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Computer Fundamentals Tutorial

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input
from the user and processes it under the control of set of instructions
(called program), gives the result (output), and saves it for the future use.

Computer - Overview

Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for

everyone to know about computers. Purpose of this tutorial is to introduce
you about computer and its fundamentals.

Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

 Takes data as input.

 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when
required.
 Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 Generates the output
 Controls all the above four steps.
Definition
Computer is an electronic data processing device which

 accepts and stores data input,

 processes the data input, and

 generates the output in a required format.

Advantages
Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.

High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of
data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond,
and even the picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as
compared to man who will spend many months for doing the
same task.

Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
  Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that
correct input has been given.

Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human
beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text,
audio and many others.

Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony,
tiredness and lack of concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to
various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem
and the very next moment it may be playing a card game.

Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation means ability to perform the given task
automatically.
 Once a program is given to computer i.e., stored in computer
memory, the program and instruction can control the program
execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization
leads to reduction in paper work and results in speeding up a
process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when
required, the problem of maintenance of large number of
paper files gets reduced.

Reduction in Cost
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high
but it substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages
Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's
arena

No I.Q
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform
any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
 It functions as per a user’s instruction, so it is fully dependent
on human being

Environment
 The operating environment of computer should be dust free
and suitable.

No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.
 It cannot make judgement based on feeling, taste, experience,
and knowledge unlike a human being.

Computer - Applications

Following list demonstrates various applications of computers in today's

arena.

Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or
versatility which made it an integrated part in all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for:

 Payroll calculations

 Budgeting

 Sales analysis

 Financial forecasting
  Managing employees database

 Maintenance of stocks etc.

Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.

Banks provide following facilities:

 Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes

current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest charges,
shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal
with banks.
Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of
computers. The insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking
firms are widely using computers for their concerns.

Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with

information showing

 procedure to continue with policies

 starting date of the policies

 next due installment of a policy

 maturity date

 interests due

 survival benefits

 bonus
Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.

 The computer provides a tool in the education system known

as CBE (Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of
number of computer students.
 There are number of methods in which educational institutions
can use computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a
student and analysis is carried out on this basis.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are following:

 Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals

create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and print and
disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
 At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made
possible through use of computerised catalogues that provide
access to product information and permit direct entry of
orders to be filled by the customers.
Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries.
The computers are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients
and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases.
ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc., are also done by computerised
machines.

Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:

 Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and

identify cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports
are prepared by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check
patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG
etc.
  Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-
Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug’s side effects etc.
 Surgery : Nowadays, computers are also used in performing
surgery.

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.

One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design). That provides creation
and modification of images. Some fields are:

 Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis

for design of Ships, Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.
 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design,
implementation and improvement of integrated systems of
people, materials and equipments.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning
towns, designing buildings, determining a range of buildings
on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons
etc. Military also employs computerised control systems. Some military
areas where a computer has been used are:

 Missile Control

 Military Communication

 Military Operation and Planning

 Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech
that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for
whom it is meant for. Some main areas in this category are:

 E-mail

 Chatting

 Usenet

 FTP

 Telnet

 Video-conferencing
Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this
category are:

 Budgets

 Sales tax department

 Income tax department

 Male/Female ratio

 Computerization of voters lists

 Computerization of driving licensing system

 Computerization of PAN card

 Weather forecasting
 Computer Generations

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer

is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish
between varying hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation includes
both hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer
system.

There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation
has been discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics.
Here approximate dates against each generations have been mentioned
which are normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers

S.N Generation & Description
.

1 First Generation

The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube

based.

2 Second Generation

The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor

based.

3 Third Generation

The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated

Circuit based.

4 Fourth Generation

The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI

microprocessor based.

5 Fifth Generation

The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI

microprocessor based
 Computer - Types

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Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

Sr.No. Type Specifications

1 PC (Personal It is a single user computer system

Computer) having moderately powerful
microprocessor

2 WorkStation It is also a single user computer system

which is similar to personal computer
but have more powerful
microprocessor.

3 Mini Computer It is a multi-user computer system

which is capable of supporting
hundreds of users simultaneously.

