CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Commercially made solar trackers are a nice addition to any solar panel array. They help
increase the time that panels directly face the sun and allow them to produce their
maximum power. Unfortunately, that can be expensive to buy. We decided to make our
own solar tracker to see if we could reduce the cost. We did not want to reinvent the
wheel but wanted to make it more affordable. We started out small and came up with the
idea of solar tracking using time instead of using a device that would sense where the sun
is and move the panels toward it. The objective of this project is to control the position of
a solar panel in accordance with the motion of sun.

A solar tracking system is which can be used as a power generating method from
sunlight. This method of power generation is simple and is taken from natural resource.
This needs only maximum sunlight to generate power. This project helps for power
generation by setting the equipment to get maximum sunlight automatically. This system
is tracking for maximum intensity of light. When there is decrease in intensity of light,
this system automatically changes its direction to get maximum intensity of light.

This project has presented a review of sun tracking systems developed over the past
years. Overall, the results presented in this review confirm the applicability of sun
tracking system for a diverse range of high performance solar-based applications. Its
performance such as tracking system is highly desirable.

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1.2 Objective
Our objective is to develop a system through which we can save the power. That’s why a
system is being developed through our project through which we can get the power in all
directions by rotating the panel according to the sun position. Through this system we can
increase the output power than normal system.

1.3 Methodology
1. To prepare this project, various kinds of information have been collected from
different books and websites.
2. Local markets have been visited for getting the information about the quality, price and
collecting these components. These components have been purchased according to our
necessity.
3. According to design all those electronic components have been populated in printed
circuit board by soldering iron. At last, our overall project work has been completed
successfully.

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 CHAPTER TWO
SOLAR TRACKER

2.1 Introduction

There are a number of works proposed by many researchers to track the sun.Kalogirou
and Alata et al. suggested a tracking system which can be used with single-axis solar
concentrating systems, Roth et al. and Bakos constructed and tested two axis tracking
system. Different types of one-axis tracking systems have been applied in the literature.

Tomson described mainly the performance of PV modules with daily two-position in the
morning and in the afternoon. Results indicated that the seasonal energy yield was
increased by 10–20% over the yield from a fixed south facing collector tilted at an
optimal angle.

Huang and Sun has designed the solar tracking system called ‘‘one axis three position sun
tracking system”. The one-axis tracking mechanism adjusted the PV position only at
three fixed angles. These are the morning, the noon and the afternoon. An experiment
performed in the present study indicated that economic analysis showed that the price
reduction was between 20% and 30% for the various market prices.

Bakos performed to investigate the effect of using a continuous operation two-axis

tracking on the solar energy collected. The collected energy was measured and compared
with that on a fixed surface tilted at 41 towards the south. The results showed that the
measured collected solar energy on the moving surface was considerably larger (up to
46.46%) compared with the fixed surface.

Abdallah implemented four electromechanical sun-tracking systems, two axes, one axis
vertical, one axis east–west and one axis north–south, were designed and constructed for
the purpose of investigating the effect of tracking on the current, the voltage and the
power, according to the different loads. The results indicated that increases of electrical
power gains up to 43.87% for the two axes, 37.53% for the east–west, 34.43% for the
vertical and 15.69% for the north–south tracking, as compared with the fixed surface
inclined 32 to the south in Amman.

In 1983, Al-Naima and Yaghobian developed a solar tracking system featuring the
tracking operation was performed on the basis of the astronomical coordinates of the sun.
Several years later, Lorenz proposed a set of design guidelines for a window glazing
which rejected solar radiation during the summer, but accepted it during the winter. The
design featured a purely passive control algorithm based on seasonal changes in the
incident angle of the solar rays.

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In 1986, Akhmedyarov et al. first increased the output power of a solar photoelectric
station in Kazakhstan from 357W to 500W by integrating the station with an automatic
sun tracking system. Several years later, Maish developed a control system called Solar
Tracker to provide sun tracking, night and emergency storage, communication, and
manual drive control functions for one and two axis solar trackers in a low-cost. The
control algorithm used a six-degree self-alignment routine and a self-adjusting motor
actuation time in order to improve both the pointing accuracy and the system reliability.
Finally, the control system enabled a full-day pointing accuracy of better than +/-0.1o to
be achieved.

