Courseguide For Church History 1

A CourseGuide for
Church History
Volume One
Everett Ferguson
9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 1 10/2/19 2:29 PM

ZONDERVAN ACADEMIC
A CourseGuide for Church History, Volume One: From Christ to the Pre-Reformation
Copyright © 2019 by Zondervan
ISBN 978-0-310-11022-4 (softcover)
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C O N TE N T S
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.. The Setting for the Story’s Beginning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.. Jesus and the Beginnings of the Church .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.. The Subapostolic Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.. The Church and the Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.. Heresies and Schisms in the Second Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.. The Defense against Rival Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.. The Fathers of the Old Catholic Church

and Their Problems .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.. Church Life in the Second and Third Centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9.. Development of the Church during the Third Century . . . . . . 31
10.. Diocletian and Constantine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
11.. The Church in the Fourth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
12.. Monasticism, Expansion, Life, and Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
13.. Christological Controversies to Chalcedon (451) . . . . . . . . . . 43
14.. Augustine, Pelagius, and Semipelagianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
15.. Transitions to the Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
16.. Eastern and Western Churches in the Fifth

and Sixth Centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4 | A CourseGuide for Church History, Volume One
17.. The Eastern Churches from the Seventh
to Eleventh Centuries .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
18.. The Western Church from the Seventh to Ninth Centuries . . 59
19.. Decline and Renewal of Vitality in the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
20.. The Papal Reform Movement and the First Crusade . . . . . . . 65
21.. Intellectual Revival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
22.. Monastic, Literary, Political, and Cultural Activities

in the Twelfth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
23.. The Glory of the Western Medieval Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
24.. Portents of Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Introduction
Welcome to A CourseGuide for Church History, Volume One: From Christ
to the Pre-Reformation. These guides were created for formal and infor-
mal students alike who want to engage deeper in biblical, theological,
or ministry studies. We hope this guide will provide an opportunity
for you to grow not only in your understanding, but also in your faith.
How to Use this Guide

This guide is meant to be used in conjunction with the book Church
History, Volume One and its corresponding videos, Church History,
Volume One Video Lectures. After you have read each chapter in the
book and watched the accompanying video lesson, the materials in
this guide will help you review and assess what you have learned.
Application-oriented questions are included as well.
Each CourseGuide has been individually designed to best equip you
in your studies, but in general, you can expect the following compo-
nents. Most CourseGuides begin every chapter with a “You Should
Know” section, which highlights key terminology, people, and facts
to remember. This section serves as a helpful summary for directing
your studies. Reflection questions, typically two to three per chapter,
prompt you to summarize key points you’ve learned. Discussion ques-
tions invite you to an even deeper level of engagement. Finally, most
chapters will end with a short quiz to test your retention. You can find
the answer key to each quiz at the bottom of the page following it.
For Further Study

CourseGuides accompany books and videos from some of the world’s
top biblical and theological scholars. They may be used independently,

or in small groups or classrooms, offering quality instruction to

equip students for academic and ministry pursuits. If you would like
to engage in further study with Zondervan’s CourseGuides, the full
lineup may be viewed online. After completing your studies with A
CourseGuide for Church History, Volume One: From Christ to the Pre-
Reformation, we recommend moving on to A CourseGuide for Church
History, Volume Two: From Pre-Reformation to the Present Day, A Course-
Guide for Historical Theology, and A CourseGuide for Systematic Theology.

CHA PTE R 1
The Setting for the

Story’s Beginning
You Should Know
• Christianity began in a cultural setting defined by three circles of
influence: Roman law and government, Greek culture, and Jewish
religion.
• Christian attitudes, practices, and social norms showed the
influence of pre-existing cultures, yet were worked out within a
distinctively Christian frame of reference.
• Judaism provided the immediate religious context for Christianity.
• Jesus was born under the Roman emperor Augustus.
• During Jesus’s ministry in Galilee his principal religious opposition
came from the Pharisees.
• The vocabulary, ethical assumptions, thought world, and intel-
lectual options of early Christian theologians were provided by
Greek philosophy.
• Roman law is one of Rome’s enduring legacies to the Western world.
• During Jesus’s ministry in Galilee his principal religious opposition
came from the Pharisees over the interpretation of the Law of
Moses applied to matters of daily life.
Reflection Questions
1. Describe the basic functions of the Imperial Cult in the Roman
Empire.

2. Describe key elements in the impact of Greek philosophy on

Christian theology.
3. Describe the chief characteristics of the Jewish background of
early Christianity.
Discussion Question
1. Explain how the main circles of influence regarding the political,
cultural, and religious context in which Christianity began are crucial
to understanding the setting for the Christian story’s beginning,
particularly how they work together.
Quiz
1. (T/F) For early disciples, Latin language and culture were more
significant than Greek.
2. (T/F) The Jewish Scriptures were the Bible of the early church.
3. (T/F) The organization of the Roman Empire provided a pattern
for the development of the church’s hierarchy.
4. (T/F) All of Jesus’s first disciples were Jewish.
5. (T/F) Jesus was born in Jerusalem but crucified in Rome.
6. (T/F) The Jewish world in which Jesus was born had not been influ-
enced by Hellenistic culture.
7. (T/F) Christians continued to observe the funerary customs of
pre-Christian culture.
8. Which of these items of early Christian belief originally took their
meaning from Jewish hopes?
a) Jesus as the Messiah
b) A new age of forgiveness of sins
c) The gift of the Holy Spirit
d) All of the above

The Setting for the Story’s Beginning | 9
9. During the era of Christianity’s beginnings, the social lives of

most people were guided by:
a) The great philosophical systems of Plato and Aristotle
b) A combination of Roman legal and Greek societal norms
c) Jewish wisdom literature and the Law of Moses
d) Astrological practices
10. Which of the following does NOT apply to the Imperial Cult?
a) It was commonly practiced in Hellenistic Jewish contexts
b) It helped ensure political unity and loyalty in the empire
c) It gave divine honor to the emperor and his family
d) It was often allied with local civic cults
A N SW E R K EY
1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. T, 5. F, 6. F, 7. T, 8. D, 9. B, 10. A

CHA PTE R 2
Jesus and the

Beginnings of the
Church
You Should Know
• Christianity developed within the community of Jesus’s earliest
disciples on the basis of core Jewish beliefs, as interpreted and
exemplified according to Jesus’s teaching, ministry, crucifixion,
and resurrection.
• The most significant controversy in the very early Christian church
concerned the terms by which Gentiles would be accepted into the
community.
• With the church’s expansion from Jerusalem, traditions about the
work of particular apostles became associated with specific locales
by the end of the first century, most notably: James in Jerusalem;
Peter and Paul in Rome; John in Ephesus; and Thomas in Syria.
• Early Christianity was not uniform, yet a common faith in Jesus and
a common core of apostolic traditions helped shape a specifically
Christian set of doctrinal commitments, worship practices, and
ethical expectations.
• Strong early traditions report that John and Mary came to live in
Ephesus.
• James, the brother of Jesus, became a prominent leader of the
church in Jerusalem.
• According to strong tradition, Nero was emperor when Paul was
beheaded.

Jesus and the Beginnings of the Church | 11
• Entrance into the first-century Christian community required

faith in Jesus as Lord and Savior and baptism (in his name).
1. Compare and contrast first-century Jewish beliefs and practices
with those of the early church.
2. Explain the arguments in support of the traditional associations
of Peter and Paul with the church at Rome.
3. Discuss the role and impact of Jesus’s apostles on the formation
of the church in different places.
Discussion Question
1. Describe the diversity of first-century Christianity, along with the
core aspects of early Christian beliefs and practices that were uniting
factors.
Quiz
1. (T/F) Roman crucifixion was normally reserved for people who
were judged to be religious subversives.
2. (T/F) In the areas of religious practice and ethics, the early church
broke radically with traditional Jewish institutions.
3. (T/F) The historical evidence that Peter was martyred in Rome is
strong.
4. (T/F) Affirmations of Jesus’s atoning death and his resurrection
were the two pillars of early Christian faith.
5. (T/F) The lack of uniformity in early Christianity is marked by
the stark differences in core beliefs and widely divergent moral and
worship practices from place to place.

6. (T/F) At the end of the first century, the church in Ephesus appears
to have been larger and more influential than the churches in Rome or
Jerusalem.
7. Which apostle is often called the “second founder” of Christianity?
a) Peter
b) James
c) John
d) Paul
8. What function did the “trophies of the apostles” serve?
a) They identified a person as a true and authoritative apostle
b) They marked the sites of the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul in
Rome
c) They have helped confirm the association of the apostle
Thomas with Syria
d) They described the eternal rewards awaiting Christians who
were martyred
9. Which of the following was NOT a uniting factor in early Christi-
anity?
a) Interpreting Scripture in light of new revelation in Jesus the
Messiah
b) Rejection of large portions of the Hebrew Scriptures
c) Sunday assemblies
d) The Lord’s Supper
10. What was the most significant controversy in the very early church?
a) The terms of acceptance of Gentiles into the Christian com-
munity
b) The question of apostolic authority and the canon of scripture
c) The question of Jesus’s divinity
d) Defining correct worship practices and moral principles
A N SW E R K EY
1. F, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T, 7. D, 8. B, 9. B, 10. A

CHA PTE R 3
The Subapostolic Age

You Should Know
• “Jewish Christianity” became less prominent during the subapos-
tolic era due to mutual rejection of each other by many Gentile and
Jewish believers, though distinctive strands of Jewish Christianity
persisted briefly in such groups as the Ebionites, Nazoreans, and
Elkesaites.
• The so-called “Apostolic Fathers” consist of a loose corpus of texts
in different genres composed in the subapostolic era, addressing
various issues of identity, moral practice, and church life.
• Apocryphal literature and other forms of early Christian literature
attest to the range of popular piety and doctrinal convictions of
early Christian communities.
• Debate exists as to whether the subapostolic literatures are best
understood as testifying to the decay in the vitality of apostolic
faith or simply as distinct adaptations to changing circumstance.
• Jewish Christianity: sometimes used broadly to cover all charac-
teristically Jewish influences on Christianity and sometimes used
to refer to Christianity among ethnic Jews; narrowed further in
the church fathers to refer to those Jewish Christians regarded
by the Gentile church as heretical because of their adherence to
distinctively Jewish religious observances
• Ebionites: group of Jewish Christians most commented on by
Gentile Christian writers, and treated by them as heretical
• Apocrypha: additional Christian writings beyond the New Testa-
ment in the second century, and remains an important source for

assessing the variety of expressions of popular piety in the early

church
• Didache: a manual of church life
1. Describe some examples of early Christian apocryphal literature,
discussing their apparent purposes and functions in early communi-
ties of faith.
2. Compare and contrast the basic qualities of the surviving second-
and third-generation Christian literature with the literature of the
New Testament.
3. Discuss the use and significance of the subapostolic literature for
understanding the development of Christianity after the apostolic era.
Discussion Question
1. Choose either: Didache, Epistle of Barnabas, 1 Clement, or the Letters
of Ignatius, describing the contents of the selected Apostolic Father,
the likely context and circumstances of its origin, and explaining what
it says about key developments in early Christianity.
Quiz
1. (T/F) The Didache is primarily concerned with the question of how
to address sin after baptism.
2. (T/F) By the end of the first century, many synagogues had taken
action that effectively removed Christian believers from membership.
3. (T/F) Polycarp wrote a series of letters on his way from Antioch to
face trial in Rome.
4. (T/F) Peter, Paul, and James, the brother of Jesus were all killed
within five years of each other.

