Chapter 8: Periodic Relationships larger shell (n = 4) than are Mg’s (n = 3).

(c) Both ions

have the same nuclear charge, but Fe2+ has one more
Among the Elements electron (-4 electrons compared to -3 electrons for
Example 8.1 Fe3+) and hence greater electron-electron repulsion.
An atom of a certain element has 15 electrons. The radius of Fe2+ is larger.
Without consulting a periodic table, answer the
following questions: (a) What is the ground-state Example 8.4
electron configuration of the element? (b) How (a) Which atom should have a lower first ionization
should the element be classified? (c) Is the element energy: oxygen or sulfur? (b) Which atom should
diamagnetic or paramagnetic? have a higher second ionization energy: lithium or
beryllium?
Ans: (a) We know that for n = 1 we have a 1s orbital
(2 electrons); for n = 2 we have a 2s orbital (2 Ans: (a) Oxygen and sulfur are members of Group
electrons) and three 2p orbitals (6 electrons); for n = 6A. They have the same valence electron
3 we have a 3s orbital (2 electrons). The number of configuration (ns2np4), but the 3p electron in sulfur is
electrons left is 15 - 12 = 3 and these three electrons farther from the nucleus and experiences less
are placed in the 3p orbitals. The electron nuclear attraction than the 2p electron in oxygen.
configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p3. Thus, we predict that sulfur should have a smaller
(b) Because the 3p subshell is not completely filled, first ionization energy.
this is a representative element. Based on the (b) The electron configurations of Li and Be are
information given, we cannot say whether it is a 1s22s1 and 1s22s2, respectively. The second ionization
metal, a nonmetal, or a metalloid. (c) According to energy is the minimum energy required to remove
Hund’s rule, the three electrons in the 3p orbitals an electron from a gaseous unipositive ion in its
have parallel spins (three unpaired electrons). ground state. For the second ionization process, we
Therefore, the element is paramagnetic. write

Example 8.2
Referring to a periodic table, arrange the following
atoms in order of increasing atomic radius: P, Si, N.
Because 1s electrons shield 2s electrons much more
Ans: From Figure 8.1 we see that N and P are in the effectively than they shield each other, we predict
same group (Group 5A). Therefore, the radius of N is that it should be easier to remove a 2s electron from
smaller than that of P (atomic radius increases as we Be1 than to remove a 1s electron from Li+.
go down a group). Both Si and P are in the third
period, and Si is to the left of P. Therefore, the radius Example 8.5
of P is smaller than that of Si (atomic radius Why are the electron affinities of the alkaline earth
decreases as we move from left to right across a metals, shown in Table 8.3, either negative or small
period). Thus, the order of increasing radius is N < P positive values?
< Si .
Ans: The valence electron confi guration of the
Example 8.3 alkaline earth metals is ns2, where n is the highest
For each of the following pairs, indicate which one of principal quantum number. For the process
the two species is larger: (a) N3- or F-; (b) Mg2+ or
Ca2+; (c) Fe2+ or Fe3+.
where M denotes a member of the Group 2A family,
Ans: (a) N3- and F- are isoelectronic anions, both the extra electron must enter the np subshell, which
containing 10 electrons. Because N3- has only seven is effectively shielded by the two ns electrons (the ns
protons and F- has nine, the smaller attraction electrons are more penetrating than the np
exerted by the nucleus on the electrons results in a electrons) and the inner electrons. Consequently,
larger N3- ion. (b) Both Mg and Ca belong to Group alkaline earth metals have little tendency to pick up
2A (the alkaline earth metals). Thus, Ca 2+ ion is larger an extra electron.
than Mg2+ because Ca’s valence electrons are in a
Example 8.6 Suggest a nondestructive test that would enable you
Classify the following oxides as acidic, basic, or to arrive at the correct answer.
amphoteric: (a) Rb2O, (b) BeO, (c) As2O5. 8.12 What are valence electrons? For representative
elements, the number of valence electrons of an
Ans: (a) Because rubidium is an alkali metal, we element is equal to its group number. Show that this
would expect Rb2O to be a basic oxide. (b) Beryllium is true for the following elements: Al, Sr, K, Br, P, S,
is an alkaline earth metal. However, because it is the C.
first member of Group 2A, we expect that it may 8.13 Write the outer electron configurations for the
differ somewhat from the other members of the (a) alkali metals, (b) alkaline earth metals, (c)
group. In the text we saw that Al 2O3 is amphoteric. halogens, (d) noble gases.
