliminating x and y from (1), (2) and (7).
Thus the image of (7) is given by the following equations
u = a2 − y2
and v = 2ay
i.e. by the equation
2
 v
u = a2 −  
 2a 

or v2 = − 4a2(u − a2) (8)

2
Equation (8) represents in the w-plane a parabola, whose vertex is (a , 0), focus is
(0, 0) and axis lies along the u-axis and which is open to the left. [Fig. 3.7]
If a is regarded as an arbitrary constant or parameter, (7) represents a family of
lines parallel to the y-axis and (8) represents a family of confocal parabolas with the
common focus at the origin.
3.52 Mathematics II

y v
x=a

y=b u
(– b2, 0) O (a2, 0)
O x a2 ) v2 = –
(u –
2 4b 2 (u
2=–
4a + b 2)
v
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.7

Thus a system of lines parallel to either coordinate axis is mapped onto a system
of confocal parabolas under the transformation w = z2, with the exceptions x = 0 and
y = 0.
The map of y = 0 is given by u = x2 and v = 0, i.e., by v = 0, where u > 0.
i.e., the map of the entire x-axis is the positive part or the right half of the u-axis.
The map of x = 0 is given by u = − y2 and v = 0, i.e., by v = 0, where u < 0.
i.e., the map of the entire y-axis is the negative part or the left half of the u-axis.
Using polar forms of z and w, i.e. putting
z = reiθ and w = Reif in w = z2, we have
R eif = (r eiθ)2 = r 2ei2θ
∴ The transformation equations are
R = r2 and f = 2q.
Now r = a represents a family of concentric circles in the z-plane. Its map is
given by R = a2, that represents a family of concentric circles in the w-plane. q = a
represents a family of concurrent lines through the origin in the z-plane. Its map is
given by f = 2a, that represents a family of concurrent lines through the origin in
the w-plane.
Consider now u = c, that represents a family of lines parallel to the v-axis.
The image of u = c is given by x2 − y2 = c2, that represents a family of rectangular
hyperbolas whose principal axes lie along the coordinate axes in the z-plane.
Consider v = d, that represents a family of lines parallel to the u-axis. The image of
d
u = d is given by xy = , that represents a family of rectangular hyperbolas whose
2
asymptotes are the coordinate axes in the z-plane.
Finally for the mapping function w = z2,
dw
= 2z
dz
= 0, at z = 0.
Hence the transformation w = z2 is conformal at all points in the z-plane except at the
origin, i.e. z = 0 is the critical point of the transformation w = z2.
 Analytic Functions 3.53

2. The Transformation w = ez
dw
w = ez ∴ = e z ≠ 0 for any z.
dz

∴ The transformation w = ez is conformal at all points in the z-plane.

Putting z = x + iy and w = R eif in w = ez, we get
R e if = ex + iy
= ex · eiy
∴ The transformation equations are
R = ex (1)
and f = y (2)
The image of the system of parallel lines x = a in the z-plane is given by R = ea,
that represents a family of concentric circles in the w-plane.
The image of the system of parallel lines y = b in the z-plane is given by f = b,
that represents a family of concurrent lines through the origin in the w-plane. In
particular, the image of the y-axis i.e. x = 0 is the unit circle R = 1 or |w| = 1. The
image of x > 0 is given by R > 1 or |w| > 1 and the image of x < 0 is given by R < 1
or |w| < 1. i.e. the region lying on the right side of the y-axis in the z-plane is mapped
onto the exterior of the unit circle |w| = 1 in the w-plane.
Similarly, the region lying on the left side of the y-axis in the z-plane is mapped
onto the interior of the unit circle |w| = 1 in the w-plane.
The image of the entire x-axis, i.e. y = 0 is given by f = 0, i.e., the positive part
of the u-axis.
Similarly the image of the line y = p is given by f  = p, i.e., the negative part of
the u-axis.

v
d
y =

=c
y=d

x=a x=a u
O
R = ea
y=c

x R = eb
O
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.8

Finally we note that the image of the rectangular region in the z-plane de ned by
a ≤ x ≤ b and c ≤ y ≤ d is the annular region in the w-plane de ned by ea ≤ R ≤ eb and
c ≤ f ≤ d. The corresponding regions are shaded in the Fig. 3.8.
3.54 Mathematics II

3. The Transformation w = sin z

dw
w = sin z ∴ = cos z
dz
= 0,

when z =
( 2n − 1) π
, where n is an integer.
2

∴ The transformation w = sin z is conformal at all points except at z =

( 2n − 1) π .
2
r 3r 5 r
i.e. the critical points of the transformation are z = ! 2 , ! 2 , ! 2 , f.

Putting z = x + iy and w = u + iv in w = sin z, we get

u + iv = sin (x + iy)
= sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y.
:. The transformation equations are
u = sin x cosh y (1)
and v = cos x sinh y (2)
Consider the family of lines parallel to the x-axis, given by
y=b (3)
where b is an arbitrary constant.
Image of (3) is given by
u = sin x cosh b (3a)
and v = cos x sinh b (4)

Eliminating x from (3a) and (4), we get the equation of the image of (3) as
u2 v2
+ =1 (5)
cosh 2 b sinh 2b
Equation (5) represents a family of ellipses whose principal axes lie along the u- and
v-axes, centres are at the origin and semi axes are of lengths cosh b and |sinh b|.
The foci of these ellipses are at the points (± 1, 0) [∵ The foci of the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1 are (± ae, 0), i.e. ( ± a 2 − b 2 , 0) ]
a2 b2
The coordinates of the foci of the family of ellipses (5) are independent of the
parameter b.
This means that all the members of the family (5) have the same two points as
foci.
Hence (5) represents a family of confocal ellipses. [Fig. 3.9]
Thus a family of lines parallel to the x-axis in the z-plane is mapped onto a family
of confocal ellipses in the w-plane, with the exception of y = 0, i.e, the x-axis itself.
Now the map of y = 0 is given by
u = sin x and v=0
 Analytic Functions 3.55

i.e. by −1 ≤ u ≤ 1 and v = 0
i.e. the map of the entire x-axis is the segment of the u-axis, lying between −1
and +1.
Consider again the segment of the line y = b within the range − π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2. For
these values of x, cos x is positive.
Hence, from (4) i.e. v = cos x sinh b, we see that v > 0 when b > 0 [as sinh b > 0
when b > 0] and v < 0 when b < 0 [as sinh b < 0 when b < 0].
Thus the image of the segment of the line y = b within − π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2 is the upper
u2 v2
or lower half of the ellipse + = 1, according as b > 0 or < 0.
cosh 2 b sinh 2 b
Now consider the family of lines parallel to the y-axis, given by x = a (6)
where a is an arbitrary constant.
Image of (6) is given by
u = sin a cosh y (7)
and v = cos a sinh y (8)
Eliminating y from (7) and (8), we get the image of (6) as

u2 v2
− =1 (9)
sin a cos2 a
2

(9) Represents a family of confocal hyperbolas with common foci at (± 1, 0) [ the :.

x2 y2
foci of the hyperbola − = 1 are (± ae, 0), i.e. ( ± a 2 + b 2 , 0)] [Fig. 3.9]
a 2 b2
Thus a family of lines parallel to the y-axis in the z-plane is mapped onto a family
of confocal hyperbolas in the w-plane, with the exceptions of the y-axis and the lines
π
x=± .
2
v

y=b s' s
u
(– 1, 0) O (1, 0)

x=a
O x
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.9
The map of x = 0 is given by
u = 0 and v = sinh y
i.e. u = 0 and v > 0 (when y > 0) and
u = 0 and v < 0 (when y < 0)
Thus the upper and lower halves of the y-axis are mapped onto the upper and
lower halves of the v-axis under the transformation w = sin z.
3.56 Mathematics II

Consider the map of the line x = π/2, which is given by u = cosh y and v = 0
i.e. by u ≥ 1 and v = 0
Similarly, the map of the line x = − π/2 is given by u = − cosh y and v = 0
i.e. by u ≤ − l and v = 0
Thus the part of the u-axis for which u ≥ 1 and the part of the u-axis for
π π
which u ≤ − l are the images of the lines x = and x = − respectively.
2 2
In conclusion, if we note the family of ellipses (5) and the family of hyperbolas
(9) have the same two points (± 1, 0) as common foci, we can say that in general the
transformation w = sin z maps the system of lines parallel to either coordinate axis in
the z-plane into a system of confocal conics in the w-plane.

4. The Transformation w = cosh z

dw
w = cosh z ∴ = sinh z
dz
= − i sin iz
= 0, when z = i. np, where n is an integer.
∴ The transformation w = cosh z is conformal at all points except the critical points
z = ± iπ, ± i2π, . . .
Putting z = x + iy and w = u + iv in
w = cosh z, we get
u + iv = cos i (x + iy)
= cos (ix − y)
= cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
∴ The transformation equations are
u = cosh x cos y (1)
and v = sinh x sin y (2)
The image of the family of parallel lines y = b (3)
is the family of hyperbolas

u2 v2
− =1 (4)
cos b sin 2 b
2

The foci of (4) are (± 1, 0)

Thus the family of lines parallel to the x-axis in the z-plane is mapped onto a
family of confocal hyperbolas in the w-plane with the exception y = 0, y = p and
y = π/2.
The map of y = 0 is given by
u = cosh x and v = 0.
 Analytic Functions 3.57

When x > 0, cosh x takes values from 1 to ∞.

∴ The image of the positive part of the x-axis is the portion of the u-axis for which
u ≥ 1.
The map of y = π is given by
u = − cosh x and v=0
∴ The image of the positive part of the line y = π is the portion of the u-axis for
which u ≤ − 1.
The map of y = π/2 is given by
u = 0 and v = sinh x
π
∴ The images of the positive and negative parts of the line y = are the positive
and negative parts of the v-axis respectively. 2
The image of the family of parallel lines x = a (5), is the family of ellipses

u2 v2
+ =1 (6)
cosh a sinh 2 a
2

The foci of (6) are (± 1, 0).