The Subapostolic Age | 15
5. (T/F) Some of the Apostolic Fathers overlap in time with the later
New Testament writings.
6. (T/F) Gospel of Thomas is a passion narrative with docetic leanings.
7. (T/F) Papias expressed a preference for the living voice of oral testi-
mony over what was written in books.
8. Which Apostolic Father consists of Visions, Parables, and Command-
ments?
a) Didache
b) Hermas
c) 2 Clement
d) Ignatius
9. Which of the following was NOT part of the three-fold congrega-
tional ministry Ignatius prescribes as a way to deal with divisiveness?
a) Presbyters
b) Bishop
c) Evangelists
d) Deacons
10. 1 Clement illustrates the tendency of the Western church to be
concerned with what?
a) Ascetic piety
b) Mystical piety and spiritual unity
c) Rejection of pagan philosophy
d) Order and practical unity
A N SW E R K EY
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5. T, 6. F, 7. T, 8. B, 9. C, 10. D

CHA PTE R 4
The Church and

the Empire
You Should Know
• Popular opinion responded negatively to Christian aloofness, the
strangeness of their beliefs and practices, and Christians’ unwill-
ingness to worship pagan gods. Imperial authorities were bothered
by the apparent obstinacy of Christian subjects unwilling to show
political loyalty by worshipping the emperor and the gods of Rome.
• Roman persecution of the church prior to the mid-3rd century
was sporadic and localized, not systematic.
• Christian apologists of the second century responded to both
popular and philosophical accusations against Christianity,
employing the philosophy and rhetoric of the day in order to
rebut accusations and promote Christian belief and practice.
• The logos Christology of the second-century apologists supplied
Christian intellectuals with a way to address non-Christian concerns
about Christian teaching, as well as providing the foundation for
later Trinitarian speculation.
• The surviving literature of second-century martyrdom supplied sto-
ries and themes that permanently shaped the self-understanding
of the Christian church.
• A developing theology of martyrdom was expressed through
several characteristic motifs, many of which helped connect the
martyr’s experience with that of Jesus Christ.
• Christians who were persecuted at Lyons, but not put to death,
preferred to call themselves confessors rather than martyrs.

The Church and the Empire | 17
• Tatian wrote the Oration against the Greeks, blasting pagan Greek
culture for its immorality.
• Justin Martyr composed a dialogue with Trypho, providing
important information about the questions at issue between Jews
and Christians in the second century.
• In Greek, the term logos means both the rational word in the
mind and the word on the tongue.
1. From the various responses of the second-century Christian apol-
ogists, characterize the general response to pagan accusations and
suspicions.
2. Compare and contrast the logos Christology of the second-century
apologists with teachings about Jesus Christ and God’s Word in the
Bible.
3. In what ways do the apologists mark an important development
in the Christian intellectual effort? Illustrate from the surviving
evidence.
Discussion Question
1. Describe four of the eight motifs of martyrdom given in the section.
Quiz
1. (T/F) The apologists stressed that Christians are good citizens and
pray for the empire.
2. (T/F) Polycarp of Smyrna was eager to present himself for martyr-
dom.
3. (T/F) Perpetua’s father encouraged her to face martyrdom bravely.

4. (T/F) Roman persecution of early Christianity was more a matter

of enforcing political allegiance than repressing a novel religion.
5. (T/F) Early Christians were accused of cannibalism.
6. (T/F) The emperor Nero instigated the first systematic, empire-
wide persecution of Christians.
7. Which of the following was NOT a major motif of early Christian
martyrdom theology?
a) Purification by fire
b) Baptism
c) Eucharist
d) Athletes and heroes
8. Under which of the following emperors did Christians suffer a
great deal, due to a series of disasters and misfortunes throughout
the Roman world?
a) Marcus Aurelius
b) Domitian
c) Nero
d) Trajan
9. Which early Christian affirmation about the logos was NOT to be
found in either the Jewish or Greek backgrounds to the concept?
a) The logos is in the mind of God
b) The logos is immanent in the world
c) The logos is the spoken word of God
d) The logos became incarnate in a specific historical person
10. Which of the following composed an extended intellectual attack
on Christianity that received major treatment by Origen?
a) Lucian of Samosata
b) Celsus
c) Marcus Aurelius
d) Pliny the Younger
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. F, 3. F, 4. T, 5. T, 6. F, 7. A, 8. A, 9. D, 10. B

CHA PTE R 5
Heresies and Schisms in

the Second Century
You Should Know
• Early Christianity was characterized by a certain variety in belief
and practice.
• A strategic and gifted administrator, Marcion led an effective
movement that rejected Christianity’s Jewish roots, distinguished
the creator god from the redeemer god, emphasized asceticism,
and advocated an authoritative canon of Scripture based mainly
on portions of Paul’s writings.
• In the second century, Gnostic movements developed systems of
belief that interacted and competed with catholic Christianity,
combining Jewish, Christian, and pagan beliefs.
• In an attempt to achieve a philosophical-religious solution to the
problem of evil, Gnostic groups taught complex cosmologies that
tended to involve extreme dualism, a strong rejection of matter as
evil, and redeemer myths.
• In rejecting Gnosticism, “orthodox” Christianity affirmed the
oneness of God, the essential goodness of creation, the full incar-
nation of Jesus Christ, and bodily resurrection.
• Largely in response to perceived worldliness and formalization of
the church, Montanism arose as an exuberant movement stress-
ing prophecy, rigorous ethics, and eschatological enthusiasm.
• Encratism describes a tendency in some Christian circles towards
extreme asceticism.

• The appeal to existing standards of belief and practice suggests

that “orthodoxy” in some sense existed prior to Christian “heresy.”
• The Greek term gnosis means knowledge.
• Montanism: another name for the New Prophecy or the Phrygian
Heresy
1. Compare and contrast Marcion and Valentinus, in terms of their
contexts, beliefs, and impact.
2. Identify two influential Gnostic teachers, explaining circum-
stances of their contexts and the particulars of their beliefs.
3. In what ways were Gnostic beliefs suited to the culture of the
second and third centuries?
Discussion Question
1. On what basis might one argue that orthodoxy preceded heresy?
Explain.
Quiz
1. (T/F) In response to Gnostic devaluation of matter, orthodox
Christianity stressed the full incarnation of Jesus Christ.
2. (T/F) Encratites were accused of becoming drunk on the wine of
the Eucharist.
3. (T/F) The teacher Marcion was a wealthy ship-builder.
4. (T/F) Valentinus and his followers were gifted biblical exegetes.
5. (T/F) The oldest known fixed collection (i.e. canon) of New Testa-
ment books was defined by Marcion.

Heresies and Schisms in the Second Century | 21
6. (T/F) Prior to AD 200, an inherited message and norms of conduct

did not yet exist for Christianity.
7. The first recorded synods of bishops were held in response to
which group?
a) Montanists
b) Encratites
c) Marcionites
d) Gnostics
8. What did Gnostics call the fullness of the divine universe?
a) The Paraclete
b) Sophia
c) the pleroma
d) Gnostikoi
9. Which of the following converted to Montanism?
a) Valentinus
b) Tatian
c) Tertullian
d) Carpocrates
10. (T/F) One reason for the demise of Gnosticism was its inability
to institutionalize.
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T, 6. F, 7. A, 8. C, 9. C, 10. T

CHA PTE R 6
The Defense against

Rival Interpretations
You Should Know
• Partly in response to internal and external pressures, the early
church developed a three-fold defense of what is apostolic: the
episcopate, the rule of faith and creed, and the canon.
• The monepiscopacy grew out of practical leadership concerns and
came to be associated with the idea of apostolic succession.
• The rule of faith and the creed were received as summaries of the
apostolic teaching, for instruction and liturgical use.
• The Apostles’ Creed grew out of an earlier formula of baptismal
confession used in Rome, attesting to an early practice of regularly
reciting in worship a concise statement outlining key tenets of
orthodox Christian belief.
• The formation and recognition of the New Testament canon
underwent four stages: Scripture principle, canonical principle,
closed canon, and recognition of the closed canon; several criteria
of canonicity functioned in an interrelated way.
• The church did not create the canon but recognized it, putting
itself under the authority of Scripture.
• The bishop Ignatius is the earliest attestation to a single bishop at
the head of the presbytery.
• Hegesippus drew up the lists of bishops in different cities that
Irenaeus used in his discussion of apostolic succession.

The Defense against Rival Interpretations | 23
• Second-century Christian three-fold biblical witness: the prophets,

the Lord, and the apostles
• The Rule of Faith: the flexible early summary of the apostolic
teaching
1. Describe and explain the development of the monepiscopacy.
2. Explain the early Christian need to identify and define “apostolicity,”
illustrating from the developments of episcopacy, creed, and canon.
3. Discuss the differences between the rule of faith and the creed,
explaining their respective functions in the early church.
Discussion Question
1. Describe each of the four stages in the development of the canon.
Either defend or argue against the claim that the church did not create
the canon but recognized it.
Quiz
1. (T/F) The most important criterion for recognizing the canonicity
of a book was its inspiration.
2. (T/F) In addition to being in the proper apostolic succession, bish-
ops were expected to manifest sound doctrine and a holy life in order
to be respected as authoritative.
3. (T/F) The Apostles’ Creed came to be used universally throughout
the western and eastern branches of the church.
4. (T/F) Some of the terminology in the Apostles’ Creed reflects
points at issue in the conflict with heretics.
5. (T/F) The idea of a Christian canon was established before the
third century.