Because beryllium and aluminum exhibit a diagonal 8.14 Use the first-row transition metals (Sc to Cu) as
relationship, BeO may resemble Al2O3 in properties. an example to illustrate the characteristics of the
It turns out that BeO is also an amphoteric oxide. (c) electron configurations of transition metals.
Because arsenic is a nonmetal, we expect As2O5 to be 8.15 The electron configurations of ions derived
an acidic oxide. from representative elements follow a common
pattern. What is the pattern, and how does it relate
Development of the Periodic Table to the stability of these ions?
Review Questions 8.16 What do we mean when we say that two ions
8.1 Briefly describe the significance of Mendeleev’s or an atom and an ion are isoelectronic?
periodic table. 8.17 What is wrong with the statement “The atoms
8.2 What is Moseley’s contribution to the modern of element X are isoelectronic with the atoms of
periodic table? element Y”?
8.3 Describe the general layout of a modern periodic 8.18 Give three examples of first-row transition
table. metal (Sc to Cu) ions whose electron configurations
8.4 What is the most important relationship among are represented by the argon core.
elements in the same group in the periodic table?
Problems
Periodic Classification of the Elements 8.19 In the periodic table, the element hydrogen is
Review Questions sometimes grouped with the alkali metals (as in this
8.5 Which of the following elements are metals, book) and sometimes with the halogens. Explain why
nonmetals, or metalloids? As, Xe, Fe, Li, B, Cl, Ba, P, I, hydrogen can resemble the Group 1A and the Group
Si. 7A elements.
8.6 Compare the physical and chemical properties of 8.20 A neutral atom of a certain element has 17
metals and nonmetals. electrons. Without consulting a periodic table, (a)
8.7 Draw a rough sketch of a periodic table (no write the ground-state electron configuration of the
details are required). Indicate regions where metals, element, (b) classify the element, (c) determine
nonmetals, and metalloids are located. whether this element is diamagnetic or
8.8 What is a representative element? Give names paramagnetic.
and symbols of four representative elements. 8.21 Group the following electron configurations in
8.9 Without referring to a periodic table, write the pairs that would represent similar chemical
name and give the symbol for an element in each of properties of their atoms:
the following groups: 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 6A, 7A, 8A, (a) 1s22s22p63s2
transition metals. (b) 1s22s22p3
8.10 Indicate whether the following elements exist (c) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6
as (d) 1s22s2
atomic species, molecular species, or extensive (e) 1s22s22p6
three-dimensional structures in their most stable (f) 1s22s22p63s23p3
states at 25°C and 1 atm and write the molecular or 8.22 Group the following electron configurations in
empirical formula for each one: phosphorus, iodine, pairs that would represent similar chemical
magnesium, neon, carbon, sulfur, cesium, and properties of their atoms:
oxygen. (a) 1s22s22p5
8.11 You are given a dark shiny solid and asked to (b) 1s22s1
determine whether it is iodine or a metallic element. (c) 1s22s22p6
(d) 1s22s22p63s23p5 in each of the following pairs: (a) Na, Cs; (b) Be, Ba;
(e) 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 (c) N, Sb; (d) F, Br; (e) Ne, Xe.
(f) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6 8.38 Arrange the following atoms in order of
8.23 Without referring to a periodic table, write the decreasing atomic radius: Na, Al, P, Cl, Mg.
electron 8.39 Which is the largest atom in Group 4A?
configuration of elements with the following 8.40 Which is the smallest atom in Group 7A?
atomic numbers: (a) 9, (b) 20, (c) 26, (d) 33. Classify 8.41 Why is the radius of the lithium atom
the elements. considerably larger than the radius of the hydrogen
8.24 Specify the group of the periodic table in which atom?
each of the following elements is found: (a) [Ne]3s 1, 8.42 Use the second period of the periodic table as
(b) [Ne]3s23p3, (c) [Ne]3s23p6, (d) [Ar]4s23d8. an
8.25 A M21 ion derived from a metal in the first example to show that the size of atoms decreases as
transition metal series has four electrons in the 3d we move from left to right. Explain the trend.
subshell. What element might M be? 8.43 Indicate which one of the two species in each of
8.26 A metal ion with a net 13 charge has five the following pairs is smaller: (a) Cl or Cl -; (b) Na or
electrons in the 3d subshell. Identify the metal. Na+; (c) O2- or S2-; (d) Mg2+ or Al3+; (e) Au+ or Au3+.
8.27 Write the ground-state electron configurations 8.44 List the following ions in order of increasing
of the following ions: (a) Li +, (b) H-, (c) N3-, (d) F-, (e) ionic radius: N3-, Na+, F-, Mg2+, O2-.
S2-, (f) Al3+, (g) Se2-, (h) Br-, (i) Rb+, (j) Sr2+, (k) Sn2+, (l) 8.45 Expain which of the following cations is larger,
Te2-, (m) Ba2+, (n) Pb2+, (o) In3+, (p) Tl+, (q) Tl3+. and why: Cu+ or Cu2+.
8.28 Write the ground-state electron configurations 8.46 Explain which of the following anions is larger,
of the following ions, which play important roles in and why: Se2- or Te2-.
biochemical processes in our bodies: (a) Na +, (b) 8.47 Give the physical states (gas, liquid, or solid) of
Mg2+, (c) Cl-, (d) K+, (e) Ca2+, (f) Fe2+, (g) Cu2+, (h) Zn2+. the representative elements in the fourth period (K,
8.29 Write the ground-state electron configurations Ca, Ga, Ge, As, Se, Br) at 1 atm and 25°C.
of the following transition metal ions: (a) Sc 3+, (b) 8.48 Both H- and He contain two 1s electrons. Which
Ti4+, (c) V5+, (d) Cr3+, (e) Mn2+, (f) Fe2+, (g) Fe3+, (h) species is larger? Explain your choice.
Co2+, (i) Ni2+, (j) Cu+, (k) Cu2+, (l) Ag+, (m) Au+, (n) Au3+,
(o) Pt2+. Ionization Energy
8.30 Name the ions with 13 charges that have the Review Questions
following electron configurations: (a) [Ar]3d 3, (b) 8.49 Define ionization energy. Ionization energy
[Ar], (c) [Kr]4d6, (d) [Xe]4f145d6. measurements are usually made when atoms are in
8.31 Which of the following species are isoelectronic the gaseous state. Why? Why is the second
with each other? C, Cl-, Mn2+, B-, Ar, Zn, Fe3+, Ge2+. ionization energy always greater than the first
8.32 Group the species that are isoelectronic: Be 2+, ionization energy for any element?
F-, Fe2+, N3-, He, S2-, Co3+, Ar. 8.50 Sketch the outline of the periodic table and
show group and period trends in the first ionization
Periodic Variation in Physical Properties energy
Review Questions of the elements. What types of elements have the
8.33 Define atomic radius. Does the size of an atom highest ionization energies and what types the
have a precise meaning? lowest ionization energies?
8.34 How does atomic radius change (a) from left to
right across a period and (b) from top to bottom in a Problems
group? 8.51 Arrange the following in order of increasing first
8.35 Define ionic radius. How does the size of an ionization energy: Na, Cl, Al, S, and Cs.
atom change when it is converted to (a) an anion 8.52 Arrange the following in order of increasing first
and (b) a cation? ionization energy: F, K, P, Ca, and Ne.
8.36 Explain why, for isoelectronic ions, the anions 8.53 Use the third period of the periodic table as an
are larger than the cations. example to illustrate the change in first ionization
energies of the elements as we move from left to
Problems right. Explain the trend.
8.37 On the basis of their positions in the periodic 8.54 In general, ionization energy increases from left
table, select the atom with the larger atomic radius to right across a given period. Aluminum, however,
has a lower ionization energy than magnesium. Variation in Chemical Properties of the
Explain. Representative Elements
8.55 The first and second ionization energies of K are Review Questions
419 kJ/mol and 3052 kJ/mol, and those of Ca are 590 8.65 What is meant by the diagonal relationship?
kJ/mol and 1145 kJ/mol, respectively. Compare their Name two pairs of elements that show this
values and comment on the differences. relationship.
8.56 Two atoms have the electron configurations 8.66 Which elements are more likely to form acidic
1s22s22p6 and 1s22s22p63s1. The first ionization oxides? Basic oxides? Amphoteric oxides?
energy of one is 2080 kJ/mol, and that of the other is
496 kJ/mol. Match each ionization energy with one Problems
of the given electron configurations. Justify your 8.67 Use the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals
choice. as examples to show how we can predict the
8.57 A hydrogen like ion is an ion containing only chemical properties of elements simply from their
one electron. The energies of the electron in a electron configurations.
hydrogen like ion are given by 8.68 Based on your knowledge of the chemistry of
(En 5 2(2.18 3 10218 J)Z2a 1 n2b) the alkali metals, predict some of the chemical
where n is the principal quantum number and Z is properties of francium, the last member of the
the atomic number of the element. Calculate the group.
ionization energy (in kJ/mol) of the He+ ion. 8.69 As a group, the noble gases are very stable
8.58 Plasma is a state of matter consisting of positive chemically (only Kr and Xe are known to form
gaseous ions and electrons. In the plasma state, a compounds). Use the concepts of shielding and the
mercury atom could be stripped of its 80 electrons effective nuclear charge to explain why the noble
and therefore would exist as Hg 80+. Use the equation gases tend to neither give up electrons nor accept
in Problem additional electrons.
8.57 to calculate the energy required for the last 8.70 Why are Group 1B elements more stable than
ionization step, that is, Group 1A elements even though they seem to have
Hg79+(g) Hg80+(g) + e- the same outer electron configuration, ns1, where n
is the principal quantum number of the outermost
Electron Affinity shell?
Review Questions 8.71 How do the chemical properties of oxides
8.59 (a) Define electron affinity. (b) Electron affinity change from left to right across a period? From top
measurements are made with gaseous atoms. Why? to bottom within a particular group?
(c) Ionization energy is always a positive quantity, 8.72 Write balanced equations for the reactions
whereas electron affinity may be either positive or between each of the following oxides and water: (a)
negative. Explain. Li2O, (b) CaO, (c) SO3.
8.60 Explain the trends in electron affinity from 8.73 Write formulas for and name the binary
aluminum to chlorine (see Table 8.3). hydrogen compounds of the second-period elements
(Li to F). Describe how the physical and chemical
Problems properties of these compounds change from left to
8.61 Arrange the elements in each of the following right across the period.
groups in increasing order of the most positive 8.74 Which oxide is more basic, MgO or BaO? Why?
electron affinity: (a) Li, Na, K; (b) F, Cl, Br, I; (c) O, Si,
P, Ca, Ba. Additional Problems
8.62 Specify which of the following elements you 8.75 State whether each of the following properties
would expect to have the greatest electron affinity, of the representative elements generally increases
and which would have the least: He, K, Co, S, Cl. or decreases (a) from left to right across a period and
8.63 Considering their electron affinities, do you (b) from top to bottom within a group: metallic
think it is possible for the alkali metals to form an character, atomic size, ionization energy, acidity of
anion like M2, where M represents an alkali metal? oxides.
8.64 Explain why alkali metals have a greater affinity 8.76 With reference to the periodic table, name (a) a
for electrons than alkaline earth metals. halogen element in the fourth period, (b) an element
similar to phosphorus in chemical properties, (c) the
most reactive metal in the fifth period, (d) an
element that has an atomic number smaller than 20 8.86 You are given four substances: a fuming red
and is similar to strontium. liquid, a dark metallic-looking solid, a pale-yellow
8.77 Write equations representing the following gas, and a yellow-green gas that attacks glass. You
processes: are told that these substances are the first four
(a) The electron affinity of S-. members of Group 7A, the halogens. Name each
(b) The third ionization energy of titanium. one.
(c) The electron affinity of Mg2+. 8.87 Calculate the change in energy for the following
(d) The ionization energy of O2-. processes:
8.78 List all the common ions of representative (a) Na(g) + Cl(g) Na+(g) + Cl-(g)
elements and transition metals that are isoelectronic (b) Ca(g) + 2Br(g) Ca2+(g) + 2Br-(g)
with Ar. 8.88 Calculate the change in energy for the following
8.79 Write the empirical (or molecular) formulas of processes:
compounds that the elements in the third period (a) Mg(g) + 2F(g) Mg2+(g) + 2F-(g)
(sodium to chlorine) should form with (a) molecular
(b) 2Al(g) + 3O(g) 2Al3+(g) + 3O2-(g)
oxygen and (b) molecular chlorine. In each case
The electron affinity of O- is -844 kJ/mol.
indicate whether you would expect the compound to
8.89 For each pair of elements listed, give three
be ionic or molecular in character.
properties that show their chemical similarity: (a)
8.80 Element M is a shiny and highly reactive metal
sodium and potassium and (b) chlorine and bromine.
(melting point 63°C), and element X is a highly
8.90 Name the element that forms compounds,
reactive nonmetal (melting point -7.2°C). They react
under appropriate conditions, with every other
to form a compound with the empirical formula MX,
element in the periodic table except He, Ne, and Ar.
a colorless, brittle white solid that melts at 734°C.
8.91 Explain why the first electron affinity of sulfur is
When dissolved in water or when in the molten
200 kJ/mol but the second electron affinity is -649
state, the substance conducts electricity. When
kJ/mol.
chlorine gas is bubbled through an aqueous solution
8.92 The H- ion and the He atom have two 1s
containing MX, a reddish-brown liquid appears and
electrons each. Which of the two species is larger?