Thus the family of lines parallel to the y-axis in the z-plane is mapped onto a
family of confocal ellipses in the w-plane with the exception of the y-axis itself.
The image of x = 0 is given by
u = cos y and v = 0
i.e. by −1 ≤ u ≤ 1 and v = 0
i.e. the image of the entire y-axis is the segment of the u-axis, for which −1 ≤
u ≤ 1. Thus, in general, the transformation w = cosh z maps the system of lines
parallel to either coordinate axis in the z-plane into a system of confocal conics in
the w-plane.

k2
5. The Transformation w = z + , where k is real and positive
z

k2 dw k2
w=z+ ∴ = 1− 2
z dz z
= 0, when z = ± k

k2
∴ The transformation w = z + is conformal at all points of the z-plane except
z
at z = ± k.
k2
Putting z = r eiq and w = u + iv in w = z + , we get
z

k 2 −iθ
u + iv = rei θ + e
r
3.58 Mathematics II

 k2   k2 
=  r +  cosθ +  r −  sinθ
 r  r
∴ The transformation equations are
 k2 
u =  r +  cosθ (1)
 r
 k2 
and v =  r −  sin θ (2)
 r
Consider a family of concentric circles with centre at the origin in the z-plane,
given by the polar equation r = a, (3)
where a is a parameter. The image of (3) is given by
 k2   k2 
u =  a +  cosθ and v =  a −  sin θ .
 a  a
Eliminating q from these equations, the equation of the image of the family (3) is
u2 v2
2
+ 2
=1 (4)
 k2   k2 
 a + a   a − a 

Equation (4) represents a family of ellipses whose centres are at the origin,
principal axes lie along the u- and v-axes and foci are at the points
  2 2 
k2   k2 
± a +  −a−  , 0, i.e. (±2k, 0).
  a  a 

The co-ordinates of the foci do not depend on a.

Hence (4) represents a family of confocal ellipses
Thus a family of concentric circles with centre at the origin in the z-plane is
mapped onto a family of confocal ellipses, with the exception of r = k.
The image of the circle r = k is given by u = 2k cos q and v = 0 (from (1) and (2)
i.e. − 2k ≤ u ≤ 2k and v = 0.
Thus the image of the circle r = k is the segment of the u−axis, given by − 2k ≤ u ≤ 2k.
Consider a family of concurrent lines through the origin in the z- plane, given by
the polar equation q = a (5)
where a is a parameter. The image of (5) is given by
 k2   k2 
u =  r +  cos α and v =  r −  sin α .
 r  r 
Eliminating r from these equations, the equation of the image of the family (5) is
u2 v2
− = 4k 2
cos2α sin2α
u2 v2
or 2 2
− 2 2 =1 (6)
4k cos α 4k sin α
 Analytic Functions 3.59

Equation (6) represents a family of hyperbolas whose centres are at the origin,
principal axes lie along the u- and v-axes and foci are at the points

(± )
4k 2 cos2 α + 4k 2 sin2 α , 0 , i.e. (± 2k, 0)

The coordinates of the foci do not depend on a. Hence (6) represents a family of
confocal hyperbolas.
Thus a family of concurrent lines through the origin in the z-plane is mapped onto
a family of confocal hyperbolas, with the exceptions of q = 0, q = p and q = p/2. The
image of q = 0 is given by
k2
u=r+ and v = 0
r
2
 k 
i.e. u= r−  + 2k and v=0
 r

i.e. u > 2k and v=0

Thus the image of the positive part of the x-axis is the part of the u-axis for which
u > 2k.
Similarly the image of q = p, i.e. the negative part of the x-axis is that part of the
u-axis for which u < − 2k.
3π
The images of the lines q = p/2 and θ = are given by u = 0.
2
Hence the image of the y-axis is the v-axis.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3(c)

Example 3.1 Find the image of the circle |z| = 2 under the transformation
(i) w = z + 3 + 2i,
(ii) w = 3 z, (iii) w = 2 eiπ 4 z and (iv) w = (1 + 2i) z + (3 + 4i)

(i) The equation of the given circle |z| = 2 in the Cartesian from is x2 + y 2 = 2
or x2 + y2 = 4 (1)
The mapping function is w = z + 3 + 2i
i.e. u + iv = x + iy + 3 + 2i

∴ The transformation equations are

u=x+3 (2)
and v=y+2 (3)
Eliminating x and y from (1), (2) and (3), we get the equation of the image.
From (2), x = u − 3; from (3), y = v − 2.
3.60 Mathematics II

Using these values of x and y in (1), the required equation of the image is
(u − 3)2 + (v − 2) 2 = 4.
(ii) The transformation is w = 3z
i.e. u + iv = 3 (x + iy)
∴ u = 3x (4)
and v = 3y (5)
Eliminating x and y from (1), (4) and (5), the equation of the image of (1) is
obtained as
2 2
 u  v
  +   = 4 or u2 + v2 = 36.
3 3

(iii) The transformation is w = 2 ⋅ eiπ / 4 ⋅ z

i.e., u + iv = 2 (cos π 4 + i sin π 4) z

= (1 + i) ( x + iy)
∴ u=x−y (6)
and v=x+y (7)

u+v v −u
From (6) and (7), w get x = and y = .
2 2
Using these values of x and y in (1), the image of (1) is obtained as
 v + u  v − u
2 2

  +  =4
2   2 
i.e. u2 + v2 = 8.
(iv) The transformation is w = (1 + 2i) z + (3 + 4i)
i.e. u + iv = (1 + 2i) (x + iy) + 3 + 4i
= (x − 2y + 3) + i (2x + y + 4)
∴ u = x − 2y + 3 (8)
and v = 2x + y + 4 (9)

Solving (8) and (9), we get

u + 2v − 11 v − 2u + 2
x= and y=
5 5
Using these values of x and y in (1), the image of (1) is obtained as
(u − 3)2 + (v − 4)2 = 20 (10)

Aliter
The transformation is w − (3 + 4i) = (1 + 2i)z
 Analytic Functions 3.61

∴ |w − (3 + 4i)| = |1 + 2i| |z|

∴ The map of |z| = 2 is given by

|w − (3 + 4i)| = 2 5 , which is a circle whose centre is the point (3 + 4i) and radius
equal to 2 5 and which is the same as the circle given by (10).

Example 3.2
(a) Find the image of the triangular region in the z-plane bounded by the lines x = 0,
y = 0 and x + y = 1 under the transformation (i) w = 2z and (ii) w = eip /4. z
(b) Find the image of the rectangular region in the z-plane bounded by the lines x =
0, y = 0, x = 2 and y = 1 under the transformation
(i) w = z + 2 −i and (ii) w = (1 + 2i)z + (1 + i).
(a) (i) w = 2z i.e., u + iv = 2(x + iy)
∴ u = 2x and v = 2y
∴ The images of x = 0, y = 0 and x + y = 1 are respectively u = 0, v = 0 and u + v = 2.
The corresponding regions in the z-and w-planes are shown in the Figs 3.10 (a) and
(b) respectively.
y v u
+
x+

v=
y=

2
1

x u
O O
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.10

1
(a) (ii) w = eip /4 . z i.e., u + iv = (1 + i ) (x + iy )
2
1 1
∴ u= (x − y) and v= ( x + y)
2 2
On solving, we get,
1 1
x= (u + v ) and y= (v − u )
2 2
∴ The maps of x = 0 and
y = 0 are, respectively, u + v = 0 and u = v.
1
The map of x + y = 1 is v = .
2
The corresponding regions in the z-plane and w-plane are shown in the Figs 3.11
(a) and (b) respectively.
3.62 Mathematics II

y
v

x+ v = 1/ 2
y=

u
v=

v=
1

–u
x u
O O
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.11

(b) (i) w = z + 2−i, i.e. u + iv = x + iy + 2−i

i.e. u=x+2 and v=y− 1
The vertices of the given rectangle in the z-plane are (0, 0), (2, 0), (2, 1) and (0, 1).
The images of these points in the w-plane are (2, − 1), (4, − 1), (4, 0) and (2, 0)
respectively. The corresponding regions in the two planes are shown in the Figs 3.12
(a) and (b)
y v

(0, 1) C B (2, 1) (2, 0) (4, 0)

C' B' u
O
A
x
O (2, 0) O' A'
(2, – 1) (4, – 1)
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.12

(b) (ii) w = (1 + 2i)z + (1 + i)

i.e. u + iv = (1 + 2i) (x + iy) + (1 + i)
The image of (0, 0) is given by
u + iv = (1 + 2i) (0 + i0) + 1 + i
= 1 + i, i.e. the point (1, 1)
The image of (2, 0) is given by
u + iv = (1 + 2i) (2 + i0) + 1 + i
= 3 + 5i, i.e. the point (3, 5)
The image of (2, 1) is given by
u + iv = (1 + 2i) (2 + i) + 1 + i
= 1 + 6i, i.e. the point (1, 6)
 Analytic Functions 3.63

y v B' (1, 6)

A' (3, 5)

(0, 1) C B (2, 1)

A
x C'
O (2, 0)
( – 1, 2)
O' (1, 1)
O u
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.13

The image of (0, 1) is given by

u + iv = (1 + 2i) (0 + i) + 1 + i
= − 1 + 2i, i.e. the point (−1, 2)
The corresponding regions in the two planes are shown in the Figs 3.13 (a) and (b).