There are also many different controllers such as PC, PLC, PLA, Microcontroller and
Electro-Optically to implement the control techniques. In addition to this Georgiev et al.
expressed that modern measuring and registering system for actual data more easily than
conventional systems.

2.2 Solar Tracker

A Solar tracker is a device used for orienting a solar photovoltaic panel or lens towards
the sun by using the solar or light sensors connected with the machine (Ex: stepper motor,
servo motor, gas filled piston).

A solar tracker is a generic term used to describe device that orient various payloads
toward the sun. The optics in concentrated solar applications accepts the direct
component of sunlight light and therefore must be oriented appropriately to collect
energy. Tracking systems are found in all concentrator application because such systems
do not produce energy unless oriented closely toward the sun.

Fig: 2.1 Solar Tracker

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2.3 Different Types of Solar Tracker

2.3.1 Single Axis Tracker

Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation. The axis
of rotation of single axis trackers is typically aligned along a true North meridian. It is
possible to align them in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking algorithms.

Fig: 2.2 Single Axis Tracker

There are several common implementations of single axis trackers. These include
Horizontal Single Axis Trackers (HSAT), Horizontal Single Axis Tracker with Tilted
Modules (HTSAT), Vertical Single Axis Trackers (VSAT), Tilted Single Axis Trackers
(TSAT) and Polar Aligned Single Axis Trackers (PSAT). The orientation of the module
with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling performance.

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Horizontal Single Axis Tracker (HSAT)

The axis of rotation for horizontal single axis tracker is horizontal with respect to the
ground. The posts at either end of the axis of rotation of a horizontal single axis tracker
can be shared between trackers to lower the installation cost. Horizontal single axis
trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the axis of rotation. As
a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of
rotation.

Fig: 2.3 Horizontal Single Axis Tracker

Field layouts with horizontal single axis trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry
means that keeping all of the axes of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required
for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one another. In single axis
horizontal trackers, a long horizontal tube is supported on bearings mounted upon pylons
or frames. The axis of the tube is on a north-south line. Panels are mounted upon the tube,
and the tube will rotate on its axis to track the apparent motion of the sun through the
day.

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Horizontal Single Axis Tracker Tilted Modules (HTSAT)

In Horizontal Single Axis Tracker (HSAT), the modules are mounted flat at 0 degrees,
while in Horizontal Single Axis Tracker with Tilted Modules (HTSAT), the modules are
installed at a certain tilt. It works on same principle as HSAT, keeping the axis of tube
horizontal in north-south line and rotates the solar modules east to west throughout the
day. These trackers are usually suitable in high latitude locations but do not take as much
land space as consumed by Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT). Therefore, it brings the
advantages of VSAT in a horizontal tracker and minimizes the overall cost of solar
project.

Fig: 2.4 Horizontal Single Axis Tracker with Tilted Module

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Vertical Single Axis Tracker (VSAT)

The axis of rotation for vertical single axis trackers is vertical with respect to the ground.
These trackers rotate from East to West over the course of the day. Such trackers are
more effective at high latitudes than are horizontal axis trackers.

Fig: 2.5 Vertical Single Axis Tracker

Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary energy losses and to optimize
land utilization. Also optimization for dense packing is limited due to the nature of the
shading over the course of a year.

Vertical single axis trackers typically have the face of the module oriented at an angle
with respect to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cone that is
rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation.

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Tilted Single Axis Tracker (TSAT)

All trackers with axes of rotation between horizontal and vertical are considered tilted
single axis trackers. Tracker tilt angles are often limited to reduce the wind profile and
decrease the elevated end height. Field layouts must consider shading to avoid
unnecessary losses and to optimize land utilization. With backtracking, they can be
packed without shading perpendicular to their axis of rotation at any density.

However, the packing parallel to their axes of rotation is limited by the tilt angle and the
latitude.

Fig: 2.6 Tilted Single Axis Tracker

Tilted single axis trackers (TSAT) typically have the face of the module oriented parallel
to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally
symmetric around the axis of rotation.