6. (T/F) The Muratorian Fragment included Apocalypse of Peter in its

canon.
7. Which criterion for canonicity involves a book’s applicability to
the whole church?
a) Widespread reading in worship
b) Right doctrine
c) Apostolicity
d) Catholicity
8. Which of the following books was disputed by many into the
fourth century, as reported by Eusebius?
a) Gospel of Matthew
b) Jude
c) 2 Corinthians
d) Gospel of Peter
9. What statement best describes the early church’s relationship to
the canon?
a) The church placed itself under the authority of the canon
b) The organized church determined the shape and content of
the canon
c) The church formulated the canon in reaction to heretical
books and “false canons”
d) The church relied more on the rule of faith than on the canon
10. Which of the following composed the first ancient list to corre-
spond exactly to our present list of twenty-seven New Testament
books?
a) Gnostic teachers
b) Athanasius
c) Eusebius
d) Marcion
A N SW E R K EY
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5. T, 6. T, 7. D, 8. B, 9. A, 10. B

CHA PTE R 7
The Fathers of the Old

Catholic Church and
Their Problems
You Should Know
• Though diverse and often judged inadequate by later standards, the
fathers from the late second and early third centuries sustained the
faith and decisively shaped later Christian thought and practice.
• In response to heresy, Irenaeus articulated the premises on which
the old catholic church developed.
• Tertullian was the first Latin theologian and had great influence
on western Christianity.
• Alexandria was a key Hellenistic Christian center; its teachers
Clement and Origen developed the foundations of philosophical
Christianity.
• The church struggled to define the nature of the church’s holiness,
wrestling with problems evident especially in the career of Hippoly-
tus and in conflict regarding the status of the lapsed.
• Debates about liturgical practice (Quartodecimans), church disci-
pline (laxist vs. rigorist), and theology (Monarchianism) animated
much theological reflection during the period.
• Due to its leadership, size, location, and role in the controversies
of the age, the church at Rome rose in prominence to become the
chief church by about the end of the second century.
• In the East, Modalism was commonly known as Sabellianism,
after its most important representative.

• Lapsi/The Lapsed: Christians who fell away from the church in

times of persecution
• On First Principles: the church’s first systematic theology, com-
posed by Origen
1. Describe and explain the development and articulation of views
about Christ among the early catholic fathers.
2. Compare and contrast the attitudes and work of Tertullian, on the
one hand, with Clement and Origen, on the other.
3. Describe and explain the factors leading to the rise to prominence
of the church at Rome.
Discussion Question
1. What was at stake in the dispute between Callistus and Hippoly-
tus? Explain the origin of their conflict and its outcome.
Quiz
1. (T/F) Tertullian wrote in Latin.
2. (T/F) Public confession in church had been abolished by the end
of the second century.
3. (T/F) “Recapitulation” in early catholic thought refers to the un-
derstanding by which Christians are meant to follow and imitate the
actions of Jesus Christ.
4. (T/F) Irenaeus advocated a “double faith” theory.
5. (T/F) Bishop Victor of Rome was unwilling to extend communion
to Quartodecimans.
6. (T/F) Dynamic Monarchianism was also known as “Patripassian-
iam.”

The Fathers of the Old Catholic Church and Their Problems | 27
7. Who was reputed to have made himself a eunuch for the sake of
devotion to Christ?
a) Irenaeus
b) Callistus
c) Tertullian
d) Origen
8. Who wrote, “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord
is there between the Academy and the church?”
a) Tertullian
b) Clement
c) Hippolytus
d) Gregory Thaumaturgus
9. Which of the following was considered the “moral” sense of Scrip-
ture, according to Origen?
a) The bodily sense
b) The pneumatic sense
c) The anagogical sense
d) The psychic sense
10. Which of the following held a “laxist” position regarding church
discipline?
a) Novatian
b) Tertullian
c) Hippolytus
d) Callistus
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. F, 3. F, 4. F, 5. T, 6. F, 7. D, 8. A, 9. D, 10. D

CHA PTE R 8
Church Life in the Second

and Third Centuries
You Should Know
• After an intensive and often lengthy period of preparation, con-
verts were initiated into Christianity through a highly symbolic
baptism ritual.
• Christians were in the habit of meeting on Sundays and other
times for worship and instruction; celebrating the Eucharist was
central to Sunday gatherings.
• The church was known for advocating high standards of personal
morality, including sexual behavior and charity.
• Women were prominent in the story of early Christianity, as
celebrated martyrs, in special roles of church service, and defining
new social roles through celibacy.
• Christian hope of bodily resurrection supplied a powerful testi-
mony. Christian expectations included chiliastic and non-chiliastic
understandings of the end times.
• Apostolic tradition required that candidates for baptism receive
instruction for a period of three years.
• In approximately the year 200, the church at Rome acquired a
cemetery that became the nucleus of the catacomb of Callistus.
• The eschatological view that looked for Christ to rule the earth
from Jerusalem for 1,000 years is known as chiliasm.
• In addition to the baptismal Eucharist, persons who were baptized

Church Life in the Second and Third Centuries | 29
were given milk and honey, symbolizing the food of infants and
entrance into the Promised Land.
1. Explain the various ways in which baptism was practiced in the
first few centuries of the church, illustrating from the early sources.
2. Describe the early Christian practice of the Eucharist and other
meals, explaining the fundamental ideas and beliefs that shaped the
practices.
3. Evaluate the moral expectations of the early church in light of the
common moral expectations of contemporary society. Describe the
basic moral habits and expectations of early Christians, taking into
account the diversity and development of the first few centuries.
Discussion Question
1. Describe the basic devotional and worship habits of early Christians,
taking into account the diversity and development of the first few
centuries. Compare and contrast this worship of early Christianity with
contemporary Christian worship with which you are most familiar.
Quiz
1. (T/F) Candidates for baptism in the early church removed their
clothing in order to be baptized.
2. (T/F) The celebration of the Eucharist was seen to be an argu-
ment against heretics who denied the full incarnation of Christ, like
Docetists and Gnostics.
3. (T/F) Orthodox eschatology believed in the resurrection of the
soul rather than the body.
4. (T/F) Due to the small size and persecuted status of the church,

charity for the poor and the underprivileged was not a strong charac-
teristic of early Christianity.
5. (T/F) Christians in the early church were never allowed to serve in
the military.
6. (T/F) By the end of the third century, only the baptized were
admitted to the Lord’s Supper portion of the service.
7. When did infant baptism become routine?
a) The first century
b) The second century
c) The third and fourth centuries
d) The fifth and sixth centuries
8. What early Christian document described Christian moral teach-
ing as the “Way of Life?”
a) Martyrdom of Polycarp
b) Epistle to Diognetus
c) Didache
d) Clement of Alexandria’s Paedagogus
9. When did it become normal for churches to rent or purchase
buildings for their own use?
a) By the fourth century
b) By the third century
c) By the second century
d) In the first century
10. In what group/s did women engage in public preaching and pre-
side at liturgical functions?
a) Orthodox churches
b) Novatianists
c) Montanists
d) All of the above
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. T, 3. F, 4. F, 5. F, 6. T, 7. D, 8. C, 9. B, 10. C

CHA PTE R 9
Development of the
Church during the
Third Century
You Should Know
• After a long history of enduring sporadic persecutions, the mid-
third century saw the first systematic persecution of Christianity
in the Roman Empire.
• The cult of the martyrs developed in the last half of the third
century, strongly impacting corporate and personal spirituality.
• Cyprian of Carthage engaged in a number of disputes regarding
church order and discipline, composing treatises and letters that
shaped western ecclesiology.
• Christian art and architecture began to flourish from the mid-
third century, exhibiting styles and motifs common to the culture
yet adapted to biblical stories and Christian purposes (especially
funerary).
• Manicheism posed a competitive threat to Christianity from the
mid-third century.
• Texts such as Didascalia Apostolorum and the work of leaders such
as Gregory Thaumaturgus, Methodius, Lactantius, and Dionysius
of Alexandria helped shape the church of the last half of the third
century.
• The emperor Decius was responsible for launching the first empire-
wide persecution on Christianity.

• Important Christian art from the 240s survives in a house con-

verted for use as a church in the city of Dura Europa in Syria.
• Two classes of adherents in the religion of Manicheism: the elect
and hearers
• Didascalia Apostolorum: the long third-century Syriac text supply-
ing rich information about many facets of church life
1. Discuss the circumstances of Christian persecution in the Roman
Empire from the late-second through the mid-third century, explain-
ing the effects of persecution on Christian piety (e.g. martyr’s cult
and Christian art) and church discipline (e.g. the lapsed).
2. Describe the career of Cyprian of Carthage, discussing the major
controversies in which he was embroiled and explaining his arguments
on aspects of church order and practices of church discipline.
3. What factors do scholars adduce to explain the growth and success
of the church in the third century?
Discussion Question
1. Compare and contrast the contributions of Dionysius of Alexandria,
Gregory Thaumaturgus, and Didascalia Apostolorum to the shape of
third-century Christianity.
Quiz
1. (T/F) Though originally acquired as cemeteries, the catacombs
proved most useful as hiding places during times of persecution.
2. (T/F) During the persecutions of the third century, some Chris-
tians obtained fraudulent certificates to show they had sacrificed to
the gods.
3. (T/F) The story of Jonah was the most commonly occurring Old
Testament scene in early Christian art.

Development of the Church during the Third Century | 33
4. (T/F) Eastern theologians tended to stress the oneness of the God-

head.
5. (T/F) By the end of the third century Christians made up a sizable
minority of the population of the Roman Empire.
6. (T/F) Christians experienced higher survival rates during the epi-
demic of the 250s.
7. Which of the following ideas was most difficult for pagans to accept?
a) Resurrection of the body
b) High moral standards
c) Monotheism
d) All the above were equally difficult for pagans to accept
8. Which author wrote an important treatise called On the Resurrec-
tion?
a) Methodius
b) Gregory Thaumaturgus
c) Lactantius
d) Dionysius of Alexandria
9. Cyprian debated with which bishop over the issue of whether to
rebaptize former heretics or schismatics?
a) Novatian of Rome
b) Dionysius of Alexandria
c) Stephen of Rome
d) Dionysius of Rome
10. Which of the following is not a theory advanced to explain the
absence of Christian art prior to about 200?
a) The economic and social circumstances of most Christians
b) The desire not to attract attention unnecessarily during times
of persecution
c) A continuation of the Jewish aversion to images
d) All the above are theories advanced to explain its absence
A N SW E R K EY
1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T, 6. T, 7. A, 8. A, 9. C, 10. B

CHA PT E R 1 0
Diocletian and
Constantine
On the Threshold of
the Fourth Century
You Should Know

• During a period of imperial reform in the late third and early
fourth centuries, Christians underwent the most severe and wide-
spread persecution yet.
• Though the person and motives of Constantine the Great are com-
plex and somewhat mysterious, he achieved sole authority in the
Roman Empire, ended the persecutions, favored Christianity, and
ushered in Christendom.
• The church was largely unprepared for the many challenges accom-
panying the change in church-state relations.
• The Donatist controversy exemplified the way in which state
involvement could affect church affairs, as rigorist and laxist
factions faced off in North Africa and experienced the impact of
imperial intervention.
• Many bishops met in the first ecumenical council at Nicaea in
325 to debate the theological views of the subordinationist Arius,
resulting in the Nicene Creed and signaling new developments in
the ways church and state leaders would tackle issues affecting
Christianity at large in the Roman Empire.
• The wealthy woman Lucilla was instrumental in causing the schism
in Carthage that resulted in the Donatist group.