4 Main Frame It is a multi-user computer system

which is capable of supporting
hundreds of users simultaneously.
 Software technology is different from
minicomputer.

5 Supercomputer It is an extremely fast computer which

can execute hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed
for an individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that
enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing,
and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At
home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and
surfing Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these

systems are normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power,
now-a-days High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same
computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun
Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.
Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM),
desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of
applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and
relatively high quality graphics capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen,

large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user
interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk
drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation,
comes without a disk drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT.
Like PC, Workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are
typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can
also be used as stand-alone systems.
Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250
users simultaneously.

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of
supporting hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe
executes many programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous
execution of programs

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations
(number crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in
petrochemical prospecting).
 Computer - Components

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All types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the
following five basic operations for converting raw input data into information
useful to their users.

Sr.No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and

 instructions into the computer system

2 Store Data Saving data and instructions so that they

are available for processing as and when
required.

3 Processing Performing arithmetic, and logical

Data operations on data in order to convert
them into useful information.

4 Output The process of producing useful

Information information or results for the user, such
as a printed report or visual display.

5 Control the Directs the manner and sequence in

workflow which all of the above operations are
performed.
Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into
computer. This unit makes link between user and computer. The input
devices translate the information into the form understandable by
computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of
data processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results and
instructions(program). It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components

 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit

 Control Unit

Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the
information from computer. This unit is a link between computer and users.
Output devices translate the computer's output into the form
understandable by users.

Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit)

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CPU consists of the following features:

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit

 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit
supplies information to the other units of the computer when needed. It is
also known as internal storage unit or main memory or primary storage or
Random access memory(RAM).

Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary
memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of memory
unit are:

 It stores all the data and the instructions required for

processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores final results of processing before these results are
released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry
out any actual data processing operations.

Functions of this unit are:

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and

instructions among other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them,
and directs the operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of
data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely

 Arithmetic section

 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. All complex operations are
done by making repetitive use of above operations.

Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching and merging of data.
 Computer - Input Devices

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Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a

computer:

 Keyboard

 Mouse

 Joy Stick

 Light pen

 Track Ball

 Scanner

 Graphic Tablet

 Microphone

 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

 Optical Character Reader(OCR)

 Bar Code Reader

 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in

inputting data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of

traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for

performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards

with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Sr.No Keys Description

1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys

(A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which
generally give same layout as that
of typewriters.

2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or

cursor movement. Generally, it
consists of a set of 17 keys that are
laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and
calculators.

3 Function Keys The twelve function keys are

present on the keyboard which are
arranged in a row at the top of the
keyboard. Each function key has
 unique meaning and is used for
some specific purpose.

4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and

screen control. It includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys
also include Home, End, Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).

5 Special Purpose Keys Keyboard also contains some special

purpose keys such as Enter, Shift,
Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar,
Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control

device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base which
senses the movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU

when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is

present between the buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of

cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

 Easy to use

 Not very expensive

 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a

monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and

upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be

moved in all four directions.

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in

Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a

displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of

a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a

light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its

photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the

corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop

computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by

moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. Since the whole device is not
moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in

various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It

is used when some information is available on a paper and it is to be

transferred to the hard disc of the computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the

digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited

before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital

form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a

series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by

the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed

at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts

graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is

used for doing fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital

form. The microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a

multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of

cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque

number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains

particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading

process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main

advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically

character by character, converts them into a machine readable code and

stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form

of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods,

numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be

embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code

image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the

computer to which bar code reader is connected.

Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark
made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to

be selected and marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets

of examinations having multiple choice questions.

 Computer - Output Devices

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Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a

computer.

 Monitors

 Graphic Plotter

 Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main

output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels

that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image

depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The

smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more

than one illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in

the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The

screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the

screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable
of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There

are some disadvantages of CRT:

 Large in Size

 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced

volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can

hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel
displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer,

graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

 Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that

convert electrical energy into light. Example are plasma
panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use
optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other
source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-
Crystal Device)

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:

 Impact Printers

 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon

which is then pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy

 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

 Character printers

 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel
DOT MATRIX PRINTER
In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These

printers are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price.