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Polar Aligned Single Axis Trackers (PASAT)

This method is scientifically well known as the standard method of mounting a telescope
support structure. The tilted single axis is aligned to the polar star. It is therefore called a
polar aligned single axis tracker (PASAT).

In this particular implementation of a tilted single axis tracker, the tilt angle is equal to
the site latitude. This aligns the tracker axis of rotation with the earth’s axis of rotation.

Fig: 2.7 Polar Aligned Single Axis Tracker

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2.3.2 Dual Axis Tracker
Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation. These axes
are typically normal to one another. The axis that is fixed with respect to the ground can
be considered a primary axis. The axis that is referenced to the primary axis can be
considered a secondary axis.

The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling
performance. Dual axis trackers typically have modules oriented parallel to the secondary
axis of rotation.

Dual axis trackers allow for optimum solar energy levels due to their ability to follow the
sun vertically and horizontally. No matter where the sun is in the sky, dual axis trackers
are able to angle themselves to be in direct contact with the sun.

a. Classic Dual- b. Dual-Axis in c. Dual-Axis on Rotating

Axis Frame Base

Fig: 2.8 Dual Axis Tracker

Tip–Tilt Dual Axis Tracker (TTDAT)

A tip–tilt dual axis tracker is so-named because the panel array is mounted on the top of a
pole. Normally the east-west movement is driven by rotating the array around the top of
the pole. On top of the rotating bearing is a T- or H-shaped mechanism that provides
vertical rotation of the panels and provides the main mounting points for the array.

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Other such TTDAT trackers have a horizontal primary axis and a dependent orthogonal
axis. The vertical Azimuthal axis is fixed. This allows for great flexibility of the payload
connection to the ground mounted equipment because there is no twisting of the cabling
around the pole. Field layouts with tip–tilt dual axis trackers are very flexible. The simple
geometry means that keeping the axes of rotation parallel to one another is all that is
required for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one another. Normally
the trackers would have to be positioned at fairly low density in order to avoid one
tracker casting a shadow on others when the sun is low in the sky. Tip-tilt trackers can
make up for this by tilting closer to horizontal to minimize up-sun shading and therefore
maximize the total power being collected.

Fig: 2.9 Tip-Tilt Dual Axis Tracker

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Azimuth-Altitude Dual Axis Tracker (AADAT)

An azimuth–altitude dual axis tracker has its primary axis (the azimuth axis) vertical to
the ground. The secondary axis (often called elevation axis) is then typically normal to
the primary axis. They are similar to tip-tilt systems in operation, but they differ in the
way the array is rotated for daily tracking. Instead of rotating the array around the top of
the pole, AADAT systems can use a large ring mounted on the ground with the array
mounted on a series of rollers. The main advantage of this arrangement is the weight of
the array is distributed over a portion of the ring, as opposed to the single loading point of
the pole in the TTDAT. This allows AADAT to support much larger arrays. However,
the AADAT system cannot be placed closer together than the diameter of the ring, which
may reduce the system density, especially considering inter-tracker shading.

Fig: 2.10 Azimuth-Altitude Dual Axis Tracker

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2.4 Methods of Drives

Active Trackers

Active Trackers use motors and gear trains to direct the tracker as commanded by a
controller responding to the solar direction. Light-sensing trackers typically have two
photo-sensors, such as photodiodes, configured differentially so that they output a null
when receiving the same light flux. Mechanically, they should be omnidirectional (i.e.
flat) and are aimed 90 degrees apart. This will cause the steepest part of their cosine
transfer functions to balance at the steepest part, which translates into maximum
sensitivity.

Passive Trackers

Passive Trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid that is driven to one side or
the other (by solar heat creating gas pressure) to cause the tracker to move in response to
an imbalance.

Chronological Tracker

Chronological Tracker counteracts the earth's rotation by turning at an equal rate as the
earth, but in the opposite direction. Actually the rates are not quite equal, because as the
earth goes around the sun, the position of the sun changes with respect to the earth by
360° every year.

