1.

2: Introduction to Administration
Public Administration is one of the important concept of the study of administration. Therefore,
before understanding the meaning of Public Administration, it is necessary to understand the
meaning of the word „Administration‟. The word „Administration‟ is derived from the Latin
word „ad and ministrare‟ which means „to serve‟ or „to look after the people‟ or „to care for‟
or to manage. Thus, literally the term administration means management of affairs- public or
private. Administration is as old as the human civilization and human existence. It is the
administration which controls and stabilizes the society. The whole society has been guided by
the norms and values of the administration. So the society without administration is not
effective. It is the administration which brings society from a set of ignorance to the brightened
antiquity. The society is the best whose administration is the best. So knowledge about
administration is very important for the students of Political Science.
1.3. Definition and Meaning of Administration
The concept of administration is defined by various writers in the followings:
According to E.N. Gladden “Administration is a long and slightly pompous word, but it has a
humble meaning, for it means, to care for or look after the people, to manage affairs …is
determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose.” 3

According to L.D. White “The arts of Administration is the direction, coordination and control
of many persons to achieve some purpose or objective.”
According to F.A. Nigro “Administration is the organization and use of men and materials to
accomplish a purpose.”
According to H.A. Simon “In the broadest sense administration can be defined as the activities
of groups cooperating to accomplish common goals.”
According to K. Henderson “Administration is the arrangement of men and materials in the
rational carrying out of purposes.”
According to D. Waldo “Administration is the type of cooperative human effort that has a high
degree of rationality.”
According to James McCanny “Administration is the organization and use of men and
materials to accomplish a purpose. It is the specialized vocation of managers who has skills of
organizing and directing men and materials just as definitely as an engineer has the skill of
building structures or a doctor has the skill of understanding the human ailments.”
According to J.E. Berkley “Administration is a process involving human beings jointly
engaged in working towards common goals.”
According to Brooks Adams “Administration is the capacity of coordinating many and often
conflicting social energies in a single organism, so adroitly that they shall operate as a unity.”
According to Ordway Tead “Administration is a variety of component elements which
together in action, produce the result of a defined task done. Administration primarily, is the
direction of people in association to achieve some goal temporarily shared. It is the inclusive
process of integrating human effort so that a desired result is obtain. It is the central power
house of the motivational impulsion and the spirit which makes the institution drive to fulfil its
purpose.” 4

According to F.M. Marx “Administration is a determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious

purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources aimed at
making those things happen which one wants to happen and foretelling everything to the
contrary.”
According to John A. Veig “Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of conscious
purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources, aimed at
making those things happen which we want to happen and simultaneously preventing
developments that fail to square with all our intensions. It is the marshalling of available labour
and materials irorder to gain that which is desired at the lowest cost in energy, time and money.”
According to Luther Gluck “Administration has to do with getting things done; with the
accomplishment of defined objective.”
According to James L. Mc Canny Administration is the organization and use of men and
materials to accomplish a purpose. It is the specialized vocation of managers who have skills
of organizing and directing men and materials just as definitely as the engineer has the skill of
building structure or a doctor has the skill of understanding human ailments.
According to Piffner and Presthus “Administration is the organization and direction of human
and material resources to achieve desired ends. Thus, it becomes clear that administration is
essentially a group activity which involves co-operation and co-ordination to achieve desired
goals.”
From the above, in a broader sense the term “Administration” signifies the following four
different perspectives taking under different context it is used. They are (i) As a Discipline, (ii)
As a vocation, (iii) As a process, (iv)As a synonym for the word Executive or Government.
As a discipline it deals with the name of a branch of learning or intellectual discipline as taught
and studied in colleges and universities. As a vocation it deals with the types of work or trade
or profession or occupation specially one that involves knowledge and 5

training in a branch of advance learning. As a process it deals with the sum total of activities
undertaken to implement public policy or policies to produce some services or goods. As a
synonym for word executive or Government it deals with such other body of persons in
supreme charge of affairs for example Bush Administration, Nehru‟s administration and
present Modi‟s administration.
1.4: Public Administration
Public Administration is to the state what a shadow is to the body. It is the front of the state. It
is visible, standing manifestation of the state. Its importance depends on the stage of
development of the society. As the society becomes complex and advanced, its public
administration, too, becomes of crucial significance. Its role does not decrease- the nature of
its work changes. Public Administration is a part of the administration and a contemporary
concept of governance. It is a collective activity to attain some specific goal. While
coordinating with club, association or the company, the administration develops private
administration and while relating with the state and central Government this is developed as
Public Administration. Public Administration has obtained a specialized position in the
academic field. It is like any other administration which is carried out in public interest. It is
centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programme as well as
the behavior of officials formally responsible for their conduct. In this regard, many public
servants are considered to be public administrators, including heads of city, county, regional,
state and federal departments such as municipal budget directors, Human Resources
administrators, city managers, census managers, state directors, and cabinet secretaries. Public
administrators are public servants working in public departments and agencies, at all levels of
government.
With the growing complexity of contemporary life, the importance of public administration
has been increasing. This is because of the need for intervention by the State in the day -to-day
activities of the citizens. There is hardly any aspect of a citizen‟s life which does not come into
contact with some government agency or the other. In ancient times the needs of the citizens
were 6

limited. They could, therefore, live in more or less self-sufficient village communities
producing in the village itself whatever they needed for their simple existence. The scientific
and industrial revolutions have changed the situation. The industrial products require a degree
of specialization which makes it necessary for the communities to live in bigger cities. The
means of production have become rather complex and require a much greater degree of
organizational effort. A number of activities can no longer be organized by the citizens
privately or even by village or city communities. The national government and the State and
the local governments have, therefore, to come forward to provide the necessary infrastructural
facilities for organizing production as well as for facilitating community living. For example,
roads and Railways have to be built to facilitate the transport of raw material to the site of
production as well as to facilitate the distribution of the manufactured goods. These facilities
are also required to meet the needs of the citizens in moving over long distances required by
modern day living. Similarly, communication facilities like the telephones; microwave
transmissions, satellite communication etc. have to be provided to meet the needs of the
communities. All these require massive investments in human and material resources far
beyond the capacity of small village or even city communities. These investments have to be
made by the national government and administered with the help of the local governments and
the local communities. Apart from the financial investments, a lot of organizational effort is
required to meet these needs of the citizens. The points of contact between the citizens and the
government have, therefore, increased tremendously. The importance of public administration
has been keeping pace with these developments. The interest of the scholars in the study of
public administration has also been correspondingly increasing. Although the study of public
administration as a separate discipline is of recent origin, the subject has been studied for quite
a long time as a part of the discipline of the political science. Before taking up a study of the
subject of public administration, it would be worthwhile to have an idea of the meaning and
scope of the subject. 7
1.4.1: Definition and Meaning of Public Administration
According to Woodrow Wilson “Public Administration is a detailed and systematic
application of law. Every particular application of law is an act of administration.” He further
says “Administration is the most obvious part of the government. It is the government in action.
It is the executive, the operative, the most visible side of the government.”
According to Percy Mc Queen, “Public administration is administration related to the
operation of the government, whether local or central.”
According to Luther Gullick “Public administration is that part of science of administration
which has to do with the government and thus concerns itself primarily with the executive
branch, where the work of the government is done though there are obviously problems in
connection with the legislative and judicial branches.”
According to H.A. Simon “By Public Administration is meant in common usage, the activities
of the executive branches of the national, state and local governments.”
According to L.D. White “Public Administration consists of all those operations having for
their purpose the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy.”
According to P fiffner “Public Administration consists of doing the work of the government
whether it is running an X-ray machine in a health laboratory or coining money in the mint
…Public Administration consists of getting the works of government done by coordinating the
efforts of the people so that they can work together to accomplish their set tasks.”
According to E. N. Gladden “Public Administration is concerned with the administration of
the government.”
According to H. Walker “The work which the government does to give efforts to a law.”
According to Willoughby “The term administration may be employed in Political Science in
two senses. In its broadest sense it denotes the work involved in the actual conduct of
governmental affairs regard less of the particular branch of 8

government concerned. It is thus quite proper to speak of the administration of the legislative
branch of the government, the administration of justice or judicial affairs or the administration
of the executive branch as well as the administration of the affairs of the administrative branch
of the government, or the conduct of the affairs of the government generally. In its narrowest
sense it denotes the operations of the administrative branch only.”
According to D. Waldo “Public Administration is the art and science of management as applied
to the affairs of the state.” He further observes “The process of Public Administration consists
of the actions involved in affecting the intent or desire of a government. It is thus the
continuously, business part of a government, concerned with carrying the law as made by
legislative bodies and interpreted by the course, through the process of organization and
management…. of Public Administration focuses upon Public Administration as a process.”
According to M.E. Dimock “Public Administration is the fulfillment or enforcement of public
policy as declared by the competent authorities. It deals with the problems and powers of the
organization and techniques of management involved in carrying out the laws and policies
formulated by the policy making agencies of government. Public Administration is the law in
action. It is the executive of a government.”
According to John A. Veig “Administration signifies the organization personnel, practices and
procedures essential to effective performance of civilian functions entrusted to the executive
branch of the government.”
According to P. McQueen “Public Administration is administration related to the operations
of government whether central or local.”
According to Merson “The administrator gets things done, and just as the science of politics
is an enquiry into the best means where by the will of the people may be organized for the
formulation of policy so the science of Public Administration is an enquiry as to how policies
may best be carried into operations.”

According to Corson and Harris “Public Administration is the action part of the government,
the means by which the purposes and goals of the government are realized.”
According to F.A. Nigro “Public Administration (i) is a cooperative group effort in a public
setting; (ii) covers all the three branches- executive legislative and judicial, and their inter-
relationship; (iii) has an important role in the formulation of public policy and is thus part of
the political process; (iv) is different in significant ways from private administration; and (v)
is closely associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the
community.”
According to J.S. Hodgson “Public Administration comprises all activities of persons or
groups in governments or their agencies, whether these organizations are international, regional
or local in their scopes, to fulfill the purpose of these governments or agencies.”
According to James W. Fesler “Public Administration is policy execution and policy
formulation; public administration is bureaucracy and public administration is public.”
According to James W. Davis “Public Administration can be best identified with the executive
branch of a government.”
According to Frank Goodnow “Administration includes the function of executing the law as
well as the semi-scientific quasi-judicial and quasi-business or commercial functions.”
According to Ridley “Public Administration is administration in the public sector…It is
administration by the state…Public Administration is governmental administration …It is
administration by public authorities…Public authorities are authorities which administer
according to the rules of public administration. Public administration should be the study of
administration, descriptive, theoretical and normative.”
According to M. RuthnaSwamy “When administration has to do with the affairs of a state or
minor political institution like a Municipal or Country Council, or District Board, it is called
Public Administration.” 10
According to Dimock and Dimock “like the study of politics, the study of public
administration is a study of what people want through government and how they go about
getting it. In addition, administration also emphasizes the methods and procedures of
management. Thus, public administration is as much concerned with what government does as
it is with how it does it.” They further add, “Public Administration is the area of study and
practice where law and policy are recommended and carried out.”
According to J. Greenwood and D. Wilsonv “Public Administration is an activity, a set of
institutions and a subject of study.”
According to Rosenbloom “Public Administration does involve activity, it is concerned with
politics and policy making, it tends to be concentrated in the executive branch of the
government, it does differ from private administration, and it is concerned with implementing
law.” He further adds, “Public Administration is the use of managerial, legal and political
theories and processes to fulfill legislative, executive and judicial governmental mandates for
the provision of regulatory and service functions for the society as a whole or for some
segments of it.”
According to E. McGregor “The term Public Administration is reserved to denote the
generation of purposive public action whose success depends on reconciling the competing
demands of administrative operations, democratic governance and public solving.”
According to F.M. Marx “Public Administration has come to signify primarily the
organization, personnel, practices and procedures essential to effective performance of the
civilian functions entrusted to the executive branch of government.”
Thus from the above definitions it indicates that the term Public Administration has been used
in two sense (i) Wider sense and (ii) Narrower sense. In its wider sense it deals with the all the
three branches of the government i.e. Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. This view has been
taken by Woodrow Wilson, L. D. White, M. Dimock, F.A. Nigro and Pfiffner.

In a broad sense, therefore, Administration is common to both public and private affairs. Public
Administration would then refer to that part of administration which pertains to the
administrative activities of the government. Here again, it would be worthwhile to turn to the
definitions of public administration given by some well-known scholars. Percy Mc Queen
“Public Administration is administration related to the operations of government whether local
or central”.
1.4.2: Wilson’s view on Public Administration
Woodrow Wilson, the 28th President of USA (1913-1921), the father of American Public
Administration. Wilson and his contribution to the subject of public administration is widely
read and referred to. He was one of the first political leaders who emphasized the need to
increase the efficiency of the Government. Wilson argued that administration is the most
obvious part of the Government and the least discussions happen around it. He further says that
despite being the executive, the operative and the most visible side of the Government and
being as old as the Government itself it has remain hidden from the scrutiny and inspection of
writer, authors and subject matter experts where it should have been the centre of debates and
researches. He shows little appreciation towards the obsession regarding the constitution of
Government, the philosophical approach towards the existence of State, the sovereignty or
some greater meaning lying at the heart of the Government. Basically what he meant was the
know-how of the actual business of Governing people and how that can be made more efficient.
In the context of the early 20th century USA and the world in general, Wilson and his ideas
regarding administration made sense. Life had changed much since the good old days of farms
and cattle and now there were complexities of trade and commerce, stocks and bonds and
financers and then the national debts, the ever-increasing conflicts between the capitalist class
and the workers. In the light of these developments, ways the Government can function also
needed a change which unfortunately was not assessed adequately resulting in inefficiency and
wastage of resources. In addition to above aspects, the Government’s sphere of work was
expanding, like the postal service in America and rail-road lines in Europe. So, if the transition
was happening at the grass root

level say for example to manage rail-road, national commissioners were made in addition to
older state commissioners, the resulting extension of administrative function became a matter
which needed to be delicately handled and not carried out in haste. Wilson also clarified that
the studies conducted in the field of public administration were mostly carried out by French
and German academicians and were therefore not entirely relevant and suited to the needs of
the American people and State in its original form. He suggested that any principle adopted
from Europe would have to be Americanized and modified for the complex and multiform state
and a highly decentralized form of Government in the USA.
Wilson had carefully studied the administrative practices of not just France and England but a
small nation like Prussia and praised the ruler Frederick the Great who regarded himself as the
chief servant of the people and his office as a public trust. He also wrote favorably of Napoleon
and his recasting of French administration after ending the monarchial rule. He however; wrote
harshly about the ways of English administrators and those of his own country; pointing out
that their history was not of administrative development but of legislative oversight. There were
little progress made in Government organizations but vast leaps taken in law making and
political criticism. While reading Wilson one cannot help but wonder that whether inaugurating
public opinion in the matters of Government a wise decision at all? The dark side of it is that
it becomes a larger obstacle to manage; since any change or reform proposed needs to get pass
veto at so many levels. To sum up, Wilson proposed a very no-nonsense and business-like
approach to administration which should be free of shackles of political doctrines.
1.4.3: Characteristics of Public Administration
Public Administration as a unique subject differs from both Political Science and management
in terms of developing certain facets of organizing theory and techniques of management.
Accordingly there are different characteristics of Public Administration on the basis of the
exclusive public field and administrative efficiency. The chief characteristics are as follows.
(a) Due to the absence of the process of competition in governmental sphere the situation of
monopoly arises. This process leads to the despotic rular.
13

(b) There is a high degree of consciousness of community services.

(c) There is a high consistency of treatment.
(d) There is a sense of anonymity of by the officials carrying out the public business.
(e) There is a high degree of public responsibility.
(f) Availability of public information.
(g) There is the large scale organization facilities.
(h) Formulation and implementation of public policies.
(i) Co-ordination, group activity and social relationship.

1.4.4: Nature of Public Administration

From the views of the different scholars of Public Administration, the nature of Public
Administration has been described under the following point.
1.4.4.1: Integral View and Managerial view
According to the integral view, administration is the sum total or whole complex of activities
such as manual, clerical, technical and managerial which are undertaken to realize the objective
in view, i.e. implementation of the policies in a given field of administration. According to the
managerial view, administration is not the sum total of activities concerned with management
which unite and control the rest of them as a part of co-coordinated enterprise. To distinguish
between the above two views of administration is nothing but the work between getting things
done and doing things. In managerial view, only the managerial activities constitute the whole
priority of public administration. So in this view there is something different from the integral
views and administration is not doing things but getting them done. The main supporters of the
integral views are L.D. White and M.E. Dimock and the main supporters of the managerial
view are Henry Simon, Smithburg, Thompson and Luther Gullick. In regard to managerial
view Luther Gullick emphasized on the POSDCORB view such as Planning, Organizing,
Staffing, Directing, Controlling, Reporting and Budgeting where he emphasized that
administration is to be identified with managerial techniques. Moreover, in the words of Nigro,
Wilson, and White the simple meaning of Public administration is Government administration,
it is a science so far as knowledge is concerned and art in its applicability. It is different from
private 14

administration in the sense of accountability, less profit motive and greater public responsibility
etc. Thus Public administration deals with the act of government with works including active
and effective laws with high executive functions.
The above two views manifests differences. While accepting the integral view one may
understand about the entire administrative system from one sphere to another sphere of the
different organization. But in the managerial view one holds that administration is the
organization and the use of men and materials in the pursuit of given objective. It is a
specialized calling of the manager whose function is to organize and to use men and materials
to realize a given objective. Thus administration is to be identified with the managerial
techniques common as they are to all the fields of activities.
However neither the integral view nor the managerial view is without any faults. The real
meaning of „administration‟ would depend upon the context in which it is functional. In this
regard, M.E. Dimock, G.O.Dimock and L.W. Keening have abridged the position under the
following ways:
(i) As a study: It examines the aspect of government‟s effort to discharge the laws and to give
effort to public policy.
(ii) As a process: It includes the agencies participation in the formulation of the programme.
(iii) As a vocation: It is organizing and directing the activities of others in a public agency.
1.5: Scope of Public Administration
From the different definitions regarding Public Administration, it meets with the different
problems of understanding the scope of the study of Public Administration. From the
differences of opinions of Public Administration an important question arises that whether
Public Administration is only the managerial part of the governmental work or the entire
intricate of activities of only the executive branches of government, or of all the branches, i.e.
Executive, legislative and judiciary. But in reality the concept of Public Administration
coversall the aspects of public policy. Presently the scope of Public 15

Administration has increased both in its greatness and in its direction for the welfare of the
people by applying new tool and techniques through science and technology.
Public Administration is a segment of wider field of „administration‟. But regarding its scope,
there are differences. According to some intellectuals, the use of the word „public‟ before
„administration‟ limits its coverage to administrative activities of the government- government
being the only organization which includes within itself all the people living in the state.
According to them, Public Administration is defined as the organization and management of
human and material resources to fulfill the objective laid down by the government which
consists of three branches i.e. legislature, executive and judiciary.
From the above definitions of public administration, it mainly pertains the administrative
activities of the government. It is well known for the activities of the government and
commonly divided into three major branches, namely Legislative, Executive and Judicial. The
question naturally arises as to which of the activities of the government are included in the
study of public administration. There are two views on this subject. One point of view, public
administration is conceived in a comprehensive sense to include all the activities of the
government, whether falling in the sphere of legislative, executive or judicial branch of the
government. However, according to the other point of view, `public administration‟ is
concerned only with such activities of the government which pertain to the executive branch.
L.D. White takes the former broad view, while Luther Gulick supports the latter narrow view.
There is a further narrowing down of the scope of public administration by restricting it to these
activities of the executive branch which are connected with the execution of the policies. It
means that the policy formulation has to be separated from the execution of the policy. It is
only the execution which is supposed to form part of public administration according to this
narrow view.
The other part of the scope of the study of public administration is introduced by the two views
of administration, namely, integral and managerial views. Public administration, as a part of
the more general term administration, is subject to these two views of administration. The
differences of opinion about 16

the scope of study of public tends us to think that whether public administration is only the
managerial part of the government work or the entire complex of the activities or only the
executive branch of the government or of all branches. Administration is mere execution or
application of policy or is a factor in the formulation of policy also. There are various views
regarding the source of Public Administration. Let us categories them as follows:
1. Broader and Narrower view
2. POSDCORB view
3. The Subject Matter View

1.5.1: Broader and Narrower view

In broader point of view Public Administration is conceived in a comprehensive sense to
include all the activities of the government whether falling in the sphere of legislative,
executive or judicial part of the Government.The broader view of the scope of Public
Administration includes the study of all the three organs of the state i.e. the legislature, the
executive and the judiciary.L.D White, Woodrow Willson, Marshal Dimock, John Pfiffner and
John J. Corson endorse the broader view of Public Administration. L.D. White said “Public
Administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose to fulfillment or
enforcement of public policy…..” Macqueen said “Public Administration is related to the
operations to the government whether central or local.” According to J.J. Corson “Public
Administration is the action part of the government, the means by which the purposes and goals
of the governments are realized.”
In Narrower view, Public Administration only deals with the activities of the executive organ
of the government. Simon, Smithburg and Thumpson are the supporters of the view. According
to them Public Administration is meant in common usage, the activities of the executive
branches of national, state and local governments…. Specifically excluded are judicial and
legislative agencies of the government and non-governmental administration. Luther Gullick
also viewed the activities of the executive branch. Morson also viewed the science of Public
Administration is an enquiry as to how policies may best be carried into operation. So
according to this narrower view, Public Administration is generally linked with the activities
of the executive organ of the government. 17

1.5.2: The POSDCORB View

The managerial view regarding the nature of Public Administration assumes that administration
is the organization and the practice of men and materials in the quest of common activities as
well as common objectives. It directly deals with the techniques of management which are
common to all types of organization and institutions. That view has limited the nature and
scope of administration within the technique of management. However, the scope of Public
Administration is popularly advocated by Luther Gullick in his POSDCORB view. He strongly
believed that administration consisted of seven elements. He summed of these elements in the
acronym i.e. „POSDCORB‟ view which stands as follows.
P- stands for Planning which signifies working out in broad outline the things that need to be
done and methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose set for the organisation.
O- stands for organizing which signifies the establishment of formal structure of authority
through which the whole work is to be done with proper arrangement, definition and
coordination for the fulfilment of defined objectives.
S-stands for Staffing which signifies the personnel function of bringing in and training the staff
and conserving the favourable conditions of work.
D- stands for Directing which signifies the decisions making and issuing orders and instructions
and embodying them in specific and general orders and instructions and serving as the leader
of the enterprise.
Co- stands Coordinating which signifies the interrelation of the various parts of the work.
R- stands for reporting which signifies keeping information those to whom the executive is
responsible as to what is going on, and arranging for the collection of such information through
different techniques such as research, records etc.
B- stands for Budgeting which signifies the fiscal planning, accounting and control.
1.5.3 The Subject Matter View
The subject-matter view of Public Administration has come into estimate in reaction to the
POSDCORB view. The POSDCORB view of the scope of Public 18

Administration was continuing for a long time. In course of time, the view became
insignificant. It was found neither as the whole of Public Administration nor a significant part
of it. This view advocates that problems of administration are same in all the agencies
irrespective of the peculiar nature of the functions they do. It superintends the fact that there
are different problems in different administrative agencies. Further the tools of administration
are only represented in the POSDCORB view. The real principal of administration consists of
various services such as defense, health, education, agriculture, social security, justice, etc.
These services have their own special techniques where the common POSDCORB techniques
fails. It means these organizations have their own subject matter on which the basic features of
organizations are based. The subject matter view is quite subject oriented, whereas the
POSDCORB view is technique oriented.The subject matter view emphasizes on the services
rendered and the functions performed by the administrative agency. So the study of Public
Administration should be not only based on the technique of administration but also the
substantive concerns of administration. However, the scope of Public Administration neither
depends on the POSDCORB view nor on the subject matter view. It is a complement of each
other. In this regard Lewis Merian said “Public Administration is an instrument with two blades
like a pair of scissors. One blade may be a knowledge of the fields covered by POSDCORB,
the other blade is knowledge of the subject matter in which these techniques are applied. Both
blades must be good to make an effective tool.” Simultaneously M.E. Dimock said
“Administration is concerned with „What‟ and „How‟ of the government. The „What‟ is the
subject matter, the technical knowledge of the field, which enables the administrator to perform
his tasks. The „How‟ is the technique of management, the principle according to which the
cooperative programmers are carried to success. Each is indispensable, together they formed
the synthesis called administration.” However as a discipline Public Administration consists of
organizational theory and behavior, public personnel administration, public financial
administration, comparative and development administration and public policy analysis. 19