Example 3.3 Find the critical points of the transformations

1
(i) w = z2 and (ii) w = . Give one example each to show that the mapping given
z
by these functions is not conformal at the critical points.
dw
(i) w = z2 ∴ = 2z
dz
dw
∴ =0 at z=0
dz
∴ z = 0 is the critical point of the transformation w = z2.
Using polar coordinates, w = z2 becomes
Reif = r 2 e i2θ
∴ R = r2 (1)
and f = 2θ (2)

Consider two lines passing through the origin in the z-plane, given by the
polar equations q = a and q = b ( b > a)
Angle between these two lines = b − a
The images of these two lines are
  f = 2a and f = 2b  [from (2)]
3.64 Mathematics II

Angle between these two image lines = 2b  − 2a. Thus angle between any
two curves, i.e. lines through z = 0 is not preserved in magnitude.
∴ The mapping w = z2 is not conformal at z = 0.
1
(ii) w= ∴ d w = − 12 →∞ as z → 0.
z dz z
∴ w = 1/z is not analytic at z = 0 and hence the mapping w = 1/z is not
conformal at z = 0.
i.e. z = 0 is the critical point of the transformation.
1
Using polar co-ordinates, w = becomes
z
1
Rei φ = ei θ
r
1
∴ R= (3)
r
and f = − q  (4)
From (4), we see that the images of the two lines q = a and q = b (b > a)
in the z-plane are f = − a and f = − b.
Angle between the lines q = a and q = b is ( b − α) and the angle between
the image lines is (a − b).
Thus the angle between any two curves, i.e. the lines through z = 0 is not
preserved in sense.
1
∴ The mapping w = is not conformal at z = 0.
z
1
Example 3.4 Show that the transformation w = transforms, in general, circles
z
and straight lines into circles and straight lines. Point out the circles and straight lines
that are transformed into straight lines and circles respectively.
1 1 1 u − iv
w= ∴ z= i.e. x + iy = =
z w u + iv u 2 + v 2
∴ The transformation equations are
u
x= (1)
u2 + v2
−v
and y= (2)
u2 + v2
Consider the equation
a(x2 + y2) + bx + cy + d = 0 (3)
Equation (3) represents a circle not passing through the origin if a ≠ 0 and d ≠ 0,
a circle passing through the origin if a ≠ 0 and d = 0, a straight line not passing
through the origin if a = 0 and d ≠ 0 and a straight line passing through the origin, if
a = 0 and d = 0.
 Analytic Functions 3.65

Using (1) and (2) in (3), the image of (3) in the w-plane is given by
 u2 v2  bu cv
a 2 + 2 2 2 
+ 2 − 2 +d=0
 ( u + v 2 2
) ( u + v )  u + v 2
u + v2
i.e. d (u2 + v2) + bu − cv + a = 0 (4)
Now Eq. (4) represents a circle not passing through the origin if a ≠ 0 and d ≠ 0, a
straight line not passing through the origin if a ≠ 0 and d = 0, a circle passing through the
origin if a = 0 and d ≠ 0 and a straight line passing through the origin if a = 0 and d = 0.
Thus circles not passing through the origin and straight lines passing through the
origin are mapped onto similar circles and straight lines respectively.
But circles passing through the origin are mapped onto straight lines not passing
the origin.
Straight lines not passing through the origin are mapped onto circles passing
through the origin.

Example 3.5 Find the image of the following regions under the transformation
1
w= :
z
(i) the half-plane x > c, when c > 0
(ii) the half-plane y > c, when c < 0

(iii) the in nite strip 1 ≤ y ≤ 1

4 2
Also show the corresponding regions graphically.
1 1 u − iv
w= ∴ z= i.e. x + iy =
z w u 2 + v2
∴ The transformation equations are
u
x= (1)
u 2 + v2
v
and y=− 2 (2)
u + v2
u
(i) The image of the region x > c is given by 2 > c from (1).
u + v2
u
u 2 + v2 <
i.e. c(u2 + v2) < u or
∴
[ c > 0]
c
2 2
 1  1
 u −  + v <  
2
i.e. (3)
2c 2c
Equation (3) represents the interior of the circle
2 2
 1  1  1  1 .
 u −  + v =   , whose centre is  , 0 and radius is
2

2c 2c  2c  2c
The corresponding regions are shown in Figs 3.14 (a) and (b)
3.66 Mathematics II

v
y
1
( 2c' 0)

x>c O u

c x
O
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.14
The image of the region y > c is given by
v
− 2 > c from (2)
u + v2
−v
i.e. c (u2 + v2) < − v or u 2 + v 2 > [
∴ c < 0]
2 2
c
 1  1
i.e. u2 +  v +  >   (4)
 2c   2c 
Equation (4) represents the exterior of the circle
2 2
 1  1  1
u +  v +  =   , whose centre is  0, −  and radius is 1 .
2
 2c   2c   2c  2c
The corresponding regions are shown in the Figs 3.15 (a) and (b)
y v

O 1
x (0, )
y>c 2c
u
O

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.15
1
(iii) The image of y ≥ is given by
4
v 1
− ≥
u 2 + v2 4
i.e. u2 + v2 ≤ − 4v or u2 + (v + 2)2 ≤ 22
i.e. the interior of the circle u2 + (v + 2)2 = 22.
The image of y ≤ 1/2 is given by
v 1
− 2 ≤
u + v2 2
i.e. u2 + v2 ≥ − 2v or u2 + (v + 1)2 ≥ 1
i.e. the exterior of the circle u2 + (v + 1)2 = 1.
The corresponding regions are shown in the Figs 3.16 (a) and (b)
 Analytic Functions 3.67

y v
y = 1/2 u

y = 1/4
x
O
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.16

Example 3.6
(i) Show that the image of the hyperbola x2 − y2 = 1 under the transformation
1
w = is the lemniscate R2 = cos 2 f.
z
(ii) Show that the image of the circle |z − 1| = 1 under the transformation w = z2 is
the cardioid R = 2(1 + cos f).
1 1
(i) w= or z =
z w
1 1
i.e. x + iy = iφ
= (cos φ − i sin φ )
Re R
∴ The transformation equations are
1
x= cos φ (1)
R
1
and y = − sin φ (2)
R
The given hyperbola is x2 − y2 = 1 (3)
Using (1) and (2) in (3), we get the image of (3) in the w-plane in polar co-ordinates
1 1
as 2
cos 2φ − 2 sin 2 φ = 1
R R
i.e. R2 = cos 2 f, which is a lemniscate.
(ii) The given circle is |z − 1| = 1
i.e. |x − 1 + iy| = 1
i.e. (x − 1)2 + y2 = 1 or x2 + y2 − 2x= 0
i.e. r2 − 2r cos θ = 0 or r = 2 cos θ (4)
The transformation is w = z2
i.e. R eif = r2 ei2q
∴ R = r2 (5)
and f = 2θ (6)
Eliminating r and θ from (4), (5) and (6), we get the polar equation of the image
of (4).
From (4), r2 = 4 cos2 θ
= 2(1 + cos2 θ)
i.e. R = 2(1 + cos f), which is a cardioid.
3.68 Mathematics II

Example 3.7 Find the image in the w-plane of the region of the z-plane bounded by
the straight lines x = 1, y = 1 and x + y = 1 under the transformation w = z2.
w = z2 i.e. u + iv = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + i2 xy
∴ The transformation equations are
u = x2 − y2 (1)
and v = 2xy (2)
From the discussion of the transformation w = z2, we get the image of the line
x = 1 as the parabola v2 = − 4 (u − 1) and the image of the line y = 1 as the parabola
v2 = 4(u + 1).
The image of the line x + y = 1 (3)
is got by eliminating x and y from (1), (2) and (3).
Using (3) in (1) and (2), we have
u = x2 − (1 − x)2
and v = 2x (1 − x)
i.e. u = 2x − 1 (4)
and v = 2x (1 − x) (5)
Eliminating x from (4) and (5), we get
 u + 1
v = (u + 1) 1 − 
 2 
1 − u2
i.e. v= or u2 = − 2(v − 1/2)
2
which represents a parabola in the w-plane.
Thus the image of the region bounded by x = 1, y = 1 and x + y = 1 is the region
bounded by the three parabolas v2 = −4(u − 1), v2 = 4(u + 1) and u2 = −2 (v − 1/2)
The corresponding regions in the two planes are shown in the Figs 3.17 (a) and (b).
v
v2=
–4 C' v2 = 4 (u + 1)
(u –
y 1)

y=1 C
B B' A'
u
x+ O
u

x =1
2

y=
=
–2

1
(v

O C"
–1

A
/2
)

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.17
Note The region A′ B′ C′′ is also bounded by the three parabolas, but the
corresponding region is that which contains the images of the points A (1, 0), B (0, 1)
and C (1, 1), namely the points A′(1, 0), B′(−1, 0) and C′(0, 2).
Example 3.8 Find the image of the rectangular region bounded by the lines (i) x = 1,
x = 3, y = 1 and y = 2 and (ii) u = 1, u = 3, v = 1 and v = 2 under the transformation w = z2.
 Analytic Functions 3.69

(i) Proceeding as in the discussion of the transformation w = z2, we nd that the

images of the lines x = 1, x = 3, y = 1 and y = 2 are respectively the parabolas
v2 = − 4 (u − 1), v2 = −36 (u − 9), v2 = 4(u + 1) and v2 = 16(u + 4).
The given rectangular region in the z−plane lies in the rst quadrant,
bounded by q = 0 and q = π/2 in polar form.
Hence the image region lies in the upper half of the w-plane, since the
images of q = 0 and q = π/2 are respectively f = 0 and f = π, as one of
the transformation equations of w = z2 in the polar form is f = 2q. The
corresponding regions are shown in the Figs 3.18 (a) and (b)
v

C'
y
D y=2 C D' B'
x=1 x=3 A'
A y=1 B u
O
O x

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.18
(ii) The transformation equations corresponding to w = z2 are u = x2 − y2 and
v = 2xy.
∴ The images of u = 1, u = 3, v = 1 and v = 2 are respectively the rectangular
hyperbolas x2 − y2 = 1, x2 − y2 = 3, xy = 1/2 and xy = 1 in the z-plane.
y

D'
v
C'
A'
D v=2 C
B' x
u =1 u=3
A v=1 B B" O
O u A"
C"

D"

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.19
3.70 Mathematics II

The required image region is that bounded by these four hyperbolas. There are
two regions bounded by these hyperbolas as shown in the Figs 3.19 (a) and (b).
Both the region in the z-plane are valid images of the given rectangular region in
the w-plane.
This is because we are transforming from the w-plane to the z-plane by means of
the transformation z = w1/2, which is a two valued function.