Manual tracker

In some developing nations, drives have been replaced by operators who adjust the
trackers. This has the benefits of robustness, having staff available for maintenance and
creating employment for the population in the vicinity of the site.

2.5 Methods of Control

2.5.1 Closed-loop Types of Sun Tracking Systems

Closed-loop types of sun tracking systems are based on feedback control principles. In
these systems, a number of inputs are transferred to a controller from sensors which
detect relevant parameters induced by the sun, manipulated in the controller and then

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yield outputs (i.e. sensor-based). The systems track the sun by relying on a set of lens or
sensors with a limited field of view, directed at the sun, and are fully illuminated by
sunlight at all times. As the sun moves, it begins to shade one or more sensors, which the
system detect and activates motors or actuators to move the device back into a position
where all sensors are once again equally illuminated.

2.5.2 Open-loop Types of Sun Tracking Systems

An open-loop type of controller computes its input into a system using only the current
state and the algorithm of the system and without using feedback to determine if its input
has achieved the desired goal (i.e. algorithm-based). The system is simpler and cheaper
than the closed-loop type of sun-tracking systems. It does not observe the output of the
processes that it is controlling. Consequently, an open-loop system cannot correct any
errors so that it could make and may not compensate for disturbances in the system.

2.6 Tracker Type Selection

The selection of tracker type is dependent on many factors including installation size,
electric rates, government incentives, land constraints, latitude, and local weather.

Horizontal single axis trackers are typically used for large distributed generation projects
and utility scale projects. The combination of energy improvement and lower product
cost and lower installation complexity results in compelling economics in large
deployments. In addition, the strong afternoon performance is particularly desirable for
large grid-tied photovoltaic systems so that production will match the peak demand time.
Horizontal single axis trackers also add a substantial amount of productivity during the
spring and summer seasons when the sun is high in the sky. The inherent robustness of
their supporting structure and the simplicity of the mechanism also result in high
reliability which keeps maintenance costs low. Since the panels are horizontal, they can
be compactly placed on the axle tube without danger of self-shading and are also readily
accessible for cleaning.A vertical axis tracker pivots only about a vertical axle, with the
panels either vertical, at a fixed, adjustable, or tracked elevation angle. Such trackers with
fixed or (seasonally) adjustable angles are suitable for high latitudes, where the apparent
solar path is not especially high, but which leads to long days in summer, with the sun
travelling through a long arc.

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 CHAPTER THREE
DESCRIPTION OF AUTOMATIC SOLAR
TRACKINGSYSTEM

3.1 Block Diagram

Sun

Solar LDR
LDR Panel

Charge
Load Motor
Controlle Motor
Driver

Battery

Fig: 3.1 Block Diagram of Automatic Solar Tracking System

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3.2 Circuit Diagram

Fig: 3.2 Circuit Diagram of Automatic Solar Tracking System

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3.3Working Principle
We know that a Solar Panel can be used to convert light energy to electrical energy. The
amount of converted energy depends on the amount of light falling on the Panel.
Generally Solar Panels are stationary devices which are fixed at a position. The produced
electrical energy can be increased if we move the solar panel as the movement of the Sun.

The heart of the above circuit is two voltage comparators made by LM358 Dual Op-
Amp. We all know that when the intensity of light falling on a LDR increases, its
resistance decreases. Here LDR is connected with a series resistor (R3 & R4), hence
when the intensity of light falling on a LDR increases, voltage across corresponding
resistor (R3 or R4) increases.

The output of the voltage comparator will be high when the voltage at non-inverting
terminal (+) is higher than the voltage at the inverting terminal (-). Inverting (-) terminals
of both comparators are shorted and connected to a variable resistor (RV1), which is used
to set the reference voltage. Thus the sensitivity of both LDRs can be adjusted
by varying the. When the light falls on a LDR increases, voltage at the non-inverting (+)
terminal of corresponding comparator increases and its output goes HIGH.

The direction of motor rotation is controlled by the H-Bridge formed by the

complimentary symmetry transistors BC547 and BC557. Consider the case when the
output of first comparator (U1: A) is high and output of second comparator (U1: B) is
low. In this case transistors Q1 and Q4 will turns on and the resulting current rotates the
motor in clockwise direction. Consider the case when the output of the first comparator is
low and the output of the second comparator is high. In this case transistors Q2 and Q3
will turns on and the resultant current rotates the motor in anticlockwise direction. If the
output of both comparators is low, transistors Q3 and Q4 turns on, but no current will
flow through the motor. Similarly, if the output of both comparators is high, transistors
Q1 and Q2 turns on, but no current will flow through the motor.

The DC Motor should be connected to the panel in such a way that, the rotation of motor
rotates the panel in the direction of movement of the Sun.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
COMPONENT’S DESCRIPTION

A Solar tracker is a device used for orienting a solar photovoltaic panel or lens towards
the sun by using the solar or light sensors connected with the machine (Ex: stepper motor,
servo motor, gas filled piston).
In this project there are different types of devices and components have been used. Their
description will be described below.

4.1 Solar Panel

Solar panel refers either to a photovoltaic module, a solar thermal energy panel, or to a
set of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules electrically connected and mounted on a
supporting structure. A PV module is a packaged, connected assembly of solar cells.
Solar panels can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and
supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by its
DC output power under standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to
320 watts. The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same
rated output - an 8% efficient 230 watt module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient
230 watt module. There are a few solar panels available that are exceeding 19%
efficiency. A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most
installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes a panel
or an array of solar modules, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and
interconnection wiring.

Fig: 4.1 Solar Panel or Solar Module

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Solar modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the
photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or
thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying)
member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be
protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but semi-
flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar modules were first
used in space in 1958.

Some recent solar module designs include concentrators in which light is focused by
lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high
cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.

4.2 Solar Controller

A solar controller is an electronic device that controls the circulating the solar power
from the solar panels and protect the system from overheating. The basic job of the
controller is to turn on the circulating process when there is heat available in the panels.

The charge controller is shown in the upper half of the schematic. When the PV panel's
voltage rises above 12V, current flows through zener diode ZD1 causing transistor Q2 to
turn on and send power to voltage regulator VR1. VR1 provides 5 Volt power to the rest
of the charge controller circuitry. The charge controller power is supplied by the battery
when the sun is shining on the PV panel. During the night, the Q2 circuit turns off and
prevents the charge controller from draining battery power.

Fig: 4.2 Solar Controller Circuit

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4.3 Battery
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that
convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Each cell contains a positive
terminal, or cathode, and a negative terminal, or anode. Electrolytes allow ions to move
between the electrodes and terminals, which allows current to flow out of the battery to
perform work.

Primary batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode materials are irreversibly
changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights
and a multitude of portable devices.

Secondary (rechargeable batteries) can be discharged and recharged multiple times; the
original composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples
include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium ion batteries used for portable
electronics. Batteries come in many shapes and sizes from the uses of different
categories.

Fig: 4.3 Battery

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4.4 Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least 3 terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to 1 pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify
a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found
embedded in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in 1947 by
American physicistsJohn Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, the transistor
revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios,
calculators, and computers, among other things. The transistor is on the list of IEEE
milestones in electronics, and the inventors were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in
Physics for their achievement.

Fig: 4.4 Transistor

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4.5 Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow and at the same time,
act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit
current flow to adjust signal levels, bias active elements, terminate transmission lines
among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power
as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test
loads for generators. Resistors may have fixed resistances that only change a little with
temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit
elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat,
light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits. Practical
resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms.
Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.

Fig: 4.5 Resistor and its Color Coding

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4.6 LDR Sensor
A photo resistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photocell is a light-controlled
variable resistor. The resistance of a photo resistor decreases with increasing incident
light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photo resistor can be
applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-activated switching
circuits.

A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photo resistor
can have a resistance as high as a few mega ohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photo
resistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photo
resistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound
electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons
conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a
photo resistor can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photo
resistors may react substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.

Fig: 4.6 Light Dependent Diode (LDR)

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4.7 Integrated Circuit (IC)
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or
a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor
material, normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made
from independent components. ICs can be made very compact, having up to several
billion transistors and other electronic components in an area the size of a fingernail. The
width of each conducting line in a circuit can be made smaller and smaller as the
technology advances; in 2008 it dropped below 100 nanometer,[1] and now it is tens of
nanometers.

Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment today and have
revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other digital
home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made
possible by the low cost of producing integrated circuits.

Fig: 4.7 Integrated Circuit (IC)

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4.8 Vero Board
Vero Board is a brand of Strip Board, a pre-formed circuit board material of copper strips
on an insulating board which was originated and developed in the early 1960s by the
Electronics Department of Vero Precision Engineering Ltd (VPE). It was introduced as a
general-purpose material for use in constructing electronic circuits - differing from
purpose-designed printed circuit boards (PCBs) in that a variety of electronic circuits may
be constructed using a standard wiring board.

The first single-size Vero Board product was the forerunner of the numerous types of
prototype wiring board which, with world-wide use over five decades, have become
known as Strip Board. The generic terms 'Vero board' and 'stripboard' are now taken to be
synonymous.

Fig: 4.8 Vero Board

4.9 Motor
A Motor is a device that creates motion. It usually refers to an engine of some kind. It
may also specifically refer to:

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 Electric motor, a machine that converts electricity into a mechanical motion.
 AC motor, an electric motor that is driven by alternating current.
 Synchronous motor, an alternating current motor distinguished by a rotor
spinning with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating
current and resulting magnetic field which drives it
 Induction motor, also called a squirrel-cage motor, a type of asynchronous
alternating current motor where power is supplied to the rotating device by
means of electromagnetic induction
 DC motor, an electric motor that runs on direct current electricity.
 Brushed DC electric motor, an internally commutated electric motor
designed to be run from a direct current power source.
 Brushless DC motor, a synchronous electric motor which is powered by
direct current electricity and has an electronically controlled commutation
system, instead of a mechanical commutation system based on brushes
 Electrostatic motor, a type of electric motor based on the attraction and repulsion
of electric charge
 Engines, which are very commonly called "motors".
 Servo motor, an electric motor that operates a servo, commonly used in robotics.
 Starter motor, for starting an internal-combustion engine of a vehicle.
 Stepper motor, a type of electric motor capable of rotating its output shaft in
equally spaced fractions of a full rotation, known as steps.
 Actuator, a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or system.
 Synthetic molecular motor, molecular machines capable of rotation under energy
input.
 Pneumatic motor, a machine that converts the energy of compressed air into
mechanical motion.
 "Motor Car" or "Motor” alternate terms for an automobile.

Fig: 4.9 DC Moto

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4.10 List of Components with Price & life Time

Sl. No Description Quantity Unit Cost Price(tk. Life

(tk.) ) Time
01 Solar panel 12 watt 1 1250 1250 20 Years
02 Solar controller 6 amps 1 800 800 05 Years

03 Battery 12V 1 1500 1500 05 Years

04 Transistor BD139 and 2 15 30 05 Years

BD140
05 Resistors 4 2 8 05 Years

06 LDR sensors 4 15 60 05 Years

07 LM358 ICs 1 20 20 05 Years

08 Vero board 1 20 20 05 Years

09 Motor 12v 1 450 450 05 Years

10 Mechanism construction and 1 450 450 05 Years

casing
11 Cable and screws 1 100 100 05 Years

12 Belt and grease 1 150 150 05 Years

Total 4838

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 CHAPTER FIVE
APPLICATION’S OF SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. However, all
renewable energies, other than geothermal and tidal, derive their energy from the sun.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the
way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar technologies increase the
supply of energy while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources
and are generally considered demand side technologies. Active solar techniques use
photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs.

5.1 Solar Thermal Electric Power Plant

Solar thermal energy involves harnessing solar power for practical applications from
solar heating to electrical power generation. Solar thermal collectors, such as solar hot
water panels, are commonly used to generate solar hot water for domestic and light
industrial applications. This energy system is also used in architecture and building
design to control heating and ventilation in both active solar and passive solar designs.

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 Fig: 5.1 Solar thermal trough power plant with thermal storage

5.2 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)

Concentrated solar power (also called concentrating solar power, concentrated solar
thermal, and CSP) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate
a large area of sunlight, or solar thermal energy, onto a small area. Electricity is generated
when the concentrated light is converted to heat, which drives a heat engine (usually a
steam turbine) connected to an electrical power generator or powers a thermo chemical
reaction (experimental as of 2013).

CSP is being widely commercialized and the CSP market has seen about 740 MW of
generating capacity added between 2007 and the end of 2010. More than half of this
(about 478 MW) was installed during 2010, bringing the global total to 1095 MW. Spain
added 400 MW in 2010, taking the global lead with a total of 632 MW, while the US
ended the year with 509 MW after adding 78 MW, including two fossil–CSP hybrid
plants. The Middle East is also ramping up their plans to install CSP based projects and
as a part of that Plan, Shams-I the largest CSP Project in the world has been installed in
Abu Dhabi, by Masdar.

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 Fig: 5.2 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)

5.3 Solar Car

A solar car is a solar vehicle used for land transport. Solar cars combine technology
typically used in the aerospace, bicycle, alternative energy and automotive industries. The
design of a solar vehicle is severely limited by the amount of energy input into the car.
Most solar cars have been built for the purpose of solar car races. Since 2011 also solar-
powered cars for daily use on public roads are designed List of solar cars.

Solar cars depend on photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight into electricity. Unlike solar
thermal energy which converts solar energy to heat for either household purposes,
industrial purposes or to be converted to electricity, PV cells directly convert sunlight
into electricity. When sunlight (photons) strikes PV cells, they excite electrons and allow
them to flow, creating an electrical current. PV cells are made of semiconductor materials
such as silicon and alloys of indium, gallium and nitrogen. Silicon is the most common
material used and has an efficiency rate of 15-20%.

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 Fig: 5.3 Solar Powered car

5.4 Solar Power Satellite

Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting solar power
in space using an “SPS” that is a "solar-power satellite" or a "satellite
power system". It has been in research since the early 1970s.

A solar power satellite (SPS) is a proposed satellite built in high Earth

orbit that uses microwave power transmission to beam solar power to a
very large antenna on Earth where it can be used in place of
conventional power sources. The advantage of placing the solar
collectors in space is the unobstructed view of the sun, unaffected by the
day/night cycle, weather, or seasons. However, the costs of construction
are very high, and SPSs will not be able to compete with conventional
sources unless low launch costs can be achieved or unless a space-based
manufacturing industry develops and they can be built in orbit from off-
earth materials.

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 Fig: 5.4 Solar-Powered Atmospheric Satellite
(Satellite Drone)

5.5 Renewable Solar Power with Regenerative Fuel Cell System

A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water. Fuel
cells are often compared to batteries. Both convert the energy produced by a chemical
reaction into usable electric power. However, the fuel cell will produce electricity as long
as fuel (hydrogen) is supplied, never losing its charge.

Fuel cells are a promising technology for use as a source of heat and electricity for
buildings, and as an electrical power source for electric motors propelling vehicles. Fuel
cells operate best on pure hydrogen.

In the future, hydrogen could also join electricity as an important energy carrier.

NASA has long recognized the unique advantages of regenerative fuel cell (RFC)
systems to provide energy storage for solar power systems in space. RFC systems are
uniquely qualified to provide the necessary energy storage for solar surface power
systems on the moon or Mars during long periods of darkness, i.e. during the 14-day
lunar night or the12-hour Martian night. The nature of the RFC and its inherent design
flexibility enables it to effectively meet the requirements of space missions.

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 Fig: 5.5 Works of the Solar-H-Fuel Cell

5.6 Solar cell phone charger

Solar cell phone chargers use solar panels to charge cell phone batteries. They are an
alternative to conventional electrical cell phone chargers and in some cases can be
plugged into an electrical outlet.

There are also public solar chargers for mobile phones which can be installed
permanently in public places such as streets, park and squares. The model which is
according to European Commission proclaimed as the first in the world is the Strawberry
Tree, public solar charger invented by Strawberry energy Company. This solar station
won the first place at "EU Sustainable energy week (EUSEW) 2011" in the Consuming
category.

Some models of cell phