CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION

“Feelings of worth can flourish only in an atmosphere where individual

differences are appreciated, mistakes are tolerated, communication is open, and
rules are flexible — the kind of atmosphere that is found in a nurturing family.”

Virginia Satir

“To put the world right in order, we must first put the nation in order; to
put the nation in order, we must first put the family in order; to put the family in
order, we must first cultivate our personal life; we must first set our hearts
right.”

Confucius

The term ‘family’ has been derived from the Roman word ‘Famulus’
which means a servant. In Roman law the word refers to the group of producers
and slaves and servants and members of common descent. Family is a small group
which consists of father, mother and their children who are related with each other
by kinship ties on the basis of marriage, blood or adoption. It is a biological unit
which consists of parents and children. The meaning of family can be better
understood from the following definitions:

According to Maclver (2006) “Family is a group defined by a sex

relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and
upbringing of children.”

In the words of Burgess and Locke (1953), “Family is a group of persons

united by the ties of marriage, blood or adoption consisting of a single household
interacting and inter communicating with each other in their respective social roles
of husband and wife, mother and father, son and daughter, brother and sister
creating a common culture.”

Eliott and Merrill (1951) define family as: “Family is the biological social
unit composed of husband ,wife and children.”

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 From above definitions, it‟s clear that family is an institution which
nurtures many of the socialization processes of the child. Family is a basic social
unit consisting of parents and their children, considered as a group, whether
dwelling together or not. It is the main social agent for providing affection and
socialization of young children. A family shares legal and blood bonds too.

 Legal Bonds: Families are legally bound through marriages, adoptions, and
guardianships, including the rights, duties, and obligations of those legal
contracts. Legal bonds can be changed, expanded, or dissolved to change the
composition of a family.
 Blood Bonds: Individuals who are directly related through a common
ancestor are part of a family. This includes both close and distant relatives
such as siblings, parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews, and
cousins.

Characteristics of Family
1. Family is a Universal group. It is found in some form or the other, in all types
of societies whether primitive or modern.

2. A family is based on marriage, which results in a mating relationship between

two adults of opposite sex.

3. Every family provides an individual with a name, and hence, it is a source of

nomenclature.

4. Family is the group through which descent or ancestry can be traced.

5. Family is the most important group in any individual‟s life.

6. Family is the most basic and important group in primary socialization of an

individual.

7. A family is generally limited in size, even large, joint and extended families.

8. The family is the most important group in society; it is the nucleus of all
institutions, organizations and groups.

9. Family is based on emotions and sentiments. Mating, procreation, maternal

and fraternal devotion, love and affection are the basis of family ties.

10. The family is a unit of emotional and economic cooperation.

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11. Each member of family shares duties and responsibilities.

12. Every family is made up of husband and wife, and/or one or more children,
both natural and adopted.

13. Each family is made up of different social roles, like those of husband, wife,
mother, father, children, brothers or sisters.

Functions of Family
As a social group and as an important social institution, family performs
various functions that are as follows:

1. Family is a unit through which procreation takes place. Marriage sanctions

sexual relationships, and it also establishes a family, which is further
reinforced with the birth of children.

2. The process of reproduction is institutionalized, regulated and controlled in

a family. The family legitimizes the act of reproduction.

3. Family helps in propagation of human species and perpetuation of human

race.

4. Family provides an individual with an identity.

5. It is through the family that every family name is carried on from one
generation to another.

6. Family is responsible for the production and upbringing of children.

7. Family is an important agent of socialization. The primary socialization of

any individual takes place within the family. The immediate family
members teach all the basic rules and norms of social life to a child.

8. Family is also an important agent of cultural transmission. Culture is

transmitted from one generation to another through family. All the aspects
of culture are learnt within the family structure.

9. Family is a great source of strength, emotional and psychological, for its

members. All the members are aware that they can depend upon their
family in the times of need.

10. Family provides an individual with a home, and establishes enduring social
relationships.

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 11. The family is the basis of division of labor, where all members have their
duties and obligations towards each other.

12. A family fulfills the economic needs of its members.

13. Family is traditionally responsible for the education of the children.

14. Family also has a recreational function. Family gatherings during festivals,
functions, family reunions, marriages, brought entire families together.
Now-a-days, taking family members out on holidays or for movies, plays,
dinners, or parties, etc., perform the same function.

TYPES OR FORMS OF FAMILY

A description of the above classification of types or forms of family is

explained here:

1. Based on Birth:
Family of Orientation: The family in which an individual is born is his family of
orientation.

Family of Procreation: The family where an individual sets up after his/her

marriage is his/her family of procreation. The family of orientation and procreation
may live together under the same roof, but can still be distinguished.

2. Based on Marriage:
Monogamous Family: This family consists of one husband and wife, including
children and is based on monogamous marriages.

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Polygynous Family: A family consisting of one husband, more than one wife, and
all the children born to all the wives or adopted by each of them.

Polyandrous Family: A family made up of one wife and more than one husband,
and the children, either born or adopted with each one of them. This family is
based on polyandrous marriage.

3. Based on Residence:

Family of Matrilocal Residence: When a couple stays in the wife‟s house, the
family is known as family of matrilocal residence.

Family of Patrilocal Residence: When a family stays in the house of husband, the
family is known as family of patrilocal residence.

Family of Changing Residence: When a family stays in the husband‟s house for
some time, and moves to wife‟s house, stays there for a period of time, and then
moves back to husband‟s parents, or starts living in another place, the family is
called a family of changing residence.

4. Based on Ancestry or Descent:

Matrilineal Family: When ancestry or descent is traced through the female line,
or through the mother‟s side, the family is called matrilineal family.

Patrilineal Family: A family in which the authority is carried down the male line,
and descent is traced through the male line or the father‟s side, is called a
patrilineal family.

5. Based on Authority:

Matriarchal Family: Matriarchal families are generally found in matrilineal

societies. In these families, a woman is the head of the family, and authority is
vested in her. Succession of property is through the female line, i.e., only daughters
inherit the property. After marriage, the husband resides in the wife‟s house and
descent is traced through the mother‟s side. Here, children are brought up in
mother‟s house. These types of families are found in parts of Latin America,
Ceylon, parts of Africa and India.