Example 3.9 Find the images of the following under the transformation w = ez:
(i) the line y = x, (ii) the segment of the y-axis, given by 0 ≤ y ≤ π, (iii) the left
half of the strip 0 ≤ y ≤ p and (iv) the right half of the strip 0 ≤ y ≤ p.
The transformation equations of the mapping w = ez are given by
Reif = ex + iy = ex . eiy
i.e. R = ex (1)
and f = y (2)
(i) The image of the line y = x is
log R = f or R = ef,
which is the polar equation of an equiangular spiral.
(ii) The image of the y-axis i.e., x = 0 is R = 1 [from (1)] i.e., the unit circle |w| = 1.
The image of the y = 0 is f = 0 and that of the line y = p is f = p.
∴ The image of the region 0 ≤ y ≤ p is the region de ned by 0 ≤ f ≤ p, i.e. the upper
half of the w-plane.
Hence the image of the segment of x = 0, between y = 0 and y = π is the
semicircle |w| = 1, v ≥ 0, as shown in the Figs 3.20 (a) and (b).

v
y

π
u
O

x
O
|w|=1
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.20
v
y
|w|=1

y=π
u
O

x
O

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.21
 Analytic Functions 3.71

(iii) The left half of the strip 0 ≤ y ≤ p is given by 0 ≤ y ≤ p and x ≤ 0.

∴ The image is given by 0 ≤ f ≤ p and R ≤ 1 or |w| ≤ 1, i.e. the interior of the unit
circle |w| = 1 lying in the upper half of the w−plane.
The corresponding images are shown in the Figs 3.21 (a) and (b)
(iv) Similarly the right half of the strip 0 ≤ y ≤ p is mapped onto the exterior of the
unit circle |w| = 1 lying in the upper half of the w-plane Figs 3.22 (a) and (b).
v
y

y=π
u
O
x
O

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.22

Example 3.10 Find the maps of the boundary and interior of the rectangle formed
π
by x = ± and y = ± c in the z-plane under the transformation w = sin z.
2

y
C y=c B v

x = – π/2 x = π/2
S2 S1 C' B'
x
O D' S2' O S1'
A'

D y=– c A

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.23
The transformation equations of the mapping function w = sin z are
u = sin x cosh y (1)
and v = cos x sinh y (2)
The part AS1 of the side AB of the given rectangle is given by x = p/2 and
− c ≤ y ≤ 0. Its image is given by
u = cosh y and v = 0 [Fig. 3.23]
du
Now u is a decreasing function of y in − c ≤ y ≤ 0, since = sinh y < 0 , when
dy
y < 0. Hence the image of AS1 is given by v = 0 and cosh c ≥ u ≥ 1, i.e. by the
segment A′S′1 of the u-axis in the w-plane. Similarly the image of S1 B is given by
3.72 Mathematics II

v = 0 and 1 ≤ u ≤ cosh c, i.e. by the segment S′1B′ (which is the same as S′1 A′) of the
u-axis.
π
The image of the line segment BC, i.e. y = c, ≥ x ≥ − π / 2 is given by
2
u = sin x cosh c and
v = cos x sinh c, − p/2 ≤ x ≤ p/2 
i.e. the image of BC is the elliptic arc

u2 v2
+ = 1, v > 0
cosh 2 c sinh 2 c
[When − p/2 ≤ x ≤ p/2 and c > 0, cos x > 0 and sinh c > 0].
i.e. the image of BC is the upper half B′ C′ of the ellipse
u2 v2
+ =1 (3)
cosh 2 c sinh2 c
Similarly the images of the line segments CS2, S2D and DA of the z-plane are the
line segments C′S′2, S′2D′ (which is the same as S′2C′) and the lower half D′A′ of the
ellipse (3).
Thus the image of the boundary of the rectangle consists of the ellipse and the two
segments of the u-axis.
Hence the image of the rectangular region is the interior of the ellipse in the
w-plane.

Example 3.11 Show that the transformation w = cos z maps the segment of the
x-axis given by 0 ≤ x ≤ p/2 into the segment 0 ≤ u ≤ 1 of the u-axis. Show also that it
maps the strip y ≥ 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ p/2 into the fourth quadrant of the w-plane.
The transformation equation of w = cos z are given by u + iv = cos (x + iy)
= cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y
i.e. u = cos x cosh y (1)
v = − sin x sinh y (2)
The image of the x-axis, i.e. y = 0 is given by
u = cos x and v = 0
Since we consider the segment of the x−axis given by 0 ≤ x ≤ p/2, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
Thus the image of the segment of y = 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ p/2, is the segment of v = 0,
0 ≤ u ≤ 1. The boundaries of the given strip are x = 0, x = p/2 and y = 0.
The image of x = 0 is given by u = cosh y and v = 0, i.e. u ≥ 1 and v = 0.
The image of x = p/2 is given by u = 0 and v = sinh y.
Since y ≥ 0 for the given strip, v ≤ 0
Thus the image of x = p/2, y ≥ 0 is u = 0, v ≤ 0
The image of y = 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ p/2 is v = 0, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1.
Thus the image of the given region is the region bounded by
v = 0, 0 ≤ u ≤ l; v = 0, u ≥ 1 and u = 0, v ≤ 0
i.e. v = 0, u ≥ 0 and u = 0, v ≤ 0
i.e. the fourth quadrant in the w-plane. The corresponding regions are shown in the
Figs. 3.24 (a) and (b)
 Analytic Functions 3.73

v
y

u
x = π/2 O
x=0

x
O y=0 v'
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.24

Example 3.12 Find the image of the region de ned by 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, − p/4 < y < p/4
under the transformation w = sinh z.
The transformation equations of w = sinh z are given by u + iv = sinh (x + iy)
= − i sin i (x + iy)
= − i sin i (ix − y)
= sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
i.e. u = sinh x cos y (1)
and v = cosh x sin y (2)
The image of x = 0 is given by u = 0 and
v = sin y i.e. u = 0 and
−1 2 ≤ v ≤ 1 2 ( −p/4 ≤ y ≤ p/4)
∴
The image of x = 3 is given by
u = sinh 3 cos y and v = cosh 3 . sin y
2
u v2
i.e. the ellipse + = 1, u > 0, since cos y ≥ 0.
sinh 2 3 cosh 2 3
The image of y = − p/4 is given by
1 1
u= sinh x and v = − cosh x
2 2
1
i.e. the lower part of rectangular hyperbola v 2 − u 2 = ( v < 0)
∴
2
Similarly the image of y = p/4 is the upper part of the rectangular hyperbola
v2 − u2 = 1/2. Thus the image of the given region is the region in the right part of
the v-axis, bounded by the segment of the v-axis, the ellipse and the rectangular
hyperbola as shown in the Figs 3.25 (a) and (b).
y
y = π/4 v
D C
C'
x=0 x=3 B' D'
x u
O O
B'
A'
A B
y = – π/4
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.25
3.74 Mathematics II

a 2 − b2
Example 3.13 Show that the transformation w = z + transforms the
4z
1
circle z = (a + b ) in the z-plane into an ellipse of semi-axes a, b in the w-plane.
2
k2
In the discussion of the transformation w = z + , we have proved that the
z
image of the circle |z| = c, i.e., r = c is the ellipse whose equation is
u2 v2
2
+ 2
=1 (1)
 k2   k2 
 c + c −
c   c 
a 2 − b2 1
Putting k2 = and c = (a + b) in (1), we get
4 2
k2 1 1
c+ = (a + b) + (a − b) = a and
c 2 2
k2 1 1
c−
= (a + b ) − (a − b) = b
c 2 2
1 1
∴ The image of z = (a + b ) , i.e., r = (a + b) under the transformation
2 2
 a 2 − b2  u 2 v2
w= z+  / z is the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 , whose semi-axes are a and b.
 4  a b

Example 3.14 Prove that the region outside the circle |z| = 1 maps onto the
1
whole of the w-plane under the transformation w = z + .
z
k2
Proceeding as in the discussion of the transformation w = z + , we can prove
z
that the image of the circle |z| = 1, i.e. r = 1 is the segment of the real axis, given by
− 2 ≤ u ≤ 2 and that the image of the circle |z| = a, i.e. r = a is the ellipse

u2 v2
2
+ 2
=1 (1)
 1  1
 a +   a − 
a a
1
The semi axes of this ellipse are f (a) = a + 1/a and g (a) = a − .
a
a2 − 1
Now f ′ (a) = 1 − 1 a2 = > 0 , when a > 1 and g′(a) = 1 + 1/a2 > 0, for all
a2
a and hence when a > 1.
∴ f (a) and g(a) are increasing functions of a, when a > 1.
Hence, when a increases, the semi axes of the ellipse (1) increase.
The region outside the circle r = 1 may be regarded as the area swept by the circle
r = a, where 1 < a < ∞.
 Analytic Functions 3.75

u2 v2
Similarly the area swept by the ellipse 2
+ 2
= 1, 1 < a < ∞ , is
 1  1
 a +   a − 
a a
the entire w-plane.
Hence the region outside the circle r = 1 maps onto the entire w-plane.
1  −α eα 
Example 3.15 Show that the transformation w = ze +  , where a is real,
2  z
maps the upper half of the interior of the circle |z| = ea onto the lower half of the
w-plane.
1 1 
The transformation equations of the mapping function w =  ze−α + −α  are
2  ze 
given by
1  iθ −α 1 − iθ 
u + iv =  re e + −α e 
2 re
1  −α 1 
i.e. u=  r e + −α  cos θ (1)
2 re 

1  −α 1 
and v=  r e + −α  sin θ (2)
2 re 
The boundary of interior of the circle |z| = ea or r = ea lying in the upper half of the
z-plane consists of θ = 0, θ = π and r = eα.
The image of θ = 0 is given by
1  −α 1 
u=  r e + −α  and v = 0, from (1) and (2).
2 re 

1  1 
2

i.e. u=   r e −α / 2 −  + 2  and v = 0
2  r e −α / 2  
 
1
i.e. u≥ (0 + 2) and v = 0 or u ≥ 1 and v = 0.
2
Similarly the image of θ = p is given by u ≤ − 1 and v = 0.
The image of r = eα is given by
u = cos θ and v = 0, from (1) and (2).
i.e., − 1 ≤ u ≤ 1 and v = 0.
Thus the boundary of the semi-circle r = eα lying in the upper half of the z-plane
is the entire u-axis.
The interior of the semi-circle is given by r < eα and 0 < θ < p.
When r < ea, re−a < 1
1
∴ − < −1
re −α
3.76 Mathematics II