Diocletian and Constantine | 35
• The Greek term homoousios was put into the creed at Nicaea to
stress that the divine Father and the Son share the same sub-
stance, against Arius.
• The greatest outward show of Constantine’s favoritism towards
the church was his extensive program of building/construction.
• In 314, a synod met at Arles to address the Donatist problem.
1. Discuss the circumstances of Christian martyrdom in the Roman
Empire prior to 313, explaining the Christian response(s) and the
effects of persecution on Christian piety, church discipline, etc.
2. Describe and evaluate the impact of Constantine’s rise to power
on the church and Christianity in the early fourth century.
3. Describe and explain the circumstances surrounding the develop-
ment of the Donatist controversy.
Discussion Question
1. Describe and explain the circumstances surrounding the Council
of Nicaea (325). Explain the major views present at the Council of
Nicaea. In what way was Nicaea important for church history?
Quiz
1. (T/F) Constantine took the title of pontifex maximus.
2. (T/F) Though the Donatists attracted many followers, they were
never the majority in North Africa.
3. (T/F) In the very first measure of the Great Persecution, Galerius
and Diocletian took decisive action by requiring all citizens to sacrifice
to the gods.

4. (T/F) Under Constantine, Christian bishops were given the privi-

lege of judging civil cases.
5. (T/F) The Circumcelliones were armed enforcers of imperial policy,
sent to squash the Donatists in North Africa.
6. (T/F) Due to his widespread influence, the bishop of Alexandria
was called “pope” in the early fourth century.
7. Which of the following baptized Constantine?
a) Saint Helena
b) Hosius of Cordova
c) Eusebius of Caesarea
d) Eusebius of Nicomedia
8. Which author and theologian helped construct a political theology
in his extensive writings about Constantine?
a) Majorinus of Carthage
9. Rivalry between which two sees helped fuel the Arian controversy?
a) Rome and Antioch
b) Antioch and Alexandria
c) Carthage and Alexandria
d) Rome and Alexandria
10. Which of the following was an ardent supporter of Arius’s teaching?
a) Alexander of Alexandria
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. F, 3. F, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T, 7. D, 8. C, 9. B, 10. D

CHA PTE R 11
The Church in the

Fourth Century
Doctrine, Organization,
and Literature
You Should Know

• In the period following the Nicene council—and especially after
Constantine’s death—the Arian controversy continued to create
disunity in the fourth-century church, which saw many councils
and at least four different major positions on the relation of the
Father to the Son.
• Through the work of key figures like Athanasius and the Cappado-
cian Fathers, and the involvement of sympathetic emperors, Nicene
orthodoxy came to be affirmed and generally accepted by the time
of the Council of Constantinople (381).
• Throughout the fourth century, church organization became
increasingly formal and its clergy more distinct in role and status
from laypersons.
• The “great patristic century” (fourth–early fifth centuries) saw
the production of great works of lasting influence on the part of
several major writers and church leaders—in Greek: Athanasius,
Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, and
John Chrysostom; in Syriac: Ephraem the Syrian; and in Latin:
Ambrose, Rufinus, and Jerome.
• Bishop Ambrose was able to command the penitent submission of
the emperor Theodosius I.

• The emperor Theodosius I declared Christianity the faith of the

empire in 380.
• A relentless advocate of Nicene orthodoxy, Athanasius was exiled no
fewer than five times, depending on the changing political situation.
• Chorepiscopus: a rural bishop supervised by the city bishop
1. Compare and contrast four major fourth-century viewpoints on
the relationship between the Father and the Son.
2. Analyze the principal phases in the Arian controversy after
Nicaea, explaining major themes and identifying major players.
3. Describe the Council of Constantinople, explaining its theological
and political background, including the roles played by significant
figures.
Discussion Question
1. Select three (3) of the following major patristic figures, compar-
ing their careers, roles, and contributions to Christian thought and
practice: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom,
Ambrose, Rufinus, and Jerome.
Quiz
1. (T/F) The emperor Constantius II tried to revivify paganism in the
empire.
2. (T/F) Changes in clerical garments were largely the result of the
clergy’s failure to keep up with changing fashions in secular life.
3. (T/F) Rufinus’s Life of Antony was very influential in advertising
monastic ideals.

The Church in the Fourth Century | 39
4. (T/F) Jerome knew Hebrew and translated the Vulgate from the
Hebrew Bible.
5. (T/F) In his preaching, John Chrysostom was quick to accuse
corrupt clergy, but would not criticize the royal family.
6. (T/F) The “Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381” is the creed
most commonly recited today in churches as the “Nicene Creed.”
7. Which of the following parties believed that the Son is unlike the
Father?
a) Homoousians
b) Homoiousians
c) Homoeans
d) Anomoeans
8. Which of the following was NOT a persuasive fourth-century
argument for the Nicene Creed?
a) The number of signatories was 318
b) The term homoousios could be clearly defined and understood
c) The bishops at the Council of Nicaea were good men
d) The emperor ratified the creed
9. Which of the following Cappadocians is seen as a great “Christian-
izer of Hellenism”?
a) Basil of Caesarea
b) Gregory of Nazianzus
c) John Chrysostom
d) Gregory of Nyssa
10. Which of the following was also known as the “Harp of the Holy
Spirit” for his beautiful theological poetry?
a) Ephraem the Syrian
b) Ambrose of Milan
c) Rufinus
d) Gregory of Nazianzus
A N SW E R K EY
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T, 7. D, 8. B, 9. D, 10. A

CHA PT E R 12
Monasticism, Expansion,
Life, and Worship
The Church in the Fourth
and Early Fifth Centuries
You Should Know

• Under the influence of key leaders and through a variety of
expressions, Christian monasticism shaped Christianity in signifi-
cant ways.
• The fourth and fifth centuries saw one of the most significant
periods in Christian missions, with major expansion occurring in
Syria, Persia, Armenia, Georgia, and Ethiopia.
• Although Christianity became the official religion of the Roman
Empire in the late fourth century, the Christianization of religious
practices, moral behavior, and methods of rule was generally slow
and gradual.
• In the aftermath of persecution, the cult of the saints, observing
saints’ days, the veneration of holy sites, and pilgrimage became
major expressions of Christian piety.
• In the fourth century Christian worship became more elaborate
and the distinction between laity and clergy more pronounced. In
particular, the sacraments of baptism, Eucharist, and chrismation
received greater attention and significance.
• Practices of penance, ordination, and the church calendar became
more formal and more complex during the fourth and fifth centu-
ries.

Monasticism, Expansion, Life, and Worship | 41
• By the fourth century, the three acts that had come to have sacra-
mental significance for the church were baptism, the Eucharist, and
chrism.
• In Eastern churches the Eucharist was viewed as an epiphany of
the divine, but in the West it was viewed as a sacrifice.
• Martyria: shrines commemorating the death places of martyrs
1. Compare and contrast different forms of monasticism that became
current by the fourth and fifth centuries, describing principal leaders
associated with each form.
2. Evaluate the effects on society and the church after Rome made
Christianity the official religion of the empire.
3. Describe the growth of Christianity in two of the “national”
churches discussed in the section.
Discussion Question
1. Describe the development of the sacraments in the fourth–fifth
centuries, focusing on aspects of ritual, rationale, and theology.
Quiz
1. (T/F) Although Christian emperors in the fourth century favored
Christians, they did not execute pagans.
2. (T/F) The major fourth-century addition to the Christian calendar
was the celebration of Jesus’s birth.
3. (T/F) In the fourth and fifth centuries, veneration previously
given to martyrs was extended to monks and bishops also.
4. (T/F) Constantine officially entrusted the church with orphan care.

5. (T/F) Syriac Christianity was characterized by its emphasis on

schools.
6. (T/F) The practice of burying the dead within churches developed
largely because of Christians’ habit of venerating saints’ relics.
7. Which emperor instituted the strictest measures against Jews?
a) Theodosius II
b) Julian
c) Constantine
d) Gratian
8. Which monastic expression emphasized community life?
a) That of the hermit
b) That of the laura
c) That of the cenobites
d) That of the anchorites
9. According to Gregory Thaumaturgus, the category of penitents
who were associated with the faithful, but did not commune were
known as:
a) Mourners
b) Kneelers
c) Bystanders
d) Restored ones
10. Which of the following was not a significant motif in the litera-
ture of early Christian monasticism?
a) Angelic
b) Baptismal
c) Martyr
d) Priestly
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. T, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T, 6. T, 7. A, 8. C, 9. C, 10. D

CHA PT E R 13
Christological
Controversies to
Chalcedon (451)
You Should Know
• Each of the four ecumenical councils contributes a distinct piece
to the Christian doctrine of the incarnation, functioning to pre-
serve mystery within certain parameters.
• The Antiochene and Alexandrine theological traditions differed
in significant ways, producing different interpretations of Nicaea
that were difficult to reconcile and triggered widespread Christo-
logical controversy.
• The backgrounds and circumstances of the Christological contro-
versies demonstrate the shifts occurring in how major religious
conflict would be handled in the late empire. The consequences
would include deposition of leaders and condemnation of entire
traditions.
• The clash between Nestorius and Cyril in the Council of Ephesus
(431), the results of which were played out further in the “Robber
Synod” of 449 and the Council of Chalcedon (451), highlighted the
terms of debate between the Word-flesh Christology of Antioch
and the Word-man Christology of Alexandria.
• Chalcedon established a compromised definition, affirming the
two natures (human and divine) in the one person of Jesus Christ.

• Chalcedon and its canons impacted the church’s understanding

of the role of ecumenical councils, the relationship of monks to
the ecclesial hierarchy, and underscored the tensions between
Constantinople and Rome as prestigious sees.
• Nestorius’s response to the use of the term Theotokos helped
trigger the controversy in Constantinople that led to the Council
of Ephesus (431).
• Gregory of Nazianzus’s argument against Apollinarianism was
stated well in the aphorism about the incarnation, “What was not
assumed was not healed.”
• At the Council of Ephesus (431), the contingent from Antioch was
delayed, but the presider conducted the council anyway.
1. Describe and explain the circumstances surrounding the Council
of Chalcedon (451), indicating points of dispute, major players, and
theological implications of the issues.
2. Explain the debate between Nestorius and Cyril of Alexandria,
highlighting the terms of the debate and discussing the role played
by the distinct schools of thought that each represented.
3. Explain the significance of each of the first four ecumenical coun-
cils, describing their backgrounds, the theological points at issue,
major players, and basic consequences of each.
Discussion Question
1. Choose three (3) of the following on which to briefly compare and
contrast their significances for the history of the Christological con-
troversy: Theodore of Mopsuestia, Apollinaris of Laodicea, Eutyches,
Cyril of Alexandria, Nestorius, John of Antioch, Theodosius II, Dios-
corus, Leo I of Rome, Theodoret of Cyrus.

Christological Controversies to Chalcedon (451) | 45
Quiz
1. (T/F) The Alexandrine tradition gave more attention to the hu-
manity of Jesus Christ.
2. (T/F) Monophysitism was an extreme view that insisted Christ
had only one nature.
3. (T/F) The christological controversies signal the decline of the
effectiveness of the classical Christian argument from tradition.
4. (T/F) At Chalcedon, the terms physis and natura were used to talk
about the duality of Jesus Christ’s being.
5. (T/F) The Twelve Anathemas composed by Nestorius explained the
Antiochene understanding of Christology and rejected Cyril’s views.
6. (T/F) Leo I was in favor of the findings of the “Robber Synod” of
449, and rejected the Chalcedonian Definition of Faith.
7. The Council of Ephesus (431) may be best summed up as affirm-
ing what Christian doctrinal understanding?
a) The oneness of God
b) The oneness of Christ
c) The twoness of Christ
d) The threeness of God
8. Which of the following taught that the divine Logos replaced the
human soul or spirit of Jesus?
a) Apollinaris of Laodicea
b) Theodore of Mopsuestia
c) Eutyches
d) Diodore of Tarsus
9. Who collaborated with John of Antioch after the Council of Ephe-
sus to prepare a compromise formula that allowed for both Antio-
chene and Alexandrine emphases?
a) Theodosius II
b) Leo I

c) Dioscorus
d) Cyril of Alexandria
10. The canons of Chalcedon helped bring what element of the church
more firmly under bishops’ control?
a) Monks
b) Schools
c) Liturgy
d) Deacons
A N SW E R K EY
1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. T, 5. F, 6. F, 7. B, 8. A, 9. D, 10. A

CHA PT E R 1 4
Augustine, Pelagius,
and Semipelagianism
You Should Know
• Augustine of Hippo came to be one of the most influential think-
ers in western Christianity, shaped by a variety of life experiences
culminating in his dramatic conversion to Christianity.
• Augustine left a voluminous quantity of writings that have
become classics in western Christianity, addressing theology,
ecclesiology, exegesis, and spirituality.
• In response to Donatism, Augustine formulated influential under-
standings of the sacraments and the church.
• In response to Pelagianism, Augustine formulated controversial
but impactful understandings of divine predestination and elec-
tion, salvation, and human sexuality.
• Pelagius and Celestius were moralizing reformers whose views on
human free will prompted fierce controversy, especially in Rome and
North Africa, resulting in their condemnation in multiple councils.
• John Cassian, Vincent of Lerins, and others reacted to Augustine’s
extreme views on divine election, holding to a position that allows
a greater role for human free will in salvation, a view known as
“Semipelagianism.”
• Augustine wrote the work that became the textbook on the theology
of marriage in the Middle Ages.
• Augustine’s work Confessions not only provides crucial information
about his life, but became a religious classic of penetrating spiri-
tual introspection.

• While a professor of rhetoric, the non-Christian Augustine went

to hear the city’s most famous orator, a bishop named Ambrose.
1. Compare and contrast Pelagianism with Augustine’s views and
with Semipelagianism, indicating major players in the controversy
and the fundamental points of contention.
2. Describe Augustine’s views on human free will, salvation, and
divine election, explaining their development.
3. Explain the development of Augustine’s views on ordination, the
church, and sacraments in response to Donatism. What were the
long-term consequences of his teaching?
Discussion Question
1. Select two (2) of the following works to describe, indicating their
authors, the circumstances of their composition, their teachings, and
their impact: Confessions, Commonitorium, City of God, On the Trinity.
Quiz
1. (T/F) Augustine taught that a sacrament like baptism could be
valid, regardless of the administrator’s purity or the faithfulness of
the church.
2. (T/F) Once Pelagius and Celestius had been condemned, Augustine’s
views on divine election and human sexuality remained unchallenged
for centuries.
3. (T/F) Augustine’s views on human free will changed substantially
as he engaged different issues troubling the church.
4. (T/F) Augustine used infant baptism as an argument in favor of
his views on original sin.
5. (T/F) The Council of Ephesus (431) condemned Pelagius, Celesti-
us, and Julian of Eclanum.

Augustine, Pelagius, and Semipelagianism | 49
6. (T/F) During the Middle Ages, the two cities in City of God were
typically understood to be church and state.
7. According to John Cassian’s fourfold method of reading the Bible,
an interpretation of “Jerusalem” as the Heavenly City would fit
which sense?
a) Allegorical
b) Tropological
c) Literal
d) Anagogical
8. Which of the following is NOT consistent with Augustine’s views
on salvation, original sin, and human free will?
a) Because of the fall, humans are not able to do good or even
choose good without God’s supernatural grace
b) Original sin is passed on through sexual activity
c) The stories of the two tax collectors in the Gospels illustrate
the possible ways a person may come to salvation
d) God predestines some people for condemnation
9. After Pelagius and his followers had been banished and excommu-
nicated, who assumed leadership of the Pelagian position?
a) Augustine of Hippo
b) Vincent of Lerins
c) John Cassian
d) Julian of Eclanum
10. Who constructed the classic statement of the ancient church’s
doctrine of tradition?
a) Augustine of Hippo
b) Vincent of Lerins
c) John Cassian
d) Julian of Eclanum
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T, 6. T, 7. D, 8. C, 9. D, 10. B

CHA PT E R 1 5
Transitions to
the Middle Ages
Germanic Migrations, Doctrinal
Developments, and the Papacy
You Should Know

• The church was one of the principal institutions in Western
Europe to survive the collapse of the ancient Roman Empire.
• Ulfilas converted many Goths to a Christianity that was largely
Arian, and its church exhibited distinctive features of organization,
belief, and practice as a result of its Germanic context.
• The movements and conquests of German tribes transformed
Western Europe during the fifth and sixth centuries, the most
impactful being the Franks under Clovis and the Ostrogoths
under Theodoric.
• The Germanic invasions had lasting effects on society and the
churches; a number of Christian authors sought to explain the
significance of the Germanic conquests in different ways.
• The Augustinian-Pelagian controversy was practically resolved in
favor of a “Semiaugustinianism” championed by Caesarius of Arles,
a compromise view that would come to dominate the Western
medieval theology.
• A combination of circumstances and strong leadership contributed
to the elevation of the role of Roman bishop (pope) to a status of
primacy among Western bishops.

Transitions to the Middle Ages | 51
• The expression filioque was added to the creed in 589 at a synod in

Toledo.
• The proprietary church Eigenkirche: The form of organization in
which a church was closely associated with the property and rule
of a lay patron is known as that of Ulfilas– the fourth-century
missionary to the Goths.
• The synod of Orange approved a “Semiaugustinian” view on salva-
tion and human free will in 529.
1. Compare and contrast the relationships that the Franks and
Visigoths had with Christianity and the church in the fifth and sixth
centuries.
2. Describe and explain the distinctive characteristics of early Ger-
manic Christianity in its beliefs, practices, and church organization.
3. In what ways would Augustine and Pelagius have agreed or dis-
agreed with Caesarius of Arles and the synod of Orange (529) on the
matter of human free will and salvation?
Discussion Question
1. How did the bishop of Rome come to be as powerful and signif-
icant as it was by the beginning of the sixth century? Discuss the
major players and relevant events and circumstances.
Quiz
1. (T/F) The Goths spoke of the Father and Son as being of “one blood.”
2. (T/F) Scholars agree that the year 476 marks the beginning of the
Middle Ages.
3. (T/F) Leo I may justly be called “the first pope.”

4. (T/F) Prosper of Aquitaine was a Semipelagian opponent of Augus-

tinianism.
5. (T/F) Salvian contended that the Germans were morally inferior
to the Romans and that God would enable the Romans to regain
control of the empire.
6. (T/F) In the early Middle Ages, the church conveyed a sense of
“universal authority” that transcended the more limited authority of
regional kings.
7. Which of the German tribes came to exercise the most influence
in the Western church during the early Middle Ages?
a) Franks
b) Ostrogoths
c) Visigoths
d) Lombards
8. Which of the following is NOT given as a principal factor produc-
ing a new situation for the church?
a) Constantine
b) Augustine
c) Monks and popes
d) Germanic language
9. Who described the bishop of Rome as the “vicar of Peter”?
a) Leo I
b) Damasus
c) Julius
d) Innocent I
10. Who devised the anno domini system of dating?
a) Cassiodorus
b) Isidore of Seville
c) Dionysius Exiguus
d) Boethius
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F, 5. F, 6. T, 7. A, 8. D, 9. A, 10. C

CHA PT E R 1 6
Eastern and Western

Churches in the Fifth
and Sixth Centuries
You Should Know
• After the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon, the Eastern church
experienced a three-way split between the Church of the East
(“Nestorians”), Chalcedonians, and Miaphysites/Henophysites,
each with its key leaders and trajectory of later development.
• During the emperor Justinian’s reign, the empire experienced its
first flourishing of Byzantine culture.
• Justinian sought to achieve unity in the empire, involving himself
in the Theopaschite, Origenist, and Three Chapters controversies,
without accomplishing lasting theological unity.
• Justinian’s Byzantine culture saw marked developments in law,
reconquest of territories, architecture, liturgy, art, theology, and
popular devotion.
• The monastic legacy of Benedict of Nursia and the “monkish
papacy” of Gregory the Great combined to establish structures,
practices, and expectations that would characterize ecclesial lead-
ership through the Middle Ages.
• The great liturgies were formalized in the sixth–seventh centu-
ries, with the result that several distinct families were in use in
different areas.
• From the time of the barbarian invasions of the fifth century, East-
ern and Western expressions of Christianity may be distinguished

according to different theological emphases, organization, and

engagement with society.
• Zeno promoted the Henoticon, an edict of reunion, in an effort to
unify Chalcedonians and Henophysites.
• Differences between the Eastern and Western churches may be
summed up by saying that the Eastern church did not have a Mid-
dle Ages.
• Benedict’s Rule: a balanced regimen of a) divine praise, b) spiritual
reading, and c) physical work
1. Explain the three-way split that occurred in the Christian East after
the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon, indicating major players and
events.
2. Describe the significance of Justinian’s reign for the ongoing devel-
opment of the Christological controversies in the Christian East. What
was his legacy and how did Byzantine culture flower under his rule?
3. What are the main differences between Eastern and Western
theology, organization, and attitudes regarding church and culture?
Discussion Question
1. Select three (3) of the following figures, comparing and contrasting
their contributions to the development of Christianity in the fifth and
sixth centuries: Severus of Antioch, Pseudo-Dionysius, Benedict of
Nursia, Justinian, Gregory the Great.
Quiz
1. (T/F) The Theopaschite controversy was triggered by the inclusion
of a particular phrase in the liturgy.
2. (T/F) Justinian reestablished Roman rule in Italy.