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Patriarchal Family: Patriarchal families are commonly found in all parts of the
world, since most societies in the world are patrilineal societies. In patriarchal
families, the head of the family is a male, and authority is vested in him.

6. Based on the Nature of Relations:

Conjugal Family: The conjugal family is made up of adults among whom there is
a sexual relationship. It refers to a family system of spouses and their dependent
children. The emphasis is placed on the marital relationship that exists between
spouses.

Consanguine Family: A consanguine family is made up of members among

whom a blood relation exists, or those who are consanguineal kin, i.e., a family
consisting of parent(s) and children, or siblings (brothers, sisters, or brothers and
sisters).

7. Based on state or structure:

Nuclear Family: A nuclear family, also called a conjugal, elementary, or
traditional family is a small group consisting of a husband, a wife and children,
natural or adopted. It is more or less an autonomous unit that is not under the
control of adults or elders of the family. It consists of two generations only. In all
modern societies, nuclear family is the most common type of family. In fact,
nuclear family is both the consequence as well as the cause of the disintegration of
joint family. According to U.S. Census data, almost 70 percent of children live in a
nuclear family unit. The nuclear family is being replaced by other family structures
such as blended parents, single parents, and domestic partnerships (Caruso et. al.,
2013)

Joint Family: A joint family consists of three generation, living together

under the same roof, sharing the same kitchen and purse or economic expenses. It
is a family consisting of three nuclear families living together. This family includes
many relatives living together and working toward common goals, such as raising
the children and keeping up with the household duties. Many extended families
include cousins, aunts or uncles and grandparents living together. This type of
family structure may form due to financial difficulties or because older relatives
are unable to care for themselves alone. According to Karve (1965), joint family is

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“A group of people, who generally live under the same roof, who eat food cooked
at one hearth, who hold property in common, and who participate in common
family worship and are related to each other as some particular type of kindred”.

Some other types of families

Blended family: The term blended family or stepfamily describes families
with mixed parents: one or both parents remarried, bringing children of the former
family into the new family.

Complex Family: This type of extended family has three or more adults
plus their children. This type of family may be formed through divorce and
remarriage, or it may be formed through polygamy in societies where that practice
is acceptable. Some families may be complex even without formal legal bonds
between the adults.

Childless Family: While most people think of family as including children,

there are couples who either cannot or choose not to have children. The childless
family is sometimes the "forgotten family," as it does not meet the traditional
standards set by society. Childless families consist of a husband and wife living
and working together.

Stepfamily: When the marriage ends in divorce, some of the individuals

choose to get remarried. This creates the stepfamily, which involves two separate
families merging into one new unit. It consists of a new husband and wife and their
children from previous marriages or relationships.

Grandparent Family: Many grandparents today are raising their

grandchildren for a variety of reasons. This could be due to parents' death,
addiction, abandonment or being unfit parents.

Traditional Family: This is a family unit defined in the classic sense as

the father working outside the home to support the members financially, while the
mother remains at home and tends to domestic duties and child-rearing.

Adopted family: These types of families share legal bonds but not genetic
ones. Two parents may adopt a child to whom they share no blood relationship, or
one parent may adopt the child of the other parent.

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 Foster Family: A foster family includes one or more adult parent who
serves as a temporary guardian for one or more children to whom they may or may
not be biologically related. In time, more formal arrangements may be made and
foster children can be legally adopted.

JOINT FAMILY
A joint family consists of three generation, living together under the same
roof, sharing the same kitchen and purse or economic expenses. It is a family
consisting of three nuclear families living together. “We call that household a joint
family which has greater generation depth than individual family and the members
of which are related to one another by property, income and mutual rights and
obligations.” (Desai, 1964)

A Hindu joint family or Hindu undivided family (HUF) or a Joint

family is an extended family arrangement prevalent among Hindus of the
Indian subcontinent, consisting of many generations living under the same
roof. (Raghavachariar, 2007).

Six key aspects of Joint family are:

 All members live under one roof.

 Share the same kitchen.

 Three generations living together (though often two or more brothers

live together, or Father and son live together, or all the descendants
of male live together.)

 Income and expenditure in a common pool- property held together.

 A common place of worship.

 All decisions are made by the male head of the family.

Characteristics of Joint Family:

(i) Large Size: The first characteristic of the joint family is its large size. A
joint family consists of parents, children, grand children and other near relatives
along with their women. It is a group of which several basic families live together
at one and the same time.

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 (ii) Joint Property: In a joint family, the ownership, production and
consumption of wealth takes place on a joint basis. It is a cooperative institution,
similar to a joint stock company, in which there is joint property. The total
earnings of all the family members are pooled together.

(iii) Common Residence: The members of joint family usually live under
the same roof. They may also live in separate houses in close proximity to one
another.

(iv) Co-operative Organization: The basis of joint family system is

cooperation. A joint family consists of a large number of members and if they do
not cooperate with one another it is not possible to maintain the organization and
structure of the joint family.

(v) Common Religion: Generally the members of a joint family believe in

the same religion and worship similar deities. They perform jointly the religious
rites and duties. They celebrate all the festivals and social functions jointly.

(vi) Productive Unit: This feature of joint family is found among

agricultural families. All the members work at one and the same field. They do the
sowing and harvesting of the crops together.

(vii) Mutual Rights and Obligations: The rights and obligations of the
members of joint family are the same. None except the head of the family has
special privileges. Every member of the family has equal obligations.

Merits of joint family system:

(i) Ensures economic progress: It enables economic progress of the
country. Joint family provides this to its members and thus enables them to devote
themselves to nation‟s progress.

(ii) Division of labor: It secures the advantages of the division of labour.

Every member in the family is given work according to his abilities without being
taxed unduly.

(iii) Economy: It secures economy of expenditure. Since things are

consumed in large quantities they are secured at economic prices. Within small
means a large family can be maintained if it lives jointly.

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 (iv) Opportunity for leisure: It provides opportunities for leisure to the
members. The female members divide the household work and finish it within a
little time spending the rest of it in leisure.

(v) Social insurance: In the joint family the orphans find a comfortable
asylum instead of being thrown out. Similarly, widows are assured of their proper
living for whom remarriage in India is unthinkable. The joint family acts as a
social insurance company for the old, sick and incapacitated.