Each character printed is in form of pattern of dots and head consists of a

Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a

character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive

 Widely Used

 Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

 Slow Speed

 Poor Quality

DAISY WHEEL
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like

petals of Daisy (flower name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer.
These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices which

require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality

 The fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy

 More expensive than DMP

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types

 Drum Printer

 Chain Printer
DRUM PRINTER
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface

of drum is divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of

paper i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A

character set is embossed on track. The different character sets available in

the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of

drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to

2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
  Characters fonts cannot be changed
CHAIN PRINTER
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer.

A standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

 Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These

printers print a complete page at a time so they are also called as Page

Printers.

These printers are of two types

 Laser Printers

 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers.

 They are not noisy.

 High quality.

 Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the

dots needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.

ADVANTAGES

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output

 Give good graphics quality

 Support many fonts and different character size

DISADVANTAGES
 Expensive.
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in
a single printing.
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new

technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto

paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable

features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many

styles of printing modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some

models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

ADVANTAGES

 High quality printing

 More reliable
DISADVANTAGES

 Expensive as cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

 Computer - Memory

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A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and

instructions. Computer memory is the storage space in computer where

data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.

The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each

location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size

minus one. For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit

has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations. The address of these locations

varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types

 Cache Memory

 Primary Memory/Main Memory

 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can

speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is

used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently
used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to

cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short
period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer

is currently working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is

switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These

memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to

be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories

RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories

 It is known as main memory.

 Usually volatile memory.

 Data is lost in case power is switched off.

 It is working memory of the computer.

 Faster than secondary memories.

 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is

slower than main memory. These are used for storing data/Information

permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories instead they are

accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories are

first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For

example : disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories

 It is known as backup memory.

 It is non-volatile memory.

 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

 It is used for storage of data in a computer.

 Computer may run without secondary memory.

 Slower than primary memories.

 Computer - Random Access Memory

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RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing
data, program and program result. It is read/write memory which stores
data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off,
data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage
location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes
the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it
is very expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer
or if there is a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power
system(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of
its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as
power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down
due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no
capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM
for the same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing
costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of the Static RAM

 It has long life

 There is no need to refresh

 Faster

 Used as cache memory

 Large size

 Expensive

 High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain
the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that
rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most
system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of
memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM

 It has short data lifetime

 Need to be refreshed continuously

 Slower as compared to SRAM

 Used as RAM

 Lesser in size
  Less expensive

 Less power consumption

Computer - Read Only Memory

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ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only
read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The
information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A
ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and
microwave oven.
Following are the various types of ROM

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-
programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as
masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The
user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
program. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open
during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only

Memory)
The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration
of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function.
During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate
region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge
has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed
through a quartz crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light
dissipates the charge. During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a
sticker.

EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable

Read Only Memory)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming
take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be
selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a
time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-
programming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:

 Non-volatile in nature

 These cannot be accidentally changed

 Cheaper than RAMs

 Easy to test

 More reliable than RAMs

 These are static and do not require refreshing

 Its contents are always known and can be verified

Computer - Motherboard
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The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a

computer together. A motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives,
optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and expansion cards
directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features:

 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of

components.
 Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few
types of memories.
  Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to be compatible
with motherboard to function properly
 Motherboards, cases and power supplies must be compatible
to work properly together.

Popular Manufacturers
 Intel

 ASUS

 AOpen

 ABIT

 Biostar

 Gigabyte

 MSI

Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via
small screws through pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to
connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for CPU
whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available.
Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drive, hard drive, and optical
drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port
designed for power supply.

There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video
cards, sound cards and other expansion cards can be connected to
motherboard.
On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect monitor,
printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also
provide USB ports which allow compatible devices to be connected in plug-
in/plug-out fashion for example, pen drive, digital cameras etc.

Computer - Memory Units

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Memory unit is:

 the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.

 that in which storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

Following are the main memory storage units:

Sr.No. Unit Description

1 Bit (Binary A binary digit is logical 0 and 1

Digit) representing a passive or an active
state of a component in an electric
circuit.