 −α 1 
∴  r e − r e −α  < 0

1  −α 1 
∴  r e − −α  sin θ < 0 , since sin θ is positive when 0 < θ < p.
2 re 
i.e. v < 0.
Hence the interior of the semi-circle |z| = eα lying in the upper half of the z-plane
maps onto the lower half of the w-plane. The corresponding images are shown in the
Figs 3.26 (a) and (b).

y v

|z| = eα
O u

x
O
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.26

EXERCISE 3(c)

Part A
(Short Answer Questions)
1. What do you mean by conformal mapping?
2. When is a transformation said to be isogonal? Prove that the mapping w = z is
isogonal.
3. State the conditions for the transformation w = f (z) to be conformal at a point.
4. De ne critical point of a transformation.
5. Find the critical points of the transformation
1 eα 
w =  ze −α +  .
2 z
6. Find the critical points of the transformation w2 = (z − a) (z − b).
7. Find the magni cation factor of small lengths near z = p/4 under the transfor-
mation w = sin z.
Find the image of the circle |z| = a under the following transformations
8. w = z + 2 + 3i 9. w = 2z 10. w = (3 + 4i) z
i
11. w = (1 + i) z + 2 − i 12. w =
2z
13. Find the image of the in nite strip 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 under the transformation w = iz.
14. Find the image of the region that lies on the right of the y-axis under the
transformation w = iz + i.
 Analytic Functions 3.77

15. Find the image of the region y > 1 under the transformation w = (1 − i)z.
16. Find the image of the hyperbola xy = 1 under the transformation w = 3z.
17. Find the image of the hyperbola x2 − y2 = a2 under the transformation
w = (1 + i)z.
18. Find the image of the half-plane y > c, when c > 0 under the transformation
1
w= .
z
19. Find the image of the half-plane x > c, when c < 0 under the transformation
w = 1/z.
i
20. Find the image of the line y = mx under the transformation w = .
z
21. Find the image of the region 0 < θ < p/n in the z-plane under the transformation
w = zn, where n is a positive integer.
22. Find the images of the lines x = 1 and y = 1 under the transformation w = iz2.
23. Find the image of the region 2 < | z | < 3 under the transformation w = z2.
π π
24. Find the image of the region < arg z < under the transformation w = z2.
4 2
25. Find the level curves of u and v under the transformation w = − iz2.
26. Find the image of the in nite strip 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 under the transformation w = ez.
27. Find the image of the x-axis under the transformation w = cos z.
28. Find the image of the y-axis under the transformation w = cos z.
29. Find the image of the x-axis under the transformation w = sinh z.
30. Find the image of the y-axis under the transformation w = sinh z.
a  1
31. Find the equations of transformation for the mapping given by w =  z +  .
2 z
32. Find the images of the points whose polar co-ordinates are (1, 0) and (1, p)
1
under the transformation w = z + .
z
Part B
33. Find the image of the triangle with vertices at z = i, z = 1 − i, z = 1 + i under
the transformation (i) w = 3z + 4 − 2i and (ii) w = iz + 2 − i.
34. Find the map of the square whose vertices are z = 1 + i, − 1 + i, − 1 − i and
1 − i by the transformation w = az + b, where a = 2 (1 + i ) and b = 3 + 3i.
35. Prove that the interior of the circle |z| = a maps onto the interior of an ellipse
ib y
in the w-plane under the transformation w = x + , 0 < b < a. Is the
a
transformation conformal?
1
36. Show that the transformation w = maps the circle |z − 3| = 5 onto the circle
z
3 5
w+ = . What is the image of the interior of the given circle in the
16 16
z- plane?
3.78 Mathematics II

1
37. Find the image of (i) the in nite strip 0 < y < and (ii) the quadrant x > 0,
2c
1
y > 1, under the transformation w = .
z
38. Find the image of the triangle formed by the lines y = x, y = − x and y = 1
under the transformation w = z2.
39. Find the image of the region of the square whose vertices are z = 0, 1, 1 + i
and i under the transformation w = z2.
40. When a > 0, show that w = exp ( p z/a) transforms the in nite strip 0 ≤ y ≤ a
onto the upper half of the w-plane.
41. Discuss the transformation w = log z. Also prove that the whole of the z-plane
maps onto the horizontal strip − p ≤ v ≤ p. (The principal value of log z is to
be considered.)
Note The properties of the transformation w = log z are identical with
those of w = ez, if we interchange z and w.
42. Discuss the transformation w = cos z.
43. Discuss the transformation w = sinh z.
πz
44. Show that the transformation w = sin maps the region of the z-plane
a
given by y ≥ 0 and − a/2 ≤ x ≤ a/2 onto the upper half of the w-plane.
45. Find the image of the semi-in nite strip 0 ≤ x ≤ π, y ≥ 0 under the transformation
w = cos z.
46. Find the image of the region de ned by − p/4 ≤ x ≤ p/4, 0 ≤ y ≤ 3 under the
transformation w = sin z.
47. Show that the transformation w = cosh z maps (i) the segment of the y-axis

from 0 to iπ onto the segment 0 ≤ u ≤ 1 of the u-axis, (ii) the semi-in nite
2
strip x > 0, 0 ≤ y ≤ p/2 onto the rst quadrant of the w-plane.
48. Find the image of the region in the z-plane given by 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and − p/2 ≤ y ≤
p/2 under the transformation w = sinh z.
a  1
49. Show that the transformation w =  z +  where a is a positive constant
2 z
maps (i) the semi-circle |z| = 1 in the upper z-plane onto the segment − a ≤ u ≤
a of the u-axis, (ii) the exterior of the unit circle in the upper z-plane onto the
upper w-plane.
50. Show that the transformation
1  −α eα 
w= ze +  , where a is real, maps the interior of the circle |z| = 1
2  z
onto the exterior of an ellipse whose major and minor axes are of lengths 2
cosh a and 2 sinh a respectively.
 Analytic Functions 3.79

 u2 v2
 Hint: The image of the circle |z| = 1 is the ellipse + = 1 . The
 cosh α sinh 2 α
2

image of any point inside |z| = 1, for example, the point (a, q ), where a < 1 is a

point outside the ellipse, since |u (a, q )| > |u (1, q )| and |v(a, q)| >|v(1, q)|  .

3.7 BILINEAR AND SCHWARZ−CHRISTOFFEL
TRANSFORMATIONS

3.7.1 Bilinear Transformation

az + b
The transformation w = , where a, b, c, d are complex constants such that
cz + d
ad − bc ≠ 0 is called a bilinear transformation. It is also called Mobius or linear
fracti onal transformation.

Now d w = ad − bc . If ad − bc = 0, every point of the z-plane becomes a critical

d z (cz + d ) 2
point of the bilinear transformation.
The transformation can be rewritten as
a (ad − bc)
w= − . Hence, if ad − bc = 0,
c c(cz + d )

a
the transformation takes the form w = , which has no meaning as a mapping
c
function. Due to these reasons, we assume that ad − bc ≠ 0. The expression (ad − bc)
is called the determinant of the bilinear transformation.
az + b − d w+ b
The inverse of the transformation w = is z = , which is also a
cz + d cw − a
bilinear transformation.
The images of all points in the z-plane are uniquely found, except for the point
d
z = − . Similarly the image of every point in the w-plane is a unique point, except
c
a d a
for the point w = . If we assume that the images of the points z = − and w =
c c c
are the points at in nity in the w- and z-planes respectively, the bilinear transformation
becomes one-to-one between all the points in the two planes.
az + b
To discuss the transformation w = , (1)
cz + d
we express it as the combination of simple transformations discussed in the previous
section.
When c ≠ 0, (1) can be expressed as
3.80 Mathematics II

a  bc − ad  1
w= + ⋅
c  c  cz + d
If we make the substitutions
w1 = cz + d (2)
1
w2 = (3)
w1
then w = Aw2 + B (4)
bc − ad a
where A= and B= .
c c
The substitutions (2), (3) and (4) can be regarded as transformations from the
z-plane onto the w1-plane, from the w1-plane onto the w2-plane and from the w2-plane
onto the w-plane respectively.
We know that each of the transformations (2), (3) and (4) maps circles and straight
lines into circles and straight lines (since straight lines may be regarded as circles of
in nite radii).
Hence the bilinear transformation (1) maps circles and straight lines onto circles and
 a  b
straight lines, in general. When c = 0, (1) becomes w =   z +   (d ≠ 0) i.e.
d d
(1) reduces to the form w = Az + B. This transformation also maps circles into circles.
Thus the bilinear transformation always maps circles into circles with lines as
limiting cases.

3.7.2  De nition
If the image of a point z under a transformation w = f(z) is itself, then the point is
called a xed point or an invariant point of the transformation.
Thus a xed point of the transformation w = f(z) is given by z = f(z).
az + b az + b
The xed points of the bilinear transformation w = are given by =z .
cz + d cz + d
As this is a quadratic equation in z, we will get two xed points for the bilinear
trans formation.
Note
1. A bilinear transformation can be uniquely found, if the images w1, w2, w3 of
any three points z1, z2, z3 of the z-plane are given.
Let the bilinear transformation required be
az + b
w= (1)
cz + d
 a  b
  z +  
d d Az + B
(1) can be re-written as w = or
 c C z +1
  z + 1
d
 Analytic Functions 3.81

Since the images of z1, z2 and z3 are w1, w2 and w3 respectively, we have
Az1 + B
w1 = (2)
C z1 + 1
Az2 + B
w2 = (3)
C z2 + 1
Az3 + B
and w3 = (4)
C z3 + 1
Equations (2), (3) and (4) are three equations in three unknowns A, B, C.
Solving them we get the values of A, B, C uniquely and hence the bilinear
transformation (1) uniquely.
2. If a set of three points and their images by a bilinear transformation are
given, it can be found out by using the cross-ratio property of the bilinear
transformation, which is given below.

3.7.3  De nition
If z1, z2, z3, z4 are four points in the z-plane, then ( z1 − z2 ) ( z3 − z4 ) is called the
( z1 − z4 ) ( z3 − z2 )
cross-ratio of these points.
Cross-ratio property of a bilinear transformation The cross-ratio of four points is
invariant under a bilinear transformation.
i.e. if w1, w2, w3, w4 are the images of z1, z2, z3, z4 respectively under a bilinear
transformation, then

( w1 − w2 ) ( w3 − w4 ) = ( z1 − z2 ) ( z3 − z4 ) .
( w1 − w4 ) ( w3 − w2 ) ( z1 − z4 ) ( z3 − z2 )

Proof
az + b
Let the bilinear transformation be w =
cz + d

Then wi − w j =
a zi + b a z j + b ( ad − bc ) zi − z j
− =
( )
(
c zi + d c z j + d ( c zi + d ) c z j + d )
(ad − bc )2 ( z1 − z2 ) ( z3 − z 4 )
∴ (w1 − w2 ) (w3 − w4 ) =
(c z1 + d ) ( cz2 + d ) ( cz3 + d ) (c z 4 + d )
( ad − bc) 2 ( z1 − z4 ) ( z3 − z 2 )
and (w1 − w4 ) (w3 − w2 ) =
(c z1 + d ) (c z2 + d ) (cz3 + d ) (c z 4 + d )
∴ ( w1 − w2 ) ( w3 − w4 ) = ( z1 − z2 ) ( z3 − z4 )
( w1 − w4 ) ( w3 − w2 ) ( z1 − z4 ) ( z3 − z2 )
3.82 Mathematics II

Note To get the bilinear transformation that maps z2, z3, z4 of the z-plane onto
w2, w3, w4, we assume that the image of z under this transformation is w and make use
of the invariance of the cross-ratio of the four points z, z2, z3, z4. Thus

( w − w2 ) ( w3 − w4 ) = ( z − z2 ) ( z3 − z4 ) (1)
( w − w4 ) ( w3 − w2 ) ( z − z4 ) ( z3 − z2 )
(1) ensures that the images of z = z2, z3, z4 are respectively w = w2, w3, w4. Now,
simplifying (1) and solving for w, we get the required bilinear transformation

az + b
in the form w = .
cz + d

3.8 SCHWARZ-CHRISTOFFEL TRANSFORMATION

3.8.1  De nition
The transformation that maps the boundary of a given polygon in the w-plane onto
the x-axis (and hence maps the vertices of the polygon onto points on the x-axis)
and the interior of the polygon onto the upper half of the z-plane is called Schwarz-
Christoffel transformation.
Speci cally, if x1, x2, . . . ., xn that are points on the x-axis such that x1 < x2 < x3 <
. . . . . < xn, are the images of the vertices w1, w2, . . . ., wn of a polygon in the w-plane
and a1, a2, . . . . an are the corresponding interior angles of the polygon, then the
required Schwarz-Christoffel transformation is given by
α1 α2 αn
= A ( z − x1 ) π ⋅ ( z − x2 ) π  ( z − xn ) π ,
dw −1 −1 −1

dz
where A is an arbitrary complex constant.
Proof
[The proof is in the nature of veri cation of the mapping of the transformation.]

v A4 (w4) y
α4
α3
A3 (w3)
P (w)
α2
A2 (w2)
α1
A1
(w1) π – α1

P' A1' A2' A3' A4'

u
O z x1 x2 x3 x4 x
0
Fig. 3.27
The given transformation is
α1 α2 αn
d w = A (z − x1 ) π ⋅ ( z − x2 ) π  (z − xn ) π
−1 −1 −1
⋅dz
 Analytic Functions 3.83

α  α 
∴ amp (d w) = amp (A) +  1 −1 amp ( z − x1 ) +  2 − 1 amp ( z − x2 ) + …
…+
π  π 

 αn 
 π − 1 amp (z − xn ) (1)

[ ∴amp (z1z2 ...) = amp (z1) + amp (z2 ) + .... and amp (zk) = k amp (z)]
Let the image of P(w) be P′(z) as shown in Fig. 3.27.
When P moves towards A1, P′ moves towards A′1. As long as P′(z) is on the left of
A′1 (x1), z − x1, z − x2, . . . ., z − xn are all negative real numbers.
∴ amp (z − x1) = amp (z − x2) = . . . . = amp (z − xn) = p
But once P′(z) has crossed A′1(x1), i.e., when x1 < z < x2, z − x1 is a positive real
number and hence amp (z − x1) = 0, while amp (z − x2) = amp (z − x3) = . . . . = amp
(z − xn) = p
Also amp(A) and amp(dz) do not change.
[ A is a constant and dz is positive hence amp (dz) = 0]
∴
Thus when z croses A′1, amp (z − x1) suddenly changes from p to 0 or undergoes
an increment of −p.
∴ From (1), we get
α 
Increase in amp (dw) =  1 − 1 ( − π ) = π − α 1 .
π 
This increase is in the anticlockwise direction. This means that when P(w),
moving along PA1, reaches A1, it changes its direction through an angle p−a1 in the
anticlockwise sense and then starts moving along A1A2. Similarly when P(w) reaches
A2, it turns through an angle p−a 2 and then starts moving along A2 A3.
Proceeding further, we nd that as P(w) moves along the boundary of the polygon,
P′(z) moves along the x-axis and conversely. Now when a person walks along the
boundary of the polygon in the w-plane in the anticlockwise sense, the interior of the
polygon lies to the left of the person. Hence the corresponding area in the z-plane
should lie to the left of the person, when he or she walks along the corresponding
path in the z-plane, i.e. along the x-axis from left to right. Clearly the corresponding
area is the upper half of the z-plane.
Thus the interior of the polygon in the w-plane is mapped onto the upper half of
the z-plane.

Note
1. Integrating (1), the Schwarz-Christoffel transformation can also be expressed
α1 α2 αn
−1
as w = A∫ ( z − x1 ) π ⋅ ( z − x1 ) π ⋅⋅⋅ ( z − xn ) π
−1 −1
⋅ dz + B
where B is a complex constant of integration.
2. The transformation which maps a polygon in the z-plane onto the real axis of
the w-plane is got by interchanging z and w in the above transformation.
3. It is known that not more than three of the points x1, x2, . . ., xn can be chosen
arbitrarily.
3.84 Mathematics II

4. It is advantageous to choose one point, say xn, at in nity, as explained below.

λ
If we take A = αn
, where l  is a constant, the transformation can be
( − xn ) π
−1

written as
αn
−1
 x − z
αn −1

( )
α1 α2 π
= λ ( z − x1 ) π ⋅ ( z − x 2 ) π ⋅⋅⋅ z − xn − 1
dw −1 −1 −1
π
⋅ n
dz  x 
n

As xn → ∞ , the transformation reduces to

αn −1

( )
α1 α2
dw
= λ ( z − x1 ) π ⋅ ( z − x 2 ) π ⋅⋅⋅⋅ z − xn − 1
−1 −1 −1
π
dz
αn
This means that, if xn is at in nity, the factor ( z − xn ) π
−1
is absent in the
transformation. Thus the R.H.S. of the transformation contains one factor less
than the original form.
5. In nite open polygons can be considered as limiting cases of closed polygons.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3(d)

2 z + 4i
Example 3.1 Find the invariant points of the transformation w = − . Prove
iz + 1
also that these two points together with any point z and its image w, form a set of four
points having a constant cross ratio.
The invariant points of the transformation are given by
2 z + 4i
z=−
i z +1

i.e. iz2 + 3z + 4i = 0 or z2 − 3iz + 4 = 0

i.e. (z − 4i) (z + i) = 0
2 z + 4i
∴ The invariant points are 4i and − i. Taking z1 = z , z 2 = w = − , z3 = 4i and
i z +1

z4 = − i, the cross-ratio of the four points z1, z2, z3 and z4 is given by

 2 z + 4i 
 z + i z + 1  ( 4i + i)
( z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) =
 2 z + 4i 
( z + i )  4i +
 i z + 1 

=
(
5i i z 2 + 3 z + 4i )
( z + i ) (− 2 z + 8i )
 Analytic Functions 3.85

=
(
5i i z2 + 3 z + 4i )
2i (i z 2
+ 3 z + 4i )

= 5/2
= a constant, independent of z.

Example 3.2 Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points 1 + i, − i, 2 − i of
the z-plane into the points 0, 1, i of the w-plane.
Taking z1 = 1 + i, z2 = − i, z3 = 2 − i and w1 = 0, w2 = 1, w3 = i and using the
invariance of the cross-ratio (z, z1, z2, z3), we have

( w − 0) (1 − i) = ( z − 1 − i ) (−2)
( w − i ) (1 − 0) ( z − 2 + i ) ( −1 − 2i)
w − i ( z − 2 + i ) ( −1 − 2i ) (1 − i )
i.e. =
w ( z − 1 − i ) ( −2)
i ( 3 + i ) ( z − 2 + i)
i.e. 1− =
w 2 ( z − 1− i)

i (3 + i ) z − 7 + i
∴ = 1−
w 2 z − 2 − 2i
− (1 + i) z + 5 − 3i
=
2 z − 2 − 2i

∴ w=
(2 z − 2 − 2i )
−i {− (1 + i) z + 5 − 3i}

i.e. the required bilinear transformation is

2 z − 2 − 2i
w=
(i − 1) z − 3 − 5i

Example 3.3 Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points (i) i, − 1, 1 of
the z-plane into the points 0, 1, ∞ of the w-plane respectively (ii) z = 0, z = 1 and z = ∞
into the points w = i, w = 1 and w = − i.
(i) (w, w1, w2, w3) = (z, z1, z2, z3)

i.e.,
( w − w1 ) ( w2 − w3 ) = ( z − z1 ) ( z2 − z3 ) (1)
( w − w3 ) ( w2 − w1 ) ( z − z3 ) ( z2 − z1 )
1
To avoid the substitution of w3 = ∞ in (1) directly, we put w3 = simplify and
w3′
then put w′3 = 0. Thus (1) becomes
3.86 Mathematics II

(w − w1 ) ( w2 w3′ − 1) ( z − z1 ) ( z2 − z3 )
= (2)
( w w3′ − 1) ( w2 − w1 ) ( z − z3 ) ( z2 − z1 )
Using the given values z1 = i, z2 = − 1, z3 = 1, w1 = 0, w2 = 1 and w′3 = 0, we get

w ( −1) ( z − i) ( −2) , i.e., (1 − i) ( z − i)

= w=
(−1)1 ( z − 1) ( −1 − i) z −1

(ii) ( w − w1 ) ( w2 − w3 ) = ( z − z1 ) ( z2 − z3 )
( w − w3 ) ( w2 − w1 ) ( z − z3 ) ( z2 − z1 )
=
( z − z1 ) ( z2 z3′ − 1) , where z = 1
3′
( z z3′ − 1) ( z 2 − z1 ) z3

Using the values z1 = 0, z2 = 1, z’3 = 0 and w1 = i, w2 = 1 and w3 = − i, we get

( w − i ) (1 + i) = z ( −1)
( w + i) (1 − i ) ( −1)⋅1
w − i (1 − i ) z
i.e. =
w+ i 1+ i

2w (1 − i ) z + (1 + i)  Nr + Dr 
i.e. = = 
2i (1 + i ) − (1 − i ) z  Dr − Nr 

∴ w=
(1 + i) z + (i − 1) or w=
z+i
.
(1 + i) − (1 − i ) z iz +1

Example 3.4 If a, b are the two xed points of a bilinear transformation, show that
w−a  z − a  , where k is a constant, if a ≠ b;
= k
 z − b 
it can be written in the form (i)
w−b
1 1
(ii) = + c , where c is a constant, if a = b.
w−a z −a

(i) Since the images of a and b are a and b respectively, (w, a, w3, b) = (z, a, z3, b)

( w − a ) (w3 − b ) ( z − a) ( z3 − b )
i.e. =
( w − b) (w3 − a) ( z − b) ( z3 − a )

w − a  ( z3 − b ) ( w3 − a)   z − a 
i.e. =  
w − b  ( z3 − a ) ( w3 − b)   z − b 
 Analytic Functions 3.87

w− a  z − a
= k
 z − b 
i.e. , where k is a constant.
w−b
(ii) Since the image of z = a is w = a, the bilinear transformation can assumed as
z−a
w− a = (1)
cz + d
The xed points of (1) are given by
(z − a) [(cz + d) − 1] = 0
 d − 1
i.e. c (z − a )  z + =0 (2)
 c 
Since both the roots of (2) are equal to a,
d −1
= − a ∴ d = − ca + 1 (3)
c
z−a
Using (3) in (1), the required bilinear transformation is w − a =
cz − ca + 1
1 c (z − a ) + 1
i.e. =
w−a z−a
1 1
i.e. = + c, where c is a constant.
w−a z −a

z −1
Example 3.5 Show that the transformation w = maps the unit circle in the
z +1
w-plane onto the imaginary axis in the z-plane. Find also the images of the interior
and exterior of the unit circle.
The image of the unit circle |w| = 1 is given by
z −1
= 1, i.e. |z − 1| = |z + 1|
z +1
i.e. |(x − 1) + iy| = |(x + 1) + iy|
i.e. (x − 1)2 + y2 = (x + 1)2 + y2
i.e. −2x = 2x or x = 0, which is the imaginary axis.
The image of the interior of the unit circle i.e. |w| < 1 is given by |z − 1| < | z + 1|
i.e. −2x < 2x or x > 0, which is the right half of the z-plane.
Similarly the image of the exterior of the circle |w| = 1 is the left half of the
z-plane.
z −i
Example 3.6 Show that the transformation w = maps (i) the interior of the
1 − iz
circle | z | = 1 onto the lower half of the w-plane and (ii) the upper half of the z-plane
onto the interior of the circle | w | = 1.
3.88 Mathematics II

z−i
w= (1)
1 − iz

∴ w − iwz = z − i
i.e. z (1 + iw) = w + i

w+i
∴ z= (2)
1 + iw
(2) is the inverse transformation of (1). The interior of the circle | z | = 1 is given by
| z | < 1.

From (2), the image of | z | < 1 is given by

w+i
< 1 , i.e. | w + i | < | 1 + iw |
1+ iw
i.e. | u + i (v + 1)| < | (1 − v) + iu |
i.e. u2 + (v + 1)2 < (1 − v)2 + u2
i.e. 2v < − 2v or 4v < 0 or v < 0,
i.e., the lower half of the w-plane.
(2) can be written as
u + i (v + 1)
x + iy =
(1 − v) + iu

=
[u + i (v + 1)] [(1 − v ) − iu ]
(1 − v) 2 + u 2
u [1 − v + v + 1] + i (1 − v 2 − u 2 )
=
u 2 + (1 − v) 2

2u
∴ x= (3)
u + (1 − v) 2
2

1 − u 2 − v2
and y= (4)
u 2 + (1 − v) 2
The upper half of the z-plane is given by y > 0. Its image is given by
1 − u 2 − v2
> 0 [from (4)]
u 2 + (1 − v) 2
i.e. u2 + v2 < 1 or | w |2 < 1
i.e. |w|<1

i.e. the interior of the circle | w | = 1.

 Analytic Functions 3.89

Example 3.7 Find the most general bilinear transformation that maps the upper half
of the z-plane onto the interior of the unit circle in the w-plane.
Let the required bilinear transformation be
az +b
w= (1)
cz + d
Since the image of y > 0 has to be | w | < 1, the boundaries of the two regions must
correspond i.e. the image of y = 0 must be | w | = 1. Since three points determine a
circle uniquely, we shall make three convenient points lying on y = 0 map into three
points on | w | = 1. Let us assume that the three points z = 0, z = ∞ and z = 1 map onto
points on the circle | w | = 1. Thus, when z = 0, | w | = 1.
b
∴ From (1), we get 1= , i.e. b = d (2)
d

a+b/ z
Rewriting (1), we have w= (1)′
c+d /z
When z = ∞, | w | = 1.
a
∴ From (1)′, we get = 1 , i.e. | a | = | c | (3)
c
If a = 0, then, from (3), we see that c = 0
b
In this case, the transformation (1) becomes w = , which will map the whole
d
b
of z-plane onto a single point w = , which is not true. Hence a ≠ 0 and so c ≠ 0,
d
from (3).

a a
∴ ≠ 0 , such that = 1 , from (3)
c c

∴ a may be taken as eiθ, where θ is real.

c
a (z + b/a )
Again, re-writing (1), w =
c (z + d /c )

 z + b/a 
i.e. w = eiθ 
 z + d /c 

b d
Putting = − α and = − β , where a and b are complex, the required
a c
transformation becomes
 z −α
w = eiθ 
 z − β 
(4)
3.90 Mathematics II

From (2) and (3), we have b = d

a c
i.e. |a|=|b| (5)
We have assumed that the point z = 1 also maps onto a point on the circle | w | = 1.
1−α
∴ From (4), 1 = eiθ
1− β
i.e. |1 − a | = |1 − b | (6)
From (5) and (6), we nd that either a = b or α = β .
If we assume that a = b, the transformation reduces to w = e iq, which will map the
whole of the z-plane into a single point, which is not true. Hence β = α .
 z −α
∴ The required transformation is w = eiθ  . Since α is arbitrary, it can be
 z − α 
taken as any point in the upper half of the z-plane.
The image of z = α is w = 0, which lies inside | w | = 1.
Thus the upper half of the z-plane maps onto | w | < 1 by the transformation
 z −α
w = eiθ  , where α is any point in y > 0.
 z − α 

Example 3.8 Find the transformation that will map the strip x ≥ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 of
the z-plane into the half-plane (i) v ≥ 0 and (ii) u ≥ 0.
(i) Consider the isosceles triangle BAC, which is a three sided polygon.
[Fig. 3.28]

B y=1

x=1 C

x u
O A y=0 O
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.28
When C → ∞, the interior of this triangle becomes the region of the given strip.
π π
In the limit, the interior angles of the polygon are , and 0 .
2 2
Let us assume that the images of B, A, C are w = − 1, 1 and ∞ respectively.
Then the required Schwarz-Christoffel transformation is
dz π
−1 π
−1
= A (w + 1) 2π ⋅ (w − 1) 2 π ,
dw
 Analytic Functions 3.91

omitting the factor corresponding to w = ∞ , as per Note (4) under the discussion of
the transformation.

Note z and w are interchanged in the Schwarz-Christoffel transformation for-

mula, as we are mapping a polygon in the z-plane onto the upper half of the w-plane.
dz
i.e. = A ( w + 1) −1 / 2 . (w − 1) −1 / 2
dw
A
∴ =
w2 − 1
Integrating with respect to w, we get
z = A cosh−1 w + B
When z = 1, w = 1, ∴ B = 1
When z = 1 + i, w = −1 ∴ 1 + i = A cosh−1 (−1) + 1
i.e. i = A . ip [ cosh ip = cos p = − 1]
∴

1
A=
π
1
∴ Required transformation is z = cosh −1 w + 1
π
i.e. cosh −1 w = p (z − 1) or w = cosh p (z − 1)
(ii) Put w′ = u′ + iv′ = i (u + iv) = iw
This means that u − v system is rotated about the origin through π in the
2
positive direction giving u′ − v′ system. Hence v′ ≥ 0 corresponds to u ≥ 0.
∴ The required transformation that maps the given region in the z-plane onto
u ≥ 0 is
i w = cosh p (z − 1)
i.e. w = − i cosh p (z − 1)
Example 3.9 Find the transformation that maps the semi-in nite strip y ≥ 0, − a ≤ x
≤ a onto the upper half of the w-plane. Make the points z = −a and z = a correspond
to the points w = –1 and w = 1.
v
y

x u
A B A' O B'
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.29
3.92 Mathematics II

Proceeding as in the previous example, the required transformation is

dz A iA k
= = = [Fig. 3.29]
dw w −1 i w − 1
2 2
1 − w2

Note This change is made to simplify the evaluation of constants after integration.
dw
∴ z=k∫ +B
1 − w2
= k sin−1 w + B (1)
When z = − a, w = − 1 and when z = a, w = 1
∴ k (− π/2) + B = −a and k (π/2) + B = a
2a
Solving, we get k= and B = 0.
π 2a
Using these values in (1), the required transformation is z = sin −1 w or
π
 π z
w = sin  
 2a 

Example 3.10 Find the transformation that maps the in nite strip 0 ≤ v ≤ π of the
w-plane onto the upper half of the z-plane.

u
A v=π y

B C –1 1

u x
O A' O(B')
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.30
Consider the rhombus ABOC, which is a four sided polygon. [Fig. 3.30]
When B and C → ∞, the interior of the this rhombus becomes the region of the given
strip. In the limit, the interior angles at A, B, O and C are p, O, p and O respectively.
Let us assume that the images of A, B, O, C are the points −1, 0, 1 and ∞ of the
z-plane.
Then the required transformation is
dw r 1 0 1 r 1
= A (z + 1) r $ (z - 0) r $ (z - 1) r
- - -
dz

i.e. dw A ∴ w = A log z + B (1)

=
dz z
When w = 0, z = 1 ∴B = 0
When w = p i, z = −1 ∴ A log (−1) = p i
i.e. A log (e ip ) = pi
i.e. A (ip) = ip or A = 1
Using these values in (1), the required transformation is w = log z.
 Analytic Functions 3.93

EXERCISE 3(d)

Part A
(Short Answer Questions)
1. De ne a bilinear transformation and its determinant.
1− iz
2. Find the value of the determinant of the transformation w = .
z −i
3. What do you mean by the xed point of a transformation? Does the xed
point exist only for a bilinear transformation?
4. De ne the cross ratio of four points in a complex plane.
5. State the cross ratio property of a bilinear transformation.
6. What is Schwarz-Christoffel transformation? State the formula for the same.
7. What is the advantage of choosing the image of one vertex of the polygon at
in nity in Schwarz-Christoffel transformation?
8. Find the invariant points of the transformations
(i) w = iz2 and (ii) w = z3
Find the invariant points of the transformations
2z + 6 3z − 5 i z −1 − i
9. w= 10. w = 11. w =
z+7 i z −1 z+2
az +b
12. Find the condition for the invariant points of the transformation w = to
cz + d
be equal.
13. Find all linear fractional transformations whose xed points are − 1 and 1.
14. Find all linear fractional transformations whose xed points are − i and i.
15. Find all linear fractional transformations without xed points in the nite
plane.
1
16. Find the image of the real axis of the z-plane by the transformation w = .
z+i
Part B
17. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points
(i) z = 0, − i, − 1 into w = i, 1, 0 respectively,
(ii) z = − i, 0, i into w = − 1, i, 1 respectively.
18. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points (i) z = 0, − 1, ∞, into the
points w = − 1, −2 − i, i respectively, (ii) z = 0, − i, 2 i into the points w = 5i,
∞ − i/3 respectively.
z
19. Prove that w = maps the upper half of the z-plane onto the upper half
1− z
of the w-plane. What is the image of the circle | z | = 1 under this
transformation?
20. When the point z moves along the real axis of the z-plane from z = − 1 to z = + 1,
1− i z
nd the corresponding movement of the point w in the w-plane, if w = .
z −i
3.94 Mathematics II

z −i
21. Prove that, under the transformation w = , the region Im(z) ≥ 0 is mapped
i z −1
onto the region | w | ≤ 1. Into what region is Im (z) ≤ 0 mapped by this
transformation?
22. Find the images of (i) the segment of the real axis between z = + 1 and z = − 1
(ii) the interior of the circle | z | = 1 and (iii) the exterior of the circle | z | = 1
1+ iz
under the transformation w = .
z+i
i−z
23. Show that the transformation w = maps the circle | z | = 1 onto the
i+z
imaginary axis of the w-plane. Find also the images of the interior and
exterior of this circle.

24. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the upper half of the z-plane onto
the interior of the unit circle of the w-plane in such a way that the points
z = i, ∞ are mapped onto w = 0, −1.
[Hint: Use Worked Example (3.7).]
25. Find the transformation which maps the area in the z-plane within an in nite

sector of angle π onto the upper half of the w-plane.

m

Hint: The sectoral region bounded by OX and OP may be regarded as an

open polygon with vertex at O and interior angle π . Make the origin of the
m

z-plane correspond to the origin of the w-plane. 

26. Find the transformation which maps the semi-in nite strip
(i) x ≥ 0, 0 ≤ y ≤ c onto v ≥ 0
(ii) u ≥ 0, 0 ≤ v ≤ p onto y ≥ 0
27. Find the transformation which maps the semi-in nite strip y ≥ 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ a
onto the upper half of the w-plane. Make the points z = 0 and z = a correspond
to w = +1 and w = –1.
28. Find the transformation that maps the in nite strip 0 ≤ y ≤ k onto the upper
half of the w-plane. Make the points z = 0, z = ik correspond to w = 1, –1.
29. Find the transformation that maps the region in the z-plane above the line y =
b, when x < 0 and that above the x-axis, when x > 0 into the upper half of the
w-plane. Make the points z = ib and z = 0 correspond to w = –1 and w = 1.
30. Find the transformation that maps the region in the w-plane above the u-axis
when u < 0 and that above v = b when u > 0 into the upper half of the z-plane.
Make the points w = 0 and w = ib correspond to z = 0 and z = 1.
 Analytic Functions 3.95

ANSWERS

Exercise 3 (a)
16. at all points on the line y = x 17. at all points
18. nowhere 19. only at the origin
20. at all points except z = −1 21. a = 2, b = −1, c = −1, d = 2
22. p=−1 36. 2z 37. ez 38. −sin z
39. cosh z

Exercise 3 (b)
5. y + c 6. Yes 7. Yes 8. No
9. Yes 10. No 11. 2 xy 12. ex sin y
 y
13. cos x sinh y 14. x2 − y2 + 2y; 15. 2 tan −1   16. log z
 x
17. −z2 18. eiz 19. cosh z 20. 1
z
21. v = 3x2y − y3 + 2xy + y2 − x2 + c; f (z) = z3 + z2 − iz2 + ic
22. u = x3 − 3xy2 − 2xy + c; f (z) = z3 + iz2 + c
y 1
23. ψ = 2 xy − 2 + c; f (z ) = z 2 + + ic
x +y 2
z
24. f = x2 − y2 − 2x + 3y − 2xy + c f(z) = z2 − 2z + i (z2 −3z)
z4 z2
25. + + (1 + i ) z x4 − 6x2y2 + y4 + 2 (x2 − y2) + 4 (x − y) = c′
4 2
26. w = −iz . ez + ic ; v = ex (y sin y − x cos y) + c
27. w = ize−z + c ; u = e−x (x sin y − y cos y) +c
2
28. w = −ie iz +ic ; v = e−2xy cos (x2 − y 2) + c
29. w = zei2z + c ; u = e−2y (x cos 2x − y sin 2x) + c
1+ i
30. f (z ) = −1 31. f (z) = iz2 − z
z
cot z 1
32. f (z ) = +c 33. f (z ) = (1 + sec z )
1+ i 2
37. 2y + y3 − 3x2y = b

Exercise 3 (c)
1 1
5. z = ± ea 6. z = a, β   and (α + β ) 7.
2 2
8. (u − 2)2 + (v − 3)2 = a2 9. | w | = 2a 10. | w | = 5a
3.96 Mathematics II

1
11. (u − 2)2 + (v + 1)2 = 2a2 12. w = 13. 0 < v < 2
2a
14. v > 1 15. u + v > 2 16. u v = 9 17. u v = a2
2 2
 1  1
18. Interior of the circle u 2 +  v +  =  
 2c   2c 
2 2
19. Exterior of the circle  u −  + v 2 =  
1 1
 2c   2c 
20. u = mv 21. Upper half of the w-plane
22. u2 = − 4 (v − 1); u2 = 4 (v + 1) 23. 4 < |w| < 9
π
24. < arg (w) < π 25. x y = c1 and y2 − x 2 = c2
2
26. The annular region 1 ≤ R ≤ e
27. Segment of v = 0, given by − 1 ≤ u ≤ 1
28. Part of v = 0, given by u ≥ 1
29. u-axis 30. Segment of u = 0, given by −1 ≤ v ≤ 1.

31. u =
a  1 a  1
 r +  cos θ , v =  r −  sin θ
2 r 2 r
32. (± 2, 0)
33. (i) Triangle with vertices w = 4 + i, 7 + i, 7 − 5i
(ii) Triangle with vertices w = 1 − i, 1, 3 − 2i

( ) (
34. Square with vertices w = 3 + 3 ± 2 2 i , 3 ∓ 2 2 + 3i )
35. No
36. The exterior of the image circle
37. (i) u2 + (v + c)2 > c2, v < 0
(ii) u2 + v2 + v < 0, u > 0
38. The region enclosed by v2 = 4 (u + 1) and u = 0
39. The region above the u-axis, bounded by the u-axis, v2 = 4 (1 − u) and v2 = 4
(1 + u).
45. The lower half of the w-plane
46. The region in the upper half of the w-plane bounded by the part of the
1 1 u2 v2
u-axis given by − ≤u≤ , the ellipse + = 1 and the
2 2 cosh 2 3 sinh 2 3
1
hyperbola u 2 − v 2 =.
2
u2 v2
48. The elliptic annular region bounded by + = 1 and
sinh 2 1 cosh 2 1
u2 v2
+ = 1 , lying in the right half of the w-plane.
sinh 2 2 cosh 2 2
 Analytic Functions 3.97

Exercise 3 (d)
2. −2 3. No
8. (i) z = 0 and z = −i
(ii) z = 0, ± 1.
9. z = 1, − 6 10. z = i, − 5i 11. z = − i, z=−1+i

az +b az +b
12. (a − d)2 + 4bc = 0 13. w = 14. w =
bz + a a −bz
15. w = z + a 16. u2 + v2 + v = 0
 z + 1
17. (i) w = − i 
 z − 1
i−iz
(ii) w =
z +1

iz − 2
18. (i) w =
z+2
3 z − 5i
(ii) w =
iz −1

19. The line u = – 1/2

20. w moves along the upper half of the circle | w | = 1 from w = −1 to w = +1 in

the clockwise sense.
21. | w | ≥ 1

22. The lower half of the circle | w | = 1; v < 0; v > 0

i−z
23. u > 0; u < 0 24. w = 25. w = kzm
i+z
z
26. (i) w = cosh
c
(ii) z = cosh w

27. w = cos π z 28. w = ep z/k

a

29. z =
b
π
( w2 − 1 + cosh −1 w ) 30. w =
2i b
π
(
sin −1 z + z (1 − z) )
 Unit-4
Complex IntegratIon