(vi) Social virtues: It fosters great virtues like sacrifice, affection, co-
operation, spirit of selflessness, broadmindedness among its members and makes
the family a cradle of social virtues. Under the care of elders the undesirable and
anti-social tendencies of the young are checked and they are prevented from going
astray. They learn to exercise self-control. All members learn to obey family rules
and respect their elders.

(vii) Avoids fragmentation of holdings: It avoids fragmentation of

holdings and the evils inherent therein. It prevents property from being divided.

(viii) Socialism: Everyone in the joint family works according to his

capabilities but obtains according to his needs. Thus it realizes the socialistic ideal
from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.

Demerits of joint family:

(i) Home for idlers: Joint family is the home for idlers and drones as the
non-earning members do not want to earn their livelihood. Mostly, in the joint
family it happens that some people have to exhaust themselves while the others
lead a life of utter lethargy.

(ii) Hindrance in the development of personality: In joint family there is

very little opportunity for the fostering of individual autonomy or self-dependence.
The whole environment of the family is not congenial for the growth of the
individual because he is bound down by the minutest rules and regulations framed
by the head of the family who looks upon men and women as children even when
they attain adulthood.

(iii) Encourage litigation: The joint family system encourages litigation,

for at the time of partition of common property generally disputes crop up which

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are not settled without a recourse being taken to law. In case of agricultural
families partition leads to fragmentation of holdings which is harmful from the
viewpoint of agricultural progress.

(iv) Leads to quarrels: It is the hotbed of quarrels and bickering especially

among the female members. Generally, there is hatred and jealousy between the
wives of brothers. There is continuous strife and fighting over the doings of
children. There is also the clash of ideas and temperaments on account of which
there are constant quarrels between the elder and young members of the family.

(v) Privacy denied: In a joint family privacy is denied to the newlywed

couple. The brides of the sons do not get an opportunity to develop their
personality. They serve the entire family like slaves. They hardly meet their
husbands during the day. The invariable presence of other family members shames
the bride and she cannot freely talk to her husband. Any natural love between
husband and wife is prevented from blossoming.

(vi) Unfavorable to accumulation of capital: It is not favorable to large

accumulation of capital. When one has to share one‟s income with large family, it
is not possible to save much. The property of the family being jointly owned is
sometimes allowed to go waste.

(vii) Uncontrolled procreation: In the joint family the responsibility for

bringing up and educating the children is shared. No individual feels responsibility
to control procreation because of the limited income of the family. The offspring of
one member will be treated on the same footing as others. No distinction is made
between the statuses of the family members.

Thus the joint family system has got both its strong proponents as well as
opponents. However, no institution is perfect and also that no institution full of
defects can exist very long. The joint family system has been in existence since the
society changed from the agricultural stage of economic development. While the
system is breaking down in cities, it still largely prevails in the villages especially
among the agricultural families. Though there may be exceptions here and there,
yet it cannot be said that the system has been completely abolished. It is no doubt
true that the system once considered the pillar of stability is finding it difficult to
withstand the dizzying pace of social mobility and the transformation of values.

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NUCLEAR FAMILY
Duncan Mitchell, (2007) in his „Dictionary of sociology‟ has defined
nuclear family as „A small group composed of husband and wife and immature
children who constitute a unit apart from the rest of the community.” In simple
words a nuclear family is one which consists of the husband wife and their
unmarried children. Soon after marriage, the children leave their parental home and
establish their separate household. Hence a nuclear family is an autonomous unit
free from the control of the elders. Since there is physical distance between parents
and their married children, there is minimum interdependence between them. Thus
a nuclear family is mostly independent. Modern family is a typical example of
nuclear family.

Advantages of Nuclear Family:

(1) Development of Personality: Nuclear family plays an important role in the
development of personality of individuals. Children are more close to the
parents and can have more free and frank discussion about their problems
with parents which helps for the better development of their personality.

(2) Better Condition of Women: In nuclear families the condition of woman is

better than joint families. She gets enough time to look after her children. She
also gets time to plan and manage her house according to her own idea. There
is no interference of elders. Her husband can also devote more attention to
the wife in nuclear family.

(3) Less number of children: Family planning programme becomes successful

in nuclear families. The members of nuclear family have to plan and limit
their family as they have to bear all the responsibilities and expenses
themselves to rear their children.

(4) Peace and Harmony: Peace and harmony are very much essential for a
pleasant family life. In nuclear families there is no misunderstanding and they
enjoy a harmonious atmosphere by living together.

(5) Individual Responsibilities: In nuclear family there is no shifting of

responsibility like in joint family. The parents are bound to take

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 responsibility of their children by themselves. The head of family has to work
hard to take care of his family.

(6) Problem Free Unit: There is no chance of in-laws conflict. Financial

problem does not arise in nuclear family. Money can be saved for future
achievement and to face uncertain crisis of family. All enjoy independent life
and can be engaged in any economic activities to supplement family income.

Disadvantages:
(1) Economic disadvantage: The property of the family is divided among the
brothers and each live separately. The land being subdivided does not yield
much production resulting the land as an uneconomic holding. On the other
hand one has to employ other labours to achieve the desired goal due to
limited size of family. In this way the economic loss is more in nuclear
family by paying remuneration to the laborers.
(2) Insecurity of Children: In nuclear family both husband and wife adopt
profession outside the family, and then children are neglected and looked
after by the servants. They feel lonely and emotional insecure. They
develop more anxiety. If the bread winner dies or becomes incapable to
earn, there is no one to support the family. Even in time of emergency like
sickness, accident or during pregnancy family members are very much
neglected and there is no one to take care of them.
(3) Agency to Develop Bad Qualities of Inmates: As it is an autonomous
unit, it is free from the social control of elders. So the children develop all
sorts of bad qualities like theft, and lead their lifestyle in indiscipline way.
They become unsocial as they do not get opportunity to mix with other
members of the family.
(4) Loneliness: Feeling of loneliness is one of important drawbacks in nuclear
family. After completion of household task, the housewife becomes alone
at home. At the time of emergency one cannot get any help and support
from any other.
(5) Insecure for Old, Widow and Divorcee: In nuclear family widowed, old
and divorcee fare very much neglected. No one in the family bothers to
take care of them. Physically and psychologically they feel insecure. Above

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 all in nuclear family children are socially, emotionally and educational
maladjusted.