2 Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

3 Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte
is the smallest unit which can represent
a data item or a character.

4 Word A computer word, like a byte, is a

group of fixed number of bits
processed as a unit which varies from
computer to computer but is fixed for
each computer.

The length of a computer word is

called word-size or word length and it
may be as small as 8 bits or may be as
long as 96 bits. A computer stores the
information in the form of computer
words.
Few higher storage units are following

Sr.No. Unit Description

1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes

2 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB

3 GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB

4 TeraByte (TB 1 TB = 1024 GB

5 PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

Computer - Ports

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What is a Port?
A port:
  is a physical docking point using which an external device can
be connected to the computer.
 can also be programmatic docking point through which
information flows from a program to computer or over the
internet.

Characteristics
A port has the following characteristics:

 External devices are connected to a computer using cables

and ports.
 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of
external device is plugged in.
 Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse,
keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers etc.

Following are few important types of ports:

Serial Port

 Used for external modems and older computer mouse

 Two versions : 9 pin, 25 pin model

 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port

 Used for scanners and printers

 Also called printer port

 25 pin model

 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

PS/2 Port
 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
 Also called mouse port
 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for
mouse and keyboard
 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

 It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as
external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard etc.
 It was introduced in 1997.
 Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds
 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port

VGA Port
 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
  Has 15 holes.
 Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has
pins, it has holes.

Power Connector
 Three-pronged plug
 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a
power bar or wall socket

Firewire Port
 Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
 Connects camcorders and video equipments to the computer
 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds
 Invented by Apple
 Three variants : 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire
400 connector and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector

Modem Port

 Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network

Ethernet Port
 Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
 Connect network cable to a computer.
 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds
depending upon the network bandwidth.

Game Port

 Connect a joystick to a PC
  Now replaced by USB.
Digital Video Interface, DVI port
 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high end
video graphic cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets
 Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer

Computer - Hardware

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Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer

i.e. the components that can be seen and touched.

Examples of Hardware are following:

 Input devices -- keyboard, mouse etc.

 Output devices -- printer, monitor etc.

 Secondary storage devices -- Hard disk, CD, DVD etc.

 Internal components -- CPU, motherboard, RAM etc.

Relationship between Hardware and Software
 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other.
Both of them must work together to make a computer
produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be
utilized and is useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant
software should be loaded into the hardware
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing
expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to
run different jobs.
 A software acts as an interface between the user and the
hardware.
  If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software
is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary to each other.

Computer - Software

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Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined

function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a

particular problem.

There are two types of software

 System Software

 Application Software

System Software
The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control,

and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System

software are generally prepared by computer manufactures. These software

products comprise of programs written in low-level languages which interact

with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the

interface between hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers,

Interpreter, Assemblers etc.

Features of system software are as follows:

 Close to system

 Fast in speed

 Difficult to design

 Difficult to understand

 Less interactive

 Smaller in size

 Difficult to manipulate

 Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a

particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer

lab can come under the category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's

notepad for writing and editing simple text. It may also consist of a

collection of programs, often called a software package, which work

together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are following:

 Payroll Software

 Student Record Software

 Inventory Management Software

 Income Tax Software

 Railways Reservation Software

 Microsoft Office Suite Software

 Microsoft Word

 Microsoft Excel

 Microsoft Powerpoint

Features of application software are as follows:

 Close to user

 Easy to design

 More interactive

 Slow in speed

 Generally written in high-level language

 Easy to understand

 Easy to manipulate and use

  Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Computer - Number System

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When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in

numbers as computers can understand only numbers. A computer can
understand positional number system where there are only a few symbols
called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the
position they occupy in the number.

A value of each digit in a number can be determined using

 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where base is defined as the
total number of digits available in the number system).

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal
number system. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits
from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left
of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on.

Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the
decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the
tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position,
and its value can be written as

(1x1000)+ (2x100)+ (3x10)+ (4xl)

(1x103)+ (2x102)+ (3x101)+ (4xl00)

1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand

the following number systems which are frequently used in computers.

S.N Number System and Description

.

1 Binary Number System

Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

2 Octal Number System

Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

3 Hexa Decimal Number System

 Base 16. Digits used : 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of binary number system are as follows:
 Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
 Also called base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the
base (2). Example 20
 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the
base (2). Example 2x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example
Binary Number : 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number

Step 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) +

1 (1 x 20))10

Step 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

2

Step 101012 2110

3
Note : 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of octal number system are as follows:
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
 Also called base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the
base (8). Example 80
 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the
base (8). Example 8x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example
Octal Number : 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Octal Decimal Number

Number

Step 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) +

1 (0 x 80))10

Step 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

2

Step 125708 549610

3

Note : 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System
Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as
follows:
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
 Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11,
C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
 Also called base 16 number system
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power
of the base (16). Example 160
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of
the base (16). Example 16x where x represents the last
position - 1.

Example
Hexadecimal Number : 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number

Step 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x

1 161) + (E x 160))10

Step 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x

2 161) + (14 x 160))10
Step 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10
3

Step 19FDE16 10646210

4

Note : 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Computer - Number Conversion

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There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert

numbers from one base to another. We'll demonstrate here the following:

 Decimal to Other Base System

 Other Base System to Decimal

 Other Base System to Non-Decimal

 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

 Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal to Other Base System
steps

 Step 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the

value of the new base.
 Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit
(least significant digit) of new base number.
 Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new
base.
 Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit
(to the left) of the new base number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the
quotient becomes zero in Step 3.

The last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit (MSD) of
the new base number.

Example
Decimal Number : 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the

reverse order so that the first remainder becomes the least significant digit
(LSD) and the last remainder becomes the most significant digit (MSD).

Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.

Other base system to Decimal System

Steps

 Step 1 - Determine the column (positional) value of each digit

(this depends on the position of the digit and the base of the
number system).
 Step 2 - Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by
the digits in the corresponding columns.
 Step 3 - Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is
the equivalent value in decimal.

Example
Binary Number : 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Decimal Number

 Number

Step 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) +

1 (1 x 20))10

Step 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

2

Step 111012 2910

3

Binary Number : 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Steps

 Step 1 - Convert the original number to a decimal number

(base 10).
 Step 2 - Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new
base number.

Example
Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step 1 : Convert to Decimal

Step Octal Decimal Number
 Number

Step 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

1

Step 258 (16 + 5 )10

2

Step 258 2110

3

Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110

Step 2 : Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5/2 2 1

Step 4 2/2 1 0

Step 5 1/2 0 1
Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

Steps

 Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting

from the right).
 Step 2 - Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal
digit.

Example
Binary Number : 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101

Step 2 101012 28 58

Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258

Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

Steps
  Step 1 - Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number
(the octal digits may be treated as decimal for this
conversion).
 Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits
each) into a single binary number.

Example
Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012

Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Steps

 Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting

from the right).
 Step 2 - Convert each group of four binary digits to one
hexadecimal symbol.
Example
Binary Number : 101012

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101

Step 2 101012 110 510

Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

steps

 Step 1 - Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary

number (the hexadecimal digits may be treated as decimal for
this conversion).
 Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits
each) into a single binary number.

Example
Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510

Step 2 1516 00012 01012

Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number : 101012

Computer - Data and Information

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What is data?
Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts or instructions in
a formalized manner which should be suitable for communication,
interpretation, or processing by human or electronic machine.

Data is represented with the help of characters like alphabets (A-Z,a-z),

digits (0-9) or special characters(+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.).
What is Information?
Information is organised or classified data which has some meaningful
values for the receiver.

Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.

For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the
following characteristics:

 Timely - Information should be available when required.

 Accuracy - Information should be accurate.
 Completeness - Information should be complete.
Data Processing Cycle
Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or
machine to increase their usefulness and add values for particular purpose.
Data processing consists of basic steps input, processing and output. These
three steps constitute the data processing cycle.

 Input - In this step the input data is prepared in some

convenient form for processing. The form will depend on the
processing machine. For example, when electronic computers
are used, the input data could be recorded on any one of
several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes
and so on.
 Processing - In this step input data is changed to produce
data in a more useful form. For example, pay-checks may be
calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the
month may be calculated from the sales orders.
 Output - Here the result of the proceeding processing step
are collected. The particular form of the output data depends
on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-
checks for employees.