Eastern and Western Churches in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries | 55
3. (T/F) Gregory supported the idea of purgatory.

4. (T/F) Mariology appeared in the West several centuries in advance
of the East.
5. (T/F) The church in Armenia adopted the Henophysite position.
6. (T/F) In the latter years of his reign, Justinian was able to achieve
lasting unity between Chalcedonians and Miaphysites.
7. Which of the following texts became a medieval classic, with
enormous influence on Western clergy?
a) Dialogues
b) Pastoral Rule
c) On Ecclesiastical Hierarchy
d) Communicatio idiomatum
8. The Fifth Ecumenical Council (553) was primarily concerned with
which issue?
a) The Three Chapters
b) Evagrian Origenism
c) Christian theurgy
d) The Theopaschite controversy
9. Which of the following is NOT one of the factors favoring the
creation and use of written liturgies?
a) Natural tendencies to uniformity in worship language
b) Unlearned clergy needed guidance
c) Concern for orthodoxy and fear of heretical doctrines
d) The precedent and model of written scriptures
10. Who identified three stages in describing God — affirmative,
negative, and superlative?
a) Severus of Antioch
b) Pseudo-Dionysius
c) Gregory the Great
d) Benedict of Nursia
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. T, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T, 6. F, 7. B, 8. A, 9. D, 10. B

CHA PTE R 17
The Eastern Churches

from the Seventh to
Eleventh Centuries
You Should Know
• The monotheletism promoted by church leaders and emperors
as a means by which to accomplish unity was condemned in the
Sixth Ecumenical Council, Constantinople III (680–81), defeated
by a lasting reticence to revise Chalcedon and by the Christology
typified in Maximus the Confessor.
• The rise of Islam and its dramatic spread in the seventh and
eighth centuries transformed the shape of the empire, posed
significant challenges to the church, and prompted a series of
Christian responses.
• The iconoclasm sponsored by military emperors in the eighth and
ninth centuries was refuted in the Seventh Ecumenical Council,
Nicaea II (787), defeated by popular piety and by the incarna-
tional theology typified in John of Damascus.
• The Photian Schism illustrates the complexities of Byzantine
church politics and the growing differences between Byzantine
and Roman expressions of Christianity and church.
• Middle Byzantine culture saw developments in monasticism,
literature, liturgy, popular piety, art, and architecture that would
characterize the Byzantine church from that period forward.
• Byzantine missionaries and missionaries from the Church of the

The Eastern Churches from the Seventh to Eleventh Centuries | 57
East established Christianity in Moravia, Bulgaria, Russia, Central

Asia, China, India, Korea, and Japan.
• Heraclius promulgated the document Ekthesis, in order to pro-
mote Monotheletism.
• The Monothelete Syrian Christians of Lebanon were known as
Maronites.
• The schism associated with the Patriarch Photius (858–67, 878–86)
illustrates the deepening chasm between the Byzantine and Roman
churches.
• The large cenobite community at Mt. Athos became the chief center
of Orthodox monasticism.
1. Explain the rise and defeat of monotheletism, highlighting major
players, crucial doctrines, and key events.
2. Explain the Photian Schism — its background and outcomes. What
does the Schism say about the deep differences between Eastern and
Western expressions of Christianity?
3. Describe the major features of Middle Byzantine culture, especially
as they pertain to the church.
Discussion Question
1. Discuss the backgrounds, circumstances, and outcomes of the
sixth and seventh ecumenical councils.
Quiz
1. (T/F) Nicaea II made a clear distinction between “honorable rever-
ence” of pictures and “true devotion” to God.

2. (T/F) The Church of the East brought Christianity to the Chinese

imperial court by the seventh century.
3. (T/F) Islam initially pressured Christians to convert.
4. (T/F) Many Christians welcomed the Muslims as a liberating force
from the Byzantine emperor.
5. (T/F) Middle Byzantine church buildings conveyed a strong sense
of movement upward, from earth to heaven.
6. (T/F) The Eastern church differed from Roman Catholic missions
in allowing new churches to organize themselves on racial and na-
tional lines.
7. Who wrote the classic defense of icon veneration?
a) Pope Honorius
b) Maximus the Confessor
c) Simeon the New Theologian
d) John of Damascus
8. The Paulicians are especially associated with what country?
a) Bulgaria
b) Lebanon
c) Armenia
d) Egypt
9. What was the first stage in the Christian response to Islam?
a) To see Islam as a chastisement for Christians’ sins
b) To engage Islam in serious polemics
c) To translate Muslim works into Greek
d) To advance an apocalyptic interpretation of Islam
10. Who was the founder of Russian Christianity?
a) Vladimir
b) Queen Olga
c) Methodius
d) Cyril
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T, 7. D, 8. C, 9. A, 10. A

CHA PT E R 1 8
The Western Church

from the Seventh to
Ninth Centuries
You Should Know
• In the clash between Celtic and Roman styles of Christian expres-
sion, a hybrid form emerged, loyal to Rome and Roman forms yet
retaining many elements of the Celtic spirit.
• Missionary-monks from Ireland and England helped restore,
reform, and expand the church on the European continent.
• The reign of Charlemagne and the Carolingian dynasty marked a
season of relative peace and stability for much of Western Europe,
with significant developments in Christian expansion, church-
state relations, Benedictine monasticism, scholarship, theology,
and church organization.
• By the ninth century, Christian ritual and belief was coming to
pervade the daily lives of many in medieval Europe, though vari-
ous non-Christian elements persisted.
• The Carolingian period saw a number of theological controversies,
including debates about predestination, the Eucharist, the filioque,
and religious art.
• In the seventh–ninth centuries, the papacy moved decisively
towards a papal monarchy, and the groundwork was laid for the
medieval synthesis of church and state.
• Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals: a collection of materials that became
the basis of the claims for papal monarchy in the Middle Ages

• Canonical clergy at cathedrals served parish responsibilities in the

world but lived according to a rule.
• Ninian: the “apostle of Scotland”
1. Compare and contrast Celtic and Roman styles of mission and
church in the early Middle Ages.
2. What strategies were used to convert and Christianize people in
Western Europe in the seventh–ninth centuries?
3. Describe two major theological controversies that occurred in
the Carolingian Empire in the seventh–ninth centuries. Explain the
backgrounds, major players, points at issue, and results.
Discussion Question
1. In your estimation, what were the most crucial factors in the con-
struction of the foundation for medieval Europe that was laid in the
seventh–ninth centuries? Substantiate your answer with reference to
persons, events, developments, and any other data you find necessary
to explain your answer.
Quiz
1. (T/F) Papal authority was the main issue debated in the Synod of
Whitby (664).
2. (T/F) Charlemagne had Augustine’s City of God read to him each
night.
3. (T/F) The monastic model of John Cassian became standard
throughout the Carolingian kingdom.
4. (T/F) The British bishops were impressed by Augustine of Canter-
bury’s humility when they met.

The Western Church from the Seventh to Ninth Centuries | 61
5. (T/F) In the Carolingian period, bishops were named by the king,

and ecclesiastical dioceses were determined by agreement between
the state and the pope.
6. (T/F) Baptism by affusion came to replace baptism by immersion
in the medieval Western church.
7. Who wrote the first doctrinal treatise on the Lord’s Supper, argu-
ing for a realistic identification of the elements with Jesus’s body and
blood?
a) Alcuin
b) Radbertus
c) Gottschalk
d) Ratramnus
8. Who succeeded in gaining the patronage of kings and popes in
his efforts to reform churches and convert pagans in eighth-century
Europe?
a) Columbanus
b) Winfrid (Boniface)
c) Aidan
d) Willibrord (Clement)
9. What were the Libri Carolini written to address?
a) Double predestination
b) The “Adoptionist” controversy
c) The filioque clause
d) The use of religious art in worship
10. Which of the following was NOT typical of early Celtic Christianity?
a) Organization by parish and diocese
b) Missionary zeal
c) Identified Christian life with penance
d) Associated with clan life
A N SW E R K EY
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. F, 5. T, 6. T, 7. B, 8. B, 9. D, 10. A

CHA PT E R 1 9
Decline and Renewal of

Vitality in the West
The Ninth to the
Eleventh Centuries
You Should Know

• After a period of marked decline in the ninth and tenth centuries,
revival in the institutions of monasticism, the imperial office, and
the papacy set the stage in the eleventh century for the medieval
synthesis.
• The Norse and Viking invasions disequilibrated medieval culture,
though the invaders were converted and Christianized in the
tenth and eleventh centuries.
• Church structures, especially the papacy, descended more deeply
into feudalism during the ninth and tenth centuries.
• Largely as a result of its autonomy from feudal structures, the
monastery of Cluny was able to promote a sweeping reform of
monasticism, thereby transforming the church’s impact on the
society of the late tenth and eleventh centuries.
• Imperial power passed from the Franks to the German Ottonian
dynasty, key representatives of which supported church reform.
• Reform-minded monarchs supported the installation of reforming
popes such as Leo III, who transformed the papacy and helped lift
it out of its feudal entanglements.
• During an era when reforms in the Western church supported

Decline and Renewal of Vitality in the West | 63
an independent papacy, tensions with the Eastern church came

to a head in the controversy between Pope Leo IX and Patriarch
Michael Cerularius, resulting in the Great Schism of 1054.
• Simony: the practice of paying money in order to receive a clerical
benefice
• Nicolaitanism: the practice of married clergy called by the Cluniacs
• Leo IX: the great reforming pope of the eleventh century
1. Describe the story of papal decline and renewal in the ninth to
eleventh centuries, highlighting key players and significant events.
2. Explain the eleventh-century monastic, imperial, and papal revivals,
in terms of their background, interconnections, and major players.
3. What impact did the monastery of Cluny have on the church and
medieval culture?
Discussion Question
1. Why did the Great Schism of 1054 happen? Explain the back-
ground to the division and describe the specific circumstances of the
eleventh-century events.
Quiz
1. (T/F) After a period of “dark ages,” the eleventh century saw insti-
tutional revival.
2. (T/F) During much of the tenth and eleventh centuries the Ro-
man aristocracy was controlled by the papacy.
3. (T/F) Otto I cultivated alliances with dukes and nobles in order to
secure local authority against bishops and abbots.