PARENTHOOD
Parents are the basic unit of society primarily responsible for child-rearing
functions. They are responsible for providing physical necessities, emotional
support, learning opportunities, practical assistance, information, supervision,
moral guidance, building self-esteem and resilience in children. Both men and
women are supposed to perform their stereotypical roles in most of the families in
India. Mothers are primarily responsible for children. Mothers in general have
more knowledge about their children daily lives than father. Father's involvement
has been defined and measured in various ways. Fathers are likely to devote
special attention to character traits necessary for the future, especially qualities
such as independence, self-reliance. In conclusion it can be said that mother and
father have their own roles to play in Indian families for child development.

A family can be a single parent family, step family, or a first marriage

family. But of all family types, single parent families have made the most gains
during the past few decades. Parenting is the act or process of raising children.
Single parenting on the other hand is exactly the same yet with only one parent
raising her child or children.

The single parent family consists of one parent raising one or more children
on his own. Often, a single parent family is a mother with her children, although
there are single fathers as well. The single parent family has also been termed the
one parent, the lone parent, and the solo parent family, among others, to describe
its structure. Single parent families are families with children under 18 headed by a
parent who is widowed or divorced and not remarried, or by a parent who has
never married. Single parenting is a full time job that involves hard work,
dedication, exhaustion and regular overtime. According to Longman Dictionary
of Contemporary English, single-parenting has been defined as a mother or
father who looks after children on their own without the other partner. (Ham,
2004)

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 It is believed that the two parent family is a better environment for
children's development than the single parent family. Single parents are faced with
many trials. Along are the problems of financial, emotional, and social aspects. But
even though, it is hard to be a single parent. It also has a good result when it comes
to the relationship between the parent and child.

But today, single parent family is the biggest change society has seen in
terms of the changes in family structures. One recent trend illustrating the changing
nature of families is the rise in prevalence of single-parent or one-parent
households. Single parent families can no longer be viewed as non-traditional
families. These families are all around us today. In the United States, almost half
of all children age 15 will have lived under a single-parent (Andersson,
2002). The percentage of single-parent families have tripled in the past fifty(50)
years and has continued to be larger among Latino and African American families
when compared to the general population (U.S Census, 2010). In 2000,
27% of all U.S children living were in single-parent families; among
African American families 53% were living with only one parent. (Sigle-
Rushton and McLanahan, 2004) The vast majority of these single-
parents homes are headed by women. Debell (2008) reported that single-father
homes represent 7% of total single-parent homes in the country.

Today, marriage is no longer regarded as an essential pre-requisite to

family life. Divorce rate has increased rapidly resulting in single parent families.
Joint family has been replaced by Nuclear family/Single parent family. In the
changing scenario of the world, a lot of changes have been taking place in the role
of women. The work participation rate for women has increased significantly. In
1981, work participation rate for women was only 19.67 % which increased upto
22.73% in 1991 and 25.63 % in 2001 (Statistical profile on women labour 2009-
2011).

Important reasons of formation of single parent families are discussed below:

1. Death of spouse: In India many single parent families are because of death
of a spouse.

2. Divorce: The divorce of parents, even if it is an amicable decision, tears

apart a family the fundamental unit of Indian society. With womenfolk

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 becoming increasingly economically independent and more aware of their
rights, there is a growing trend of refusal to continue in an abusive or
unsatisfying marriage, and divorce rates too are on the increase (Thara,
2002).

3. Job separation: Now a day's people are concentrating more on their jobs
than their families with growing urbanization and materialism parents are
compelled to seek job away from their families. Today not only men but
women are also seeking jobs outside their homes. This phenomenon is
termed as part time single parenting.

Traditionally death of a spouse was the commonest cause of single parent

family. India is perhaps the only country where widowhood, in addition to being a
personal status, exists as a social institution. Widows‟ deprivation and
stigmatization are exacerbated by ritual and religious symbolism. Indian society,
similar to all patriarchal societies, confers social status on a woman through a man.
Hence, in the absence of a man, she herself becomes a non-entity, ultimately
suffering a social death. Sati (widow burning) is the ultimate manifestation of this
belief (UN Division for the Advancement of Women, 2000).

Life in a single-parent household though common can be quite stressful for

the adult and the children. The single parent may feel overwhelmed by the
responsibility of juggling caring for the children, maintaining a job and keeping up
with the bills and household chores.

Some social scientists and politicians have concluded that only traditional
two- parent families are capable of raising children successfully. They blame
single mothers both divorced and never married for a variety of social problems
that are beyond their control. Since there is little conclusive evidence that single-
parent families are harmful, society should stop stigmatizing families headed by
single mothers and give them the support they need.

SINGLE MOTHERS
The most common type of single-parent family is one that consists of a
mother and her biological children. Single mothers are defined as divorced or
separated mothers who care for one or more children without the assistance of the
father of the children in the home. A single mother may be a woman with one or

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more children who was previously married but is now separated, divorced or
widowed, or someone with children who was never married. Single mothers are
parents who care for one or more children without the physical assistance of the
other biological parent.

The presence of single mothers may arise for a variety of reasons; typically
single mothers assume sole responsibility of their child following an adoption, a
divorce, artificial insemination, surrogate motherhood, or the result of an
unforeseeable occurrence, such as child abuse, child neglect, abandonment, or the
death of the biological father.

Single mothers are responsible for the day to day responsibility of raising
the child or children. Depending on the circumstance, a single mother is awarded
sole-custody of the child. As a result of this placement, the single mother has the
right to receive welfare through government subsidies or child support payments
from the biological father. The federal government institutes various programs to
alleviate the burden of single mothers; welfare assistance, alimony, food stamps,
and other forms of relief are offered to single parents to mitigate the hardships
associated with caring for a child.

In addition to aforesaid forms of relief, both state and federal governments

may offer grants, scholarships, and loans to single mothers in need. These
programs are offered to help further the single mother‟s education as well as
provide a form of financial relief to aid in the day to day responsibilities of the
child.

A single mother is a woman, taking care of her children, but does not have
the support of her husband in raising children. In India, with gradual break-up of
joint family system and with increasing rate of divorce, the single mothers are left
alone to fend for themselves. The plight of single mothers has been a subject for
research in recent years.

Recent divorce rate in England is 500 out of 1000 marriages, whereas in

India, it comes out to be 13 divorces out of 1000 marriages. (Dainik Bhaskar, 18
Sep. 2016).

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 Table: 1.1. Current marital status in India

Current population of India 1,21,08,54,977

Unmarried 57,08,33,969
Male 32,28,70,527
Female 24,79,63,442
Married 57,95,84,783
Male 28,65,07,311
Female 29,30,77,472
Divorcee 13,62,316
Male 4,52,743
Female 9,09,573
Widow 5,55,38,707
Male 1,22,77,229
Female 4,32,61,478
Source: Census of India 2011

Partnered mother: partnered mother is a woman who lives with her

husband and children. Both husband and wife are equally responsible for the
physical, social, moral and psychological development of their children.

Partnered mothers are able to experience lower levels of psychological

distress because of the benefits of partner. Other studies show that partnered
mothers possess higher levels of distress and that marriage can be a source of
conflict. Research suggests that marriage contributes to overall healthy well-being.
Married (partnered) people enjoy the benefits of social support, immediate intimate
emotional support, and economic support, as well as having lower morbidity and
mortality rates. Married or partnered people report higher degrees of intimate
emotional support and also tend to report lower levels of depression. Marriage is
assumed to be economically beneficial because it most often results in higher
household incomes, which helps to potentially circumvent possible economic
stresses and helps to provide for higher quality living, such as better housing, food,
and services. The improved standard of living and lower risk of impoverishment
contributes to a better overall psychological well being.

MENTAL HEALTH
The concept of mental health is as old as human beings. Health is
considered as a positive state of well being not just a lack of disease. Mental health
is described by WHO as: “A state of well-being in which the individual realizes

18
his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work
productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her
community.” (WHO, 2001a)

In this positive sense mental health is the foundation for well-being and
effective functioning for an individual and for a community. This core concept of
mental health is consistent with its wide and varied interpretation across cultures.
From perspective of the discipline of positive psychology mental health may
include an individual‟s ability to enjoy life and procure a balance between life
activities and efforts to achieve psychological resilience.

People in a state of emotional, physical and social wellbeing fulfill life

responsibilities, function effectively in daily life and are satisfied with their
interpersonal relationship and in themselves. Therefore mental health is a state of
emotional, psychological and social wellness confirmed by satisfying interpersonal
relationships, effective behavioral and coping, a positive self concept and
emotional stability. (Back, 2001).

Mental Health as commutates those behaviors, perceptions and feelings that

determine a person‟s overall level of personal effectiveness, success, happiness and
excellence of functioning as a person. (Kornhauser, 1965)

In the words of (Lakshminarayanan & Prabhakaran, 1993) mental

health depends on the development and retentions of goals that are neither too high
nor too low to permit realistic successful maintenance of belief in one‟s self as a
worthy, effective human being.

Maslow and Mittelmann (1951) have suggested the following criteria for
normal psychological health:

 Adequate self evaluation.

 Adequate feeling of security.

 Adequate spontaneity and emotionality.

 Efficient contact with reality.

 Adequate bodily desires and the ability to gratify them.

 Adequate self knowledge.

 Integration and consistency of personality.

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  Adequate life goals.

 Ability to learn from experience.

 Ability to satisfy the requirements of the group.

Mental health or psychological well-being makes up an integral part of an

individual's capacity to lead a fulfilling life, including the ability to form and
maintain relationships, to study, work or pursue leisure interests, and to make day-
to-day decisions about educational, employment, housing or other choices.
Disturbances to an individual's mental well-being can adversely compromise these
capacities and choices, leading not only to diminish functioning at the individual
level but also broader welfare losses at the household and societal level.

Both physical and mental health is the result of a complex interplay

between many individual and environmental factors, including:

 Family history of illness and disease/genetics

 Lifestyle and health behaviors (e.g., smoking, exercise, substance use)

 Levels of personal and workplace stress

 Exposure to toxins

 Exposure to trauma

 Personal life circumstances and history

 Access to supports (e.g., timely healthcare, social supports)

 Coping skills

Mental health is an index which shows the extent to which the person has
been able to meet his environmental demands – social, emotional or physical.
However, when he finds himself trapped in a situation he does not have matching
coping strategies to deal with it effectively, he gets himself mentally strained. This
mental strain is generally reflected in symptoms like anxiety, tension, restlessness
or hopelessness among others. It is felt for too long and too extensively by the
person, these symptoms may take a definite form representing a given illness.

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Social determinants of mental health:

Mental health is influenced by multiple biological, psychological, social

and environmental factors which interact in complex ways. The factors that
determine, or influence, mental health have been clustered into three key areas.

 Structural level factors include social, economic and cultural factors that
are supportive of positive mental health, such as safe living environments,
employment, and education;

 Community level factors include a positive sense of belonging, activities

to highlight and embrace diversity, social support and participation in
society.

 Individual level factors such as the ability to manage thoughts and cope
with stressors.

 Risk and protective factors: The determinants of mental health can be

expressed as risk and protective factors that are associated with the mental
health of individuals and population group. Risk factors increase the
likelihood that mental health problems and illnesses will develop, or
increase in duration or severity when a mental illness occurs. Some risk
factors play a causal role in mental illness (e.g. exposure to a traumatic
event is linked to the development of post‐traumatic stress disorder) while
other risk factors may be indicators that an individual is at higher risk (e.g.
the higher risk of depression generally in the postnatal period). Protective
factors enhance and protect mental health and reduce the likelihood an
illness will develop. Protective factors enhance an individual‟s ability to
cope with stressors and enjoy life. Some protective factors are internal,
such as a person‟s temperament, while others are external, related to social,
economic and environmental supports.

Mental Health, therefore, should not be confused with mental illness; it is a

study of pre- illness mental condition of the person (Kumar, 1991).

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Mental ill-health:

Mental illness or mental disorder is a clinically diagnosable illness that

significantly interferes with an individual's cognitive, emotional or social abilities.
The diagnosis of mental illness is generally made according to the classification
system of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) or the
International Classification of Diseases (ICD). There are different types of mental
illnesses and each of these can occur with a varying degree of severity. Mental
illnesses include mood disorders (such as depression, anxiety and bipolar disorder),
psychotic disorders (such as schizophrenia), eating disorders and personality
disorders. However, if mental health problems persist or increase in severity they
may develop into a mental illness. Examples of mental health problems would be
the sadness and despair associated with grief and loss, symptoms associated with
stress and reactive distress.

Prevention of mental ill-health:

Prevention interventions work by focusing on reducing risk factors and
enhancing protective factors associated with mental ill‐health. These risk and
protective factors occur within the context of everyday life. They are found in:
prenatal influences; family relationships and the home; schools and workplaces;
interpersonal relationships of all types; sports, art and recreation activities; media
influences; social and cultural activities; the physical health of individuals; and the
physical, social and economic health of communities.

Prevention initiatives are relevant to all people, regardless of their mental

health status, similar to the promotion of mental health and wellbeing. The focus,
however, of the intervention changes depending on whether it occurs before the
onset of illness (primary prevention), during an episode of illness (secondary
prevention) or after an episode of illness (tertiary prevention).

Interventions and strategies to reduce the impact of mental ill‐health on a

person‟s life through approaches such as rehabilitation and relapse prevention. It
also includes actions to ensure people have access to supports within the
community, such as housing, employment and social interactions. Interventions
can be:

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 1. Prevention focused ‐ targeting individuals beginning to show the early
signs and symptoms of a problem (indicated primary prevention); and

2. Treatment focused ‐ targeting individuals experiencing a first episode of

mental illness (secondary prevention.)

Single mothers are more likely to experience poor mental health than
partnered mothers, and the primary factors associated with this are the presence of
financial hardship in particular, as well as perceived lack of social support.
Researches (De Vaus et. al., 2003, Cairney et. al., 2003, 2004) have shown
elevated levels of common mental disorders and more use of mental health
services among single mothers compared with partnered mothers (Lipman, 1997).
The prevalence of moderate to severe mental disability was significantly more
pronounced among single mothers (28.7%) compared with partnered mothers
(15.7%). Including all explanatory factors socio-demographic, household income,
financial hardship and social support accounted for 94% of the association between
single mother status and poor mental health. Financial hardship and social support
were the strongest predictors, accounting for most of the predictive power of the
other variables. (Crosier et. al., 2007)

The prevalence of poor mental health among single mothers may be due to
differences in life style and living conditions.

Afifi et. al., 2006 indicated that separated/divorced mothers compared to

married mothers had increased odds of having any anxious-misery disorder,
depression, dysthymia, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), posttraumatic stress
disorder, any externalizing disorder, and antisocial personality disorder.

In Australia, between 2004 and 2006 an average 20% of families with

children less than 15 years of age were headed by a single parent (Australian
Bureau of statistics [ABS], 2007). In 87% of those families the parent was a
single mother (ABS, 2007). A number of risk areas relate to single mothers
including a higher incidence of mental health issues.

Symptoms of depression cause decreases in the motivation and drive

necessary to engage in health‐promoting. Some of these symptoms include feelings
of hopelessness, helplessness, low‐self esteem, apathy, fatigue, decreased

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concentration, psychomotor retardation, insomnia and guilt. Depression in general
negatively impacts on physical health, psychosocial functioning and quality of life
and is associated with disability, increased morbidity and mortality from medical
illness, poor self‐care and decreased adherence to medical regimens. (Freedland
2000, Dimatteo 2003, McGrath 1990).

In the light of above studies it is clear that single mothers are suffering
from so many mental health issues. So these problems deserve a greater attention
and highlight the need for more effective intervention and treatment efforts to
improve economical, social and psychological well being.

SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT
Social adjustment is very important for success in life. It is commonly
defined as “change in habitual conduct or behavior which an individual must make
in order to fit into the community in which he lives” (Warren, 1934). Social
adjustment is an effort made by an individual to cope with standards, values and
needs of a society in order to be accepted. It involves coping with new standard
and value.

Emotional adjustment is a pre-requisite for social adjustment. It has been

found that emotionally well- adjusted persons are quick to establish affection
relations with others. (Schneider, 1965).

A socially well adjusted person is not only efficient and happy in his
environment, but also he must have a sense of social feeling, i.e., he must be
cooperative and sympathetic. On other hand an emotional reaction which lacks
control, maturity and adequacy is regarded as disagreeable and indicates poor
emotional adjustment.

Studies have shown that adjustment among divorced mothers is positively

associated with education, employment and large networks of supportive kin and
friends. Divorce disrupts social networks, as measured by loss or change of friends,
and disrupted socializing. Divorced parents have been found to encounter many
difficulties in social adjustments. The sole mothers are also apt to limit contact
with friends in social settings and to limit participation in voluntary social
organizations. This social isolation may in turn produce feelings of distress.

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 A study reports on a sample of 207 recently divorced women who are
parents of 8th and 9th graders. Overall, the findings suggest that there are 2 routes
to poor adjustment among single parents. One consists of the ramifications of
inadequate resources, whereas the other involves the consequences of an antisocial
orientation. Single mothers with little education have low access to social network
support, and those who are under severe economic pressure report both high
exposure to negative events and low social support. Negative life events and
inadequate social support, in turn, are associated with psychological distress and
the use of ineffectual parenting practices. Antisocial behavior trait is adversely
related to quality of parenting, and indirectly influence level of psychological
distress through its positive relationship with economic strain and negative events.
(Simons et al., 1993)

Single parents tended to be more socially isolated than married parents.

They worked longer hours and received less emotional and less parental support.
They tended to have less stable social networks and experience more potentially
stressful life changes. (Weinraub,‎1983)

So it can be concluded that single mothers in their day to day life feels
difficulty in adjustment with others. They often feel themselves isolated, lonely
and rejected. Due to little social support a feeling of sadness, helplessness and
hopelessness always persist in single mothers. To deal with these problems single
mother needs social, emotional and psychological support from family and society.

EMOTIONAL MATURITY
Emotional maturity is defined as how well one is able to respond to
situations, control his/her emotions and behave in an adult manner when dealing
with others. Emotional maturity includes the ability to deal constructively with
reality. An emotionally matured person is one whose emotional life is well under
control. Emotional maturity is an effective determinant to shape the personality,
attitudes and behavior of the adolescents into accepting responsibility, making
decision, teaming with groups, developing healthy relationship and enhancing self
worth.

According to Jersild (1963) ‘Emotional maturity means the degree to

which person has realized his potential for richness of living and has developed his

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capacity to enjoy things, to relate himself to others, to love and to laugh; his
capacity for whole hearted sorrow, when an occasion arises and his capacity to
show fear when there is occasion to be frightened, without feeling a need to use a
false mask of courage, such as must be assumed by persons afraid to admit that
they are afraid‟.

According to Walter and Smitson (1974) emotional maturity is a process

in which the personality is continually striving for greater sense of emotional
health, both intra-psychically and intra-personally. In brief emotional maturity can
be called as the process of impulse control through the agency of “self” or “ego”.

Good (1981) has stated that emotional maturity refers to emotional patterns
of an adult who has progressed through the inferior emotional stages characteristic
of infancy, childhood and adolescence and is not fit to deal successfully with
reality and in adult love relationship without under emotional strain.

Kaplan and Baron (1986) elaborated the characteristics of an emotionally

mature person say that he has the capacity to withstand delay in satisfaction of
needs, he has belief in long term planning and is capable of delaying or revising his
expectations in terms of demands of situation. An emotionally mature child has the
capacity to make effective adjustment with himself, members of his family, and his
peers in the school, society and culture. Emotional instability is an indication of
emotional immaturity, as emotionally unstable response is characterized by the
lack of agreement between the emotional response and the provoking stimulus.

In the opinion of Murray (2004), an emotional mature person has the

following characteristics:

1. The ability to give and receive alone.

2. The ability to face reality and deal with it.

3. Just as interested in giving as receiving.

4. The capacity to relate positively to life experiences.

5. The ability to learn more experience.

6. The ability to accept frustration.

7. The ability to handle hostility constructively.

8. Relative freedom from tension symptoms.

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 Emotional maturity is one of the person‟s growth stages in life and is
considered an essential step in achieving the success and happiness along with the
achieving the physical, mental, social, economical maturity. If the person has a
positive attitude about his surrounding environment and avoid from the negative
thoughts, he can control his emotions and feelings better, and this helps him
improve his social relationships. Emotional maturity is in fact a growth or mutation
that is expected people can control emotions, reception and recognition and act
according to that. A person who has reached the full emotional growth, is able to
make a true relationship with others in social life and also obtain the ability of
responsibility acceptance against him and others, and will be successful in
interaction with others.

Emotionally mature people are able to trust themselves and others, enough
to be willing to give of them and receive genuine love, affection and friendship as
well. Emotionally mature people eagerly face the realities of daily life and deal
with them in an up front and ethical manner. While emotionally immature people
spend a great deal of time and energy avoiding responsibility and reality.

Studies revealed that most single mothers have high levels of emotional
maturity and high capacity to handle frustration, and are independent but linked to
a supportive network of relatives. Padman (2003) studied on psychological
resources and psycho-social needs among 56 destitute women and slum dwelling
women residing in the Mahila mandirs in the state of Kerala. The personality
variables examined were (a) Family adjustment (b) Health adjustment (c) Social
adjustment (d) Emotional adjustment (e) Occupational adjustment and
(f)Emotional maturity. The results indicated that destitute women scored less in
family and social adjustment, but were emotionally more mature. The study
suggested that single mothers need to be rehabilitated not only materially but
socially and spiritually as well.

Single mothers due to the stress and strain of routine life, learn from their
experiences, both good and bad, problem solve and make adjustments as needed.
They know and accept that they are not perfect which helps to make personal
improvements among them. Single mothers do not look for someone to blame.
They are optimistic about life in general and tend to see the good in themselves and

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others. This helps them to make them more emotionally mature to handle adverse
situations of life. The present study is an effort to know the current status of
emotional maturity of single mothers and to make a comparison with partnered
mothers.

SELF CONFIDENCE
Self-confidence is a belief in one's self and abilities, a mental attitude of
trusting or relying on one's self. It is an attitude which allows individuals to have
positive yet realistic views of themselves and their situations. It is characterized by
personal attributes such as assertiveness, optimism, enthusiasm, affection, pride,
independence, trust, the ability to handle criticism and emotional maturity. In the
words of Basavanna (1975), “Self Confidence refers to an individual‟s perceived
ability to act effectively in a situation to overcome obstacles and to get things go
all right.”

Self Confidence is one of the personality traits which is a composite of a

person‟s thoughts and feelings, strivings and hopes, fears and fantasies, his view of
what he is, what he has been, what he might become, and his attitudes pertaining to
his worth. Self Confidence is a positive attitude of oneself towards one‟s self-
concept. It is an attribute of perceived self. Self Confidence refers to a person‟s
perceived ability to tackle situations successfully without leaning on others and to
have a positive self-evaluation. A self confident person perceives himself to be
socially competent, emotionally mature, intellectually adequate, successful,
satisfied, decisive, optimistic, independent, self-reliant, self-assured, forward
moving, fairly assertive and having leadership qualities. So the concept of Self
Confidence enjoys important position in the theories of human behavior and
personality and is regarded as a basic condition of human existence in modern day
world by many thinkers.

A higher degree of self confidence means that a person believes that one
will perform an action correctly or achieve some specific goal or will make some
good decision. Self confident person trust his own abilities, have a general sense of
control in one‟s life and believe that, within reason; one will be able to do what one
wish, plan and expect. People who are not self confident tends to depend
excessively on the approval of others in order to feel good about them. As a result,

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they tend to avoid taking risks, because they fear failure. By contrast self confident
people are willing to risk the disapproval of others because they generally trust
their own abilities.

Self-confidence of a mother, whether married or single, is very important.

A woman's self-confidence, especially single mothers, is a vital aspect of her
capability to conquer physical and emotional tension. Women who have a greater
self-confidence typically have significantly less stress because they have the
tendency to look at stressful situations in life as typical and little problems that
they can easily conquer. Single parents require tremendous amount of self-
confidence in order to do parenting of the children.

Rani (2006) conducted case studies of 3 sole mothers in the city of

Visakhapatnam (India), which were part of a large study consisting of 214 sole
mothers aged between 20 and 49 years. The findings of the study revealed that the
participants expressed a lack of self confidence as a consequence of feeling
insecure, uncertainty about the future generated feelings of apprehension and doubt
about being able to survive.

With low self-confidence will encounter higher levels of depression and

react a lot more detrimentally to emotional and physical stress. So it is essential to
study the level of self confidence among single mothers and to compare them with
partnered mothers.

SECURITY – INSECURITY
Security - Insecurity refers to a high (or low) sense of safety, confidence,
and freedom from fear, apprehension or anxiety particularly with respect to
fulfilling the person's present or future needs.

Insecurity is the condition or quality of being insecure, want of safety;

danger; hazard; as, the insecurity of a building liable to fire; insecurity of a debt.
Feeling of shame, guilt, rejection, isolation, tension etc, perception of the world
and life as dangerous, human beings as bad etc. leading to actions like putting up
grievance, looking pathetic, begging, pleading, weeping and accepting favors
unhesitatingly, etc may serve as indicative signs of the presence of insecurity
feelings. Insecurity is either danger i.e. lack of objective security or emotions of
general unease or nervousness without obvious cause or purpose. It is perception

29
that life as unpredictable and with most of the expectations one has to meet is not
clearly understood. It is a sense of always climbing up a mountain, never being
able to reach the top and a sense of lacking support or reinforcement where one
live, work, or play. It results from a sense of being unaccepted, disapproval, or
rejected.

People who are insecure can have difficulties in establishing healthy and
long lasting relationships. They become victims of fears that impair their freedom
of action or choice. They scare others away from them by their defensive attitudes.
They have problems in the job or in school when they have the knowledge, skills
and abilities to do a task efficiently but are told to do in a different, less effective
manner. They have problems meeting people. They become so inward that they
seek to escape into their fantasy life rather than deal with the reality of their lives.
A person who is insecure lacks confidence in his own value and capability.
Insecurity may cause shyness and social withdrawal, or alternatively it may
encourage compensatory behavior such as arrogance, aggression or bullying. It has
many side effects in a person‟s life. It nearly always causes some danger of
isolation as a typically insecure person withdraws himself to some extent. The
greater the insecurity, the higher is the degree of isolation. Insecurity is often
rooted in a person during his childhood years.

“Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”(World Food Summit,
1996).

Household food security exists when all members, at all times, have access
to enough food for an active, healthy life. Individuals who are food secure do not
live in hunger or fear of starvation. Food insecurity, on the other hand, is a situation
of "limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or
limited or uncertain ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable
ways", according to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA),
Food security incorporates a measure of resilience to future disruption or
unavailability of critical food supply due to various risk factors including droughts,

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shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars. The FAO
(2006, 2009, & 2011) identified the four pillars of food security as availability,
access, utilization, and stability. The United Nations (UN) recognized the Right to
food in the Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 and has since noted that it is vital
for the enjoyment of all other rights.

Food insecurity is negatively related to health status (Zekeri, 2008). Single

parent household experienced higher rates of food insecurity. Families headed by
single mothers were nearly three times as likely to experience hunger as married
couple families. The rate of single mother - headed households living with
economic insecurity is still 39% higher than the rate for single father households.
More than 60% of single women live in economic insecurity. (McMahon &
Horning, 2013)

Also, children living with stably single parents, while having on average
lower resources, may be less likely to experience food insecurity than children
whose mothers transition into partnered family structures, as these types of
transitions can also produce stress and anxiety, lowering mothers‟ ability to
manage resources.

Single mothers live alone with their children so they always feel insecure
and unsafe regarding the safety of their children and themselves. Ross &
Mirowsky (2001) examined neighborhood and found single mothers felt unsafe
and often threatened in their neighborhood, which in turn correlated to reported
lower levels of life satisfaction.

In the light of above studies it is clear that single mothers faces different
types of insecurities like food insecurity, financial insecurity, housing insecurity
neighborhood insecurity. Insecurity causes anxiety, and makes single mothers
think negatively about themselves, this impacting on their confidence and self
esteem. Ongoing insecurity can make many things difficult like socializing
relationships, low self confidence, lack of trust on others, learning new skills etc.

Thus it is concluded that family is an important group in any individual‟s

life as it is responsible for the production, upbringing of children and also fulfills
the economic needs of its members. In the present scenario joint family has been
replaced by nuclear family. In all modern societies, nuclear family is the most

31
common type of family. In fact, nuclear family is both the consequence as well as
the cause of the disintegration of joint family. Joint family involves members who
generally live under the same roof and share all the good and bad, positive and
negatives. By living in a joint family is itself an benefit as it provides economic
security to all the members, every member is given work according to their
abilities, each of the member gets extra leisure time, social assurance for all and
moreover it in cooperates a feeling of affection, sacrifice among the members.
Contrary to this nuclear family suffers from economic disadvantages; the children
possess a feeling of insecurity, loneliness and often neglected by parents and
looked after by the servants. The nuclear family is often insecure for old, widow
and divorcee.

It is also concluded that today, the nature of family is changing. Marriage is

no longer regarded as an essential pre-requisite to family life. Divorce rate has
increased rapidly resulting in single parent families. Single parent families have
made the most gains during the past few decades. Single parenting involves one
parent raising her child or children. Single parent families can no longer be viewed
as non-traditional families. These families are all around us today.

The present research work will help to identify and recognize certain
psycho-social problems of single parents‟ especially single mothers and to deal
with them psychologically. This research will be immensely useful for the single
parents as it makes them aware of the negative impact of single parenting on the
psycho-social development of children and also it will prove quite beneficial by
providing measures regarding reduction of divorce cases. The study can prove
quite beneficial for enhancing the mental health of single and partnered mother and
reduction of mental stress and worries. The present study emphasize on the
education of the family and community members in order to change their negative
outlook towards single mothers. While living in the society both single and
partnered mother have to face many problems regarding their mental health, social
adjustment, emotional maturity, self confidence and insecurity feelings. Therefore
this study will prove fruitful for them to cope up with these problems.

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