Cl- ions are formed. From these observations,
Explain.
identify M and X. (You may need to consult a
8.93 Predict the products of the following oxides
handbook of chemistry for the melting point values.)
with water: Na2O, BaO, CO2, N2O5, P4O10, SO3. Write
8.81 Match each of the elements on the right with its
an equation for each of the reactions. Specify
description on the left:
whether the oxides are acidic, basic, or amphoteric.
(a) A dark-red liquid
Calcium (Ca) 8.94 Write the formulas and names of the oxides of
(b) A colorless gas that
Gold (Au) the second-period elements (Li to N). Identify the
burns in oxygen gas
Hydrogen (H2) oxides as acidic, basic, or amphoteric.
(c) A reactive metal that
Argon (Ar) 8.95 State whether each of the following elements is
attacks water
Bromine (Br2) a gas, a liquid, or a solid under atmospheric
(d) A shiny metal that
conditions. Also state whether it exists in the
is used in jewelry
elemental form as atoms, as molecules, or as a
(e) An inert gas
three-dimensional network: Mg, Cl, Si, Kr, O, I, Hg,
8.82 Arrange the following species in isoelectronic
Br.
pairs: O+, Ar, S2-, Ne, Zn, Cs+, N3-, As3+, N, Xe.
8.96 What factors account for the unique nature of
8.83 In which of the following are the species written
hydrogen?
in decreasing order by size of radius? (a) Be, Mg, Ba,
8.97 The air in a manned spacecraft or submarine
(b) N3-, O2-, F-, (c) Tl3+, Tl2+, Tl+.
needs to be purified of exhaled carbon dioxide.
8.84 Which of the following properties show a clear
Write
periodic variation? (a) first ionization energy, (b)
equations for the reactions between carbon dioxide
molar mass of the elements, (c) number of isotopes
and (a) lithium oxide (Li2O), (b) sodium peroxide
of an element, (d) atomic radius.
(Na2O2), and (c) potassium superoxide (KO2).
8.85 When carbon dioxide is bubbled through a clear
8.98 The formula for calculating the energies of an
calcium hydroxide solution, the solution appears
electron in a hydrogen like ion is given in Problem
milky. Write an equation for the reaction and explain
8.57. This equation cannot be applied to many-
how this reaction illustrates that CO 2 is an acidic
electron atoms. One way to modify it for the more
oxide.
complex atoms is to replace Z with (Z - σ), where Z is If the first ionization energy of lithium is 520 kJ/mol,
the atomic number and σ is a positive dimensionless calculate the second ionization energy of lithium,
quantity called the shielding constant. Consider the that is, the energy required for the process
helium atom as an example. The physical significance Li+(g) Li2+(g) + e-
of σ is that it represents the extent of shielding that (Hint: You need the equation in Problem 8.57.)
the two 1s electrons exert on each other. Thus, the 8.105 An element X reacts with hydrogen gas at
quantity (Z - σ) is appropriately called the “effective 200°C to form compound Y. When Y is heated to a
nuclear charge.” Calculate the value of σ if the first higher temperature, it decomposes to the element X
ionization energy of helium is 3.94 x 10 -18 J per atom. and hydrogen gas in the ratio of 559 mL of H -
(Ignore the minus sign in the given equation in your (measured at STP) for 1.00 g of X reacted. X also
calculation.) combines with chlorine to form a compound Z,
8.99 Why do noble gases have negative electron which contains 63.89 percent by mass of chlorine.
affinity values? Deduce the identity of X.
8.100 The atomic radius of K is 227 pm and that of K + 8.106 A student is given samples of three elements,
is 133 pm. Calculate the percent decrease in volume X, Y, and Z, which could be an alkali metal, a member
that occurs when K(g) is converted to K+(g). [The of Group 4A, and a member of Group 5A. She makes
volume of a sphere is 4/32πr 3, where r is the radius the following observations: Element X has a metallic
of the sphere.] luster and conducts electricity. It reacts slowly with
8.101 The atomic radius of F is 72 pm and that of F - is hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas. Element
133 pm. Calculate the percent increase in volume Y is a light-yellow solid that does not conduct
that occurs when F(g) is converted to F -(g). (See electricity. Element Z has a metallic luster and
Problem 8.100 for the volume of a sphere.) conducts electricity. When exposed to air, it slowly
8.102 A technique called photoelectron forms a white powder. A solution of the white
spectroscopy is used to measure the ionization powder in water is basic. What can you conclude
energy of atoms. A sample is irradiated with UV light, about the elements from these observations?
and electrons are ejected from the valence shell. The 8.107 Identify the ions whose orbital diagrams for
kinetic energies of the ejected electrons are the valence electrons are shown below. The charges
measured. Because the energy of the UV photon and of the ions are: (a) 1+, (b) 3+, (c) 4+, (d) 2+.
the kinetic energy of the ejected electron are known,
we can write
hn 5 IE 1 12 mu2
where n is the frequency of the UV light, and m and
u are the mass and velocity of the electron,
respectively. In one experiment the kinetic energy of
the ejected electron from potassium is found to be
5.34 x 10-19 J using a UV source of wavelength 162
nm. Calculate the ionization energy of potassium.
How can you be sure that this ionization energy
corresponds to the electron in the valence shell (that
is, the most loosely held electron)?
8.108 What is the electron affinity of the Na+ ion?
8.103 Referring to the Chemistry in Action essay on
8.109 The ionization energies of sodium (in kJ/mol),
p. 358, answer the following questions. (a) Why did
starting with the first and ending with the eleventh,
it take so long to discover the first noble gas (argon)
are 495.9, 4560, 6900, 9540, 13,400, 16, 600,20,120,
on Earth? (b) Once argon had been discovered, why
25,490, 28,930, 141,360, 170,000. Plot the log of
did it take relatively little time to discover the rest of
ionization energy (y axis) versus the number of
the noble gases? (c) Why was helium not isolated by
ionization (x axis); for example, log 495.9 is plotted
the fractional distillation of liquid air?
versus 1 (labeled IE1, the first ionization energy), log
8.104 The energy needed for the following process is
4560 is plotted versus 2 (labeled IE2, the second
1.96 x 104 kJ/mol:
ionization energy), and so on. (a) Label IE 1 through
Li(g) Li3+(g) +3e- IE11 with the electrons in orbitals such as 1s, 2s, 2p,
and 3s. (b) What can you deduce about electron
shells from the breaks in the curve?
8.110 Experimentally, the electron affinity of an Indicate the physical state of the reactants and
element can be determined by using a laser light to products in each equation.
ionize the anion of the element in the gas phase: 8.118 Write chemical formulas for oxides of nitrogen
X-(g) + hn X(g) + e- with the following oxidation numbers: +1, +2, +3, +4,
Referring to Table 8.3, calculate the photon +5. (Hint: There are two oxides of nitrogen with 14
wavelength (in nanometers) corresponding to the oxidation number.)
electron affinity for chlorine. In what region of the 8.119 Most transition metal ions are colored. For
electromagnetic spectrum does this wavelength fall? example, a solution of CuSO4 is blue. How would you
8.111 Explain, in terms of their electron show that the blue color is due to the hydrated Cu 2+
configurations, why Fe2+ is more easily oxidized to ions and not the SO42- ions?
Fe3+ than Mn2+ to Mn3+. 8.120 In general, atomic radius and ionization energy
8.112 The standard enthalpy of atomization of an have opposite periodic trends. Why?
element is the energy required to convert one mole 8.121 Explain why the electron affinity of nitrogen is
of an element in its most stable form at 25°C to one approximately zero, while the elements on either
mole of monatomic gas. Given that the standard side, carbon and oxygen, have substantial positive
enthalpy of atomization for sodium is 108.4 kJ/mol, electron affinities.
calculate the energy in kilojoules required to convert 8.122 Consider the halogens chlorine, bromine, and
one mole of sodium metal at 25°C to one mole of iodine. The melting point and boiling point of
gaseous Na+ ions. chlorine are 2101.0°C and 234.6°C while those of
8.113 Write the formulas and names of the hydrides iodine are 113.5°C and 184.4°C, respectively. Thus,
of the following second-period elements: Li, C, N, O, chlorine is a gas and iodine is a solid under room
F. Predict their reactions with water. conditions. Estimate the melting point and boiling
8.114 Based on knowledge of the electronic point of bromine. Compare your values with those
configuration of titanium, state which of the from a handbook of chemistry.
following compounds of titanium is unlikely to exist: 8.123 Write a balanced equation that predicts the
K3TiF6, K2Ti2O5, TiCl3, K2TiO4, K2TiF6. reaction of rubidium (Rb) with (a) H 2O(l), (b) Cl2(g),
8.115 Name an element in Group 1A or Group 2A (c) H2(g).
that is an important constituent of each of the 8.124 The successive IE of the first four electrons of a
following substances: (a) remedy for acid representative element are 738.1 kJ/mol, 1450
indigestion, (b) coolant in nuclear reactors, (c) Epsom kJ/mol, 7730 kJ/mol, and 10,500 kJ/mol.
salt, (d) baking powder, (e) gunpowder, (f) a light Characterize the element according to the periodic
alloy, (g) fertilizer that also neutralizes acid rain, (h) group.
cement, and (i) grit for icy roads. You may need to 8.125 Little is known of the chemistry of astatine, the
ask your instructor about some of the items. last member of Group 7A. Describe the physical
8.116 In halogen displacement reactions a halogen characteristics that you would expect this halogen to
element can be generated by oxidizing its anions have. Predict the products of the reaction between
with a halogen element that lies above it in the sodium astatide (NaAt) and sulfuric acid. (Hint:
periodic table. This means that there is no way to Sulfuric acid is an oxidizing agent.)
prepare elemental fluorine, because it is the first 8.126 As discussed in the chapter, the atomic mass
member of Group 7A. Indeed, for years the only way of argon is greater than that of potassium. This
to prepare elemental fluorine was to oxidize F - ions observation created a problem in the early
by electrolytic means. Then, in 1986, a chemist development of the periodic table because it meant
reported that by reacting potassium that argon should be placed after potassium. (a) How
hexafluoromanganate(IV) (K2MnF6) with antimony was this difficulty resolved? (b) From the following
pentafluoride (SbF5) at 150°C, he had generated data, calculate the average atomic masses of argon
elemental fluorine. Balance the following equation and potassium: Ar-36 (35.9675 amu; 0.337 percent),
representing the reaction: Ar-38 (37.9627 amu; 0.063 percent), Ar-40 (39.9624
K2MnF6 + SbF5 KSbF6 + MnF3 + F2 amu; 99.60 percent); K-39 (38.9637 amu; 93.258
8.117 Write a balanced equation for the preparation percent), K-40 (39.9640 amu; 0.0117 percent), K-41
of (a) molecular oxygen, (b) ammonia, (c) carbon (40.9618 amu; 6.730 percent).
dioxide, (d) molecular hydrogen, (e) calcium oxide. 8.127 Calculate the maximum wavelength of light (in
nanometers) required to ionize a single sodium
atom.
8.128 Predict the atomic number and ground-state 8.137 On the same graph, plot the effective nuclear
electron configuration of the next member of the charge (see p. 334) and atomic radius (see Figure
alkali metals after francium. 8.5) versus atomic number for the second period
8.129 Why do elements that have high ionization elements Li to Ne. Comment on the trends.
energies also have more positive electron affinities? 8.138 One allotropic form of an element X is a
Which group of elements would be an exception to colorless crystalline solid. The reaction of X with an
this generalization? excess amount of oxygen produces a colorless gas.
8.130 The first four ionization energies of an element This gas dissolves in water to yield an acidic solution.
are approximately 579 kJ/mol, 1980 kJ/mol, 2963 Choose one of the following elements that matches
kJ/mol, and 6180 kJ/mol. To which periodic group X: (a) sulfur, (b) phosphorus, (c) carbon, (d) boron,
does this element belong? and (e) silicon.
8.131 Some chemists think that helium should 8.139 When magnesium metal is burned in air, it
properly be called “helon.” Why? What does the forms two products A and B. A reacts with water to
ending in helium (-ium) suggest? form a basic solution. B reacts with water to form a
8.132 (a) The formula of the simplest hydrocarbon is similar solution as that of A plus a gas with a pungent
CH4 (methane). Predict the formulas of the simplest odor. Identify A and B and write equations for the
compounds formed between hydrogen and the reactions. (Hint: See Chemistry in Action on p. 358.)
following elements: silicon, germanium, tin, and 8.140 The ionization energy of a certain element is
lead. (b) Sodium hydride (NaH) is an ionic 412 kJ/mol. When the atoms of this element are in
compound. Would you expect rubidium hydride the first excited state, however, the ionization
(RbH) to be more or less ionic than NaH? (c) Predict energy is only 126 kJ/mol. Based on this information,
the reaction between radium (Ra) and water. (d) calculate the wavelength of light emitted in a
When exposed to air, aluminum forms a tenacious transition from the first excited state to the ground
oxide (Al2O3) coating that protects the metal from state.
corrosion. Which metal in Group 2A would you 8.141 Use your knowledge of thermochemistry to
expect to exhibit similar properties? Why? calculate the DH for the following processes: (a) Cl -
8.133 Give equations to show that molecular (g) Cl+(g) + 2e- and (b) K+(g) + 2e- K-(g).
hydrogen can act both as a reducing agent and an 8.142 Referring to Table 8.2, explain why the first
oxidizing agent. ionization energy of helium is less than twice the
8.134 Both Mg2+ and Ca2+ are important biological ionization energy of hydrogen, but the second
ions. One of their functions is to bind to the ionization energy of helium is greater than twice the
phosphate groups of ATP molecules or amino acids ionization energy of hydrogen. [Hint: According to
of proteins. For Group 2A metals in general, the Coulomb’s law, the energy between two charges Q 1
tendency for binding to the anions increases in the and Q2 separated by distance r is proportional to
order Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+, Mg2+. Explain the trend. (Q1Q2/r).]
8.135 Match each of the elements on the right with 8.143 As mentioned in Chapter 3 (p. 105),
its description on the left: ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) is the most important
(a) A pale-yellow gas that Nitrogen (N2) nitrogen containing fertilizer in the world. Describe
reacts with water. Boron (B) how you would prepare this compound, given only
(b) A soft metal that reacts with Aluminum (Al) air and water as the starting materials. You may have
water to produce hydrogen. Fluorine (F2) any device at your disposal for this task.
(c) A metalloid that is hard Sodium (Na) 8.144 One way to estimate the effective charge (Zeff)
and has a high melting point. of a many-electron atom is to use the equation IE1 5
(d) A colorless, odorless gas. (1312 kJ/mol)(Z2eff/n2), where IE1 is the first
(e) A metal that is more reactive ionization energy and n is the principal quantum
than iron, but does not corrode number of the shell in which the electron resides.
in air. Use this equation to calculate the effective charges
8.136 Write an account on the importance of the of Li, Na, and K. Also calculate Zeff/n for each metal.
periodic table. Pay particular attention to the Comment on your results.
significance of the position of an element in the table 8.145 To prevent the formation of oxides, peroxides,
and how the position relates to the chemical and and superoxides, alkali metals are sometimes stored
physical properties of the element. in an inert atmosphere. Which of the following gases
should not be used for lithium: Ne, Ar, N 2, Kr? 8.152 The boiling points of neon and krypton are
Explain. (Hint: As mentioned in the chapter, Li and 2245.9°C and 2152.9°C, respectively. Using these
Mg exhibit a diagonal relationship. Compare the data, estimate the boiling point of argon.
common compounds of these two elements.) 8.153 Using the following boiling-point data,
8.146 Describe the biological role of the elements in estimate the boiling point of francium:
the human body shown in the following periodic
table. (You may need to do research at websites
such as www.webelements.com.)
8.154 The energy gap between the 6s and 5d levels
in gold is 4.32 x 10-19 J. Based on this information,
predict the perceived color of gold vapor. (Hint: You
need to be familiar with the notion of
complementary color; see Figure 23.18.)
8.155 Calculate the volume of 1 mole of K atoms (see
Figure 8.5) and compare the result by using the
density of K (0.856 g/cm3). Account for the
8.147 Recent theoretical calculations suggest that
difference.
astatine may be a monoatomic metal rather than a
diatomic molecule like the other halogens. (a)
Rationalize this prediction based on astatine’s
position in the periodic table. (b) The energy
required to remove an electron from one At atom
was determined by laser ionization to be 9.3175 eV.
Given that 1 eV 5 1.602 310219 J, calculate the first
ionization energy of astatine in kJ/mol. (c) Comment
on whether or not the following first ionization
energies support your answer to part (a): Pb, 715.6
kJ/mol; Bi, 702.9 kJ/mol; Po, 811.8 kJ/mol; Rn, 1037
kJ/mol.
8.148 Consider the first 18 elements from hydrogen
to argon. Would you expect the atoms of half of
them to be diamagnetic and half of them to be
paramagnetic? Explain.
8.149 Compare the work function for cesium (206
kJ/mol) with its first ionization energy (376 kJ/mol).
Explain the difference.
8.150 The only confirmed compound of radon is
radon difluoride, RnF2. One reason that it is difficult
to study the chemistry of radon is that all isotopes of
radon are radioactive so it is dangerous to handle
the substance. Can you suggest another reason why
there are so few known radon compounds? (Hint:
Radioactive decays are exothermic processes.)
8.151 Arsenic (As) is not an essential element for the
human body. (a) Based on its position in the periodic
table, suggest a reason for its toxicity. (b) When
arsenic enters a person’s body, it quickly shows up in
the follicle of the growing hair. This action has
enabled detectives to solve many murder mysteries
by analyzing a victim’s hair. Where else might one
look for the accumulation of the element if arsenic
poisoning is suspected?