4. (T/F) Many monasteries placed themselves under the abbot of

Cluny.
5. (T/F) Pope Leo IX sought to preserve Italian control of the College
of Cardinals.
6. (T/F) The people of Rome granted Henry III the right to choose
Rome’s bishop.
7. What characteristic of the monastery of Cluny was most signifi-
cant in making it a powerful agent of reform?
a) Its autonomy
b) Canonical clergy
c) Support of the Ottonian kings
d) The “Peace of God”
8. Who acted as the pope’s agent in excommunicating Michael Ceru-
larius and his associates?
a) Constantine X
b) Hildebrand
c) Peter Damian
d) Humbert
9. The “Truce of God” provided for what limitations on warfare and
feuding?
a) The outlawing of combat between Christians
b) The restriction of fighting to certain seasons
c) Only kings and popes could declare war
d) Non-combatants and clergy were not to be attacked
10. What Bohemian duke enthusiastically promoted Christianity on
his half-pagan realm in the early tenth century?
a) Olaf
b) Willibrord
c) Wenceslas
d) Stephen I
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. F, 3. F, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T, 7. A, 8. D, 9. B, 10. C

CHA PT E R 20
The Papal Reform

Movement and
the First Crusade
You Should Know
• The papal revival of the eleventh century climaxed in the papacy
of Gregory VII.
• Conflict over lay investiture became the defining issue, expressing
competing views of kingship and the proper relationship between
church and state.
• Numerous factors help explain the significance of the conflict
between King Henry IV of Germany and Pope Gregory VII over lay
investiture, including the imperial and papal revivals, the church’s
entanglement in feudalism, and politics in Germany and Italy.
• Through a display of penance, Henry IV gained a tactical victory
over Gregory VII, but the papacy won the moral victory in securing
the symbol of imperial humility before the pope.
• Multiple factors played into the development of the First Crusade,
including the evolution of penance, changing views about the
church’s role in warfare, the influence of Islam, the practice of pil-
grimage, and a desire to reunite the church.
• Pope Urban II responded to the Byzantine emperor’s pleas for
help by preaching the First Crusade, offering papal indulgences to
crusaders, and helping mobilize French nobles to lead the armies.
• Although the First Crusade contributed to the deterioration of

many relationships, the capture of select targets brought western

military rule to the Holy Land for a period. Knightly monastic
orders arose to protect the conquered lands and safeguard pilgrims.
• The essential parts of medieval penance were contrition, confession,
and (works of) satisfaction.
• Indulgence: remission of the temporal punishment of sin
• Urban II: the pope who preached the First Crusade
1. How did the investiture controversy come to be a crucial moment
in the history of the papacy and the medieval church?
2. Explain the conflict between Gregory VII and Henry IV, highlighting
the political and ecclesial factors and describing the outcomes of the
conflict.
3. What factors came together to trigger the First Crusade? What
were the results of the Crusades?
Discussion Question
1. Compare and contrast the attitudes responsible for the launching
of the Crusades with those of Christians of earlier periods, illustrating
by means of persons, sources, and events.
Quiz
1. (T/F) Alongside chastity, obedience, and warfare, the Knights
Templar emphasized poverty most of all.
2. (T/F) The conflict between Gregory VII and Henry IV was essentially
a disagreement over two competing views of kingship.
3. (T/F) The Copts in Egypt welcomed the crusaders as liberators.

The Papal Reform Movement and the First Crusade | 67
4. (T/F) Since Carolingian times, penance twice a year at Lent and

Christmas had become the norm.
5. (T/F) In the eleventh century, killing a person was a grievous sin,
even in a battle approved by the pope.
6. (T/F) At the Diet of Worms, Henry IV showed penance by walking
barefoot in the snow.
7. What was the title of Gregory VII’s summary statement of papal
authorities?
a) Dictatus papae
b) Index librorum prohibitorum
c) Decretum
d) Deus le volt
8. What marked the final settlement in the investiture controversy?
a) The Council of Clermont
b) Henry IV’s display of penance
c) The Concordat of Worms
d) Ivo of Chartres’s formulation of canons
9. What social expectation strongly impacted the conflict between
Henry IV and Gregory VII?
a) Indulgences
b) Feudalism
c) Proprietary churches
d) Commutations
10. What leader of the First Crusade took the title of Lord Protector
of Jerusalem?
a) Godfrey
b) Baldwin
c) Raymond
d) Bohemond
A N SW E R K EY
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. F, 5. T, 6. F, 7. A, 8. C, 9. B, 10. A

CHA PT E R 21
Intellectual Revival
The Rise of Scholasticism
You Should Know

• The twelfth century saw an intellectual revival in medieval culture
and the Western church, based on the kind of teaching and learning
that occurred in cathedral schools.
• Scholasticism was based on confidence in human reason and
used a dialectical method of disputation to engage authorities
and arguments in order to resolve problems, particularly those
connected to the philosophical question of universals.
• Scholastic methods and changing positions on the question of
universals transformed the ways scholars engaged and debated
such doctrines as the Eucharist, the incarnation, the church, and
the atonement.
• Anselm of Canterbury and Peter Abelard are the most significant
representatives of early Scholasticism, whose work and teach-
ing shaped the assumptions, aims, and methods of intellectual
inquiry in western culture for centuries.
• Anselm’s treatise Proslogion presented his famous ontological
argument for God.
• Scholasticism placed a high degree of confidence in reason.
• A debate about the use of the new scholastic methods in explaining
the Trinity was triggered by the views of Roscellinus, the founder
of Nominalism.

Intellectual Revival | 69
1. What was the problem of universals, as engaged by Scholasticism,
and how did the discussions impact Christian doctrine in the eleventh
and twelfth centuries?
2. What were the most popular theories of the atonement in the early
twelfth century? Explain the theories and give their proponents.
3. Discuss the circumstances, issues, and major players in the second
eucharistic controversy. How did the results of the controversy affect
church doctrine and liturgical practice?
Discussion Question
1. Explain Scholasticism, in terms of its assumptions, methods,
content, and form, illustrating with reference to a particular theo-
logical discussion of the eleventh or twelfth century. How were these
assumptions, methods, and results similar to those of the early
church fathers? How were they different?
Quiz
1. (T/F) The development of the doctrine of transubstantiation led
to the common practice of offering the Eucharist in both kinds to the
laity.
2. (T/F) Anselm sought to demonstrate the propositions of faith on
the basis of reason alone.
3. (T/F) The scholasticus Berengar formulated the doctrine of tran-
substantiation.
4. (T/F) Cur deus homo presented the atonement theory that eventu-
ally won the largest following.
5. (T/F) Abelard argued that motives, however well-intended, play
no role in determining whether behavior is right or wrong.

6. (T/F) Nearly all the scholastic thinkers had an element of mysticism

in them.
7. In scholastic method, what term corresponds best to the process
of stating arguments for and against a problem?
a) Sententia
b) Disputatio
c) Sic et non
d) Quaestio
8. Which position on universals sees them not as real, but helpful
inferences drawn from observation?
a) Moderate realism
b) Nominalism
c) Extreme realism
d) Nominal conceptualism
9. Which scholar held that he had to doubt in order to know?
a) Anselm
b) Berengar
c) Abelard
d) Bernard
10. Which scholar is known for the moral-exemplary theory of the
atonement?
a) Anselm
b) Berengar
c) Abelard
d) Bernard
A N SW E R K EY
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T, 7. B, 8. B, 9. C, 10. C

CHA PT E R 22
Monastic, Literary,
Political, and Cultural
Activities in the Twelfth
Century
You Should Know
• Church reform and renewal in the twelfth century was triggered
largely by increased monastic vitality and new expressions of
monasticism, the most influential of which was the Cistercian
reform of Benedictine monasticism.
• The Cistercian leader Bernard of Clairvaux was the guiding spiri-
tual influence of the age.
• A lasting synthesis between the monastic spirituality of Bernard
and the dialectic methods of Abelard was achieved through the
work of such luminaries as Hugh of St. Victor and Peter Lombard.
• Romanesque style combined Roman and Byzantine features with
local elements, to shape the Christian art and architecture of the
tenth through twelfth centuries.
• A growing preoccupation with saints, their sites, and their relics —
and especially Mary — shaped the popular piety of western Christi-
anity, along with developments in music and poetry.
• Rhythms of competition, antagonism, and cooperation continued
to characterize church-state relations in the twelfth century, most
evident in the relations between the papacy and emerging national
monarchies. The Third Crusade was a failed expression of the
impulse to cooperate.

• Key developments occurred in the national Eastern churches in

the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
• The canonist (John) Gratian composed the Decretum, which became
the standard sourcebook for studying and practicing canon law.
• Hildegard of Bingen was a twelfth-century abbess who preached
her prophetic visions of judgment.
1. What role did monastic movements play in the Western church
and society in the twelfth century? Illustrate with reference to signif-
icant leaders and influential movements.
2. Describe the main themes of Romanesque style, illustrating with
reference to medieval art architecture.
3. What expressions of personal piety dominated the Western
church in the twelfth century?
Discussion Question
1. Compare and contrast the work and impact of Bernard of Clairvaux,
Hugh of St. Victor, and Peter Lombard.
Quiz
1. (T/F) Converts to monasticism and the establishment of monas-
teries increased in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
2. (T/F) Lombard’s Book of Sentences became the standard medieval
theology textbook.
3. (T/F) Jewish and Arabic scholars in Europe lagged far behind the
Christian intellectual revival of the twelfth century.
4. (T/F) The official doctrine of purgatory was formulated by Hugh
of St. Victor.

Monastic, Literary, Political, and Cultural Activities in the Twelfth Century | 73
5. (T/F) Bernard of Clairvaux promoted the Second Crusade.

6. (T/F) In the twelfth century, the popes began to allow other bishops
to canonize saints.
7. Which new monastic movement emphasized the need to return
to the simplicity of Benedictine monasticism?
a) Cistercians
b) Carthusians
c) Premonstratensians
d) Augustinian Canons
8. Who fixed the number of sacraments at seven?
a) Thomas Becket
b) Hugh of St. Victor
c) John Gratian
d) Peter Lombard
9. Who brought together the priorities and methods of both Ber-
nard of Clairvaux and Abelard in his work?
a) John of Salisbury
b) Hugh of St. Victor
c) Bruno of Rheims
d) John Gratian
10. What major participant in the Third Crusade drowned crossing a
river?
a) Philip II Augustus
b) Saladin
c) Frederick I Barbarossa
d) Richard I the Lion-Hearted
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. T, 3. F, 4. F, 5. T, 6. F, 7. A, 8. D, 9. B, 10. C

CHA PT E R 23
The Glory of the Western

Medieval Church
The Thirteenth Century
You Should Know
• The papacy of Innocent III marked the peak of papal power in the
Middle Ages.
• The mendicant orders represented the latest wave of ascetic
renewal in the thirteenth century, expressed in the careers of
Dominic and Francis of Assisi, and in the priorities and impact of
the movements they started.
• The intellectual revival of the eleventh and twelfth centuries cul-
minated in the development in the thirteenth of the universities, a
third force in Christendom alongside the empire and the priesthood.
• The career and legacy of the Dominican Thomas Aquinas consti-
tute the crowning achievement of medieval Scholasticism; his
project to synthesize Christian theology and Aristotelian thought
was singularly influential in western Christian intellectual history.
• The Franciscan order produced scholars who preserved Augustinian
emphases on divine illumination, mysticism, and love, providing
a counterpoint to Aquinas: Bonaventure, Roger Bacon, and Duns
Scotus.
• In the thinking of Duns Scotus, the will is primary to intelligence,
in both God and humans.
• The Gothic art and architecture of the period emphasized harmony,
verticality, space, and luminosity.

The Glory of the Western Medieval Church | 75
• Books of Hours: often lavishly illuminated works that gave devotions

for daily times of prayer for laypersons
• Summa Theologiae: Thomas Aquinas’s great systematic theology
• The Fourth Lateran Council made annual confession and commu-
nion obligatory.
1. Explain the rise and development of the papacy from the period of
the early church until the papacy of Innocent III. Why is the papacy of
Innocent III often considered as representing the peak of papal power?
2. Compare and contrast the persons of Dominic and Francis of
Assisi. How do their differences express themselves in the different
priorities, missions, and impact of their orders?
3. Describe the rise of universities as a “third force” in Christendom.
Discussion Question
1. Compare and contrast the theological projects of Thomas Aquinas
and Bonaventure. Explain the basic elements of Aquinas’s project to
synthesize Aristotelian thought and Christian theology, illustrating
by reference to his work.
Quiz
1. (T/F) In the thirteenth century, images of Jesus on the cross
changed from realistic depictions of his agony to depictions of his
exalted reign over sin and the world.
2. (T/F) The Dominicans emphasized scholarship and combating
heresy.
3. (T/F) The availability of the entire corpus of Plato was a major factor
in the development of medieval culture in the thirteenth century.

4. (T/F) Thomas Aquinas insisted that all knowledge may be known

by reason, and that revelation is necessary only for the unlearned.
5. (T/F) Francis of Assisi would not condone the drawing up of a
formal rule to govern his followers.
6. (T/F) Gothic depictions of final judgment emphasized the hope of
salvation more than Romanesque ones had done.
7. What was the first example of the new Gothic style of architecture?
a) Cathedral of Notre Dame
b) Abbey church at St. Denis
c) Sainte-Chapelle
d) Cathedral of Chartres
8. Which pope placed England under the interdict due to conflict
over the appointment of Stephen Langton?
a) Honorius III
b) Alexander III
c) Innocent III
d) Gregory IX
9. Which scholar stressed the importance of divine illumination in
the quest for truth?
a) Bonaventure
b) Roger Bacon
c) Thomas Aquinas
d) Albertus Magnus
10. What became a third force in the thirteenth century, alongside
the imperium and the sacerdotium?
a) The papacy
b) Universities
c) Mendicant orders
d) Religious lay movements
A N SW E R K EY
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. F, 5. F, 6. T, 7. B, 8. C, 9. A, 10. B

CHA PT E R 24
Portents of Decline
You Should Know
• In the face of diminishing popular confidence in the structures
of the church, numerous lay religious movements arose in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, prompting the Roman Catholic
Church to attempt various measures of control, including the
Inquisition.
• The church and medieval structures of power struggled to cope
with diverse religious elements in society, including Jews, the
Cathari, expressions of vernacular theology such as the women’s
Beguine movement, and expressions of female mysticism.
• In the face of the Mongol conquests, the missions and vitality of
the church in central Asia and China was sharply reduced.
• The Second Council of Lyons met in 1274, ostensibly to further
a project of reunion between West and East, but without lasting
results.
• Effective pastoral care and worship were in serious decline in the
thirteenth century, as eschatological speculation and fanaticism
increased.
• The poet and Florentine magistrate Dante Alighieri went on a pil-
grimage to Rome in 1300 and wrote the most significant literary
expression of the medieval worldview.
• In terms of its claims, the papacy of Boniface VIII marks the
pinnacle of the development of medieval papal theory; in terms of
actual effectiveness in the face of emerging national monarchies,
it marks a period of grave decline.

• Cathari/Albigensians: a people group that held to a dualist under-

standing of the world and religion and were targeted for a crusade
• The papal bull Unam sanctam of 1302: summarized medieval papal
theory and made extravagant claims for papal authority
1. Explain the rise of lay religious movements and vernacular theology
in the thirteenth century, illustrating with reference to the background
and key leaders. How did the church respond?
2. Compare and contrast the Waldenses, Cathari, and Beguines, both
with respect to their chief characteristics and the church’s responses.
3. In what ways does the papacy of Boniface VIII represent a signifi-
cant point in the development of the medieval papacy?
Discussion Question
1. Discuss the Council of Lyons (1274): Why did it occur? Who were
the chief players? What were its main outcomes?
Quiz
1. (T/F) Peter John Olivi advocated the doctrine of papal infallibility
as a way of limiting papal power.
2. (T/F) Kublai Khan asked the pope to send a hundred Christian
teachers to his kingdom.
3. (T/F) Abuses in the Inquisition were more with individuals and
the way it was carried out than with the system itself.
4. (T/F) In response to the church’s emphasis on celibacy, Peter
Valdes stressed the importance of marriage as a spiritual practice.
5. (T/F) Thomas Aquinas represented the Western theological posi-
tion at the Council of Lyons (1274).

Portents of Decline | 79
6. (T/F) Miracle and morality plays in the vernacular were banned in

the thirteenth century by papal decree.
7. Who presented a theory of the Trinitarian periodization of history?
a) Gregory bar Hebraeus
b) Peter de Bruys
c) Stephen Tempier
d) Joachim of Fiore
8. What thirteenth-century leader converted the idea of Christian
empire into imperialism?
a) Gregory X
b) Louis IX
c) Charles of Anjou
d) Genghis Khan
9. Who promoted missions to Muslims and Jews by means of
preaching and martyrdom?
a) Joachim of Fiore
b) Raymond Lull
c) Dionysius bar Salibi
d) Prester John
10. What female mystic was burned at the stake for heresy?
a) Margaret of Porette
b) Mechthild of Magdeburg
c) Gertrude of Helfta
d) Elizabeth of Hungary and Thuringia
A N SW E R K EY
1. T, 2. T, 3. T, 4. F, 5. F, 6. F, 7. D, 8. C, 9. B, 10. A

Notes

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What were some of the religious movements that arose in response to declining confidence in the church?

What were some of the religious movements that arose in response to declining confidence in the church?

How did the church respond to growing religious diversity in the late medieval period?

How did the church respond to growing religious diversity in the late medieval period?

A CourseGuide for

9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 1 10/2/19 2:29 PM

Copyright © 2019 by Zondervan

ISBN 978-0-310-11022-4 (softcover)

Requests for information should be addressed to:

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans-

Printed in the United States of America

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1.. The Setting for the Story’s Beginning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.. Jesus and the Beginnings of the Church .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.. The Subapostolic Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4.. The Church and the Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5.. Heresies and Schisms in the Second Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

6.. The Defense against Rival Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

7.. The Fathers of the Old Catholic Church

8.. Church Life in the Second and Third Centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

9.. Development of the Church during the Third Century . . . . . . 31

10.. Diocletian and Constantine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

11.. The Church in the Fourth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

12.. Monasticism, Expansion, Life, and Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

13.. Christological Controversies to Chalcedon (451) . . . . . . . . . . 43

14.. Augustine, Pelagius, and Semipelagianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

15.. Transitions to the Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

16.. Eastern and Western Churches in the Fifth

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18.. The Western Church from the Seventh to Ninth Centuries . . 59

19.. Decline and Renewal of Vitality in the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

20.. The Papal Reform Movement and the First Crusade . . . . . . . 65

21.. Intellectual Revival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

22.. Monastic, Literary, Political, and Cultural Activities

23.. The Glory of the Western Medieval Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

24.. Portents of Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

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How to Use this Guide

For Further Study

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or in small groups or classrooms, offering quality instruction to

9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 6 10/2/19 2:29 PM

The Setting for the

9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 7 10/2/19 2:29 PM

2. Describe key elements in the impact of Greek philosophy on

9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 8 10/2/19 2:29 PM

9. During the era of Christianity’s beginnings, the social lives of

9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 9 10/2/19 2:29 PM

Jesus and the

9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 10 10/2/19 2:29 PM

• Entrance into the first-century Christian community required

9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 11 10/2/19 2:29 PM

9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 12 10/2/19 2:29 PM

The Subapostolic Age

9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 13 10/2/19 2:29 PM

assessing the variety of expressions of popular piety in the early

9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 14 10/2/19 2:29 PM

9780310110224 church history vol 1.indd 15 10/2/19 2:29 PM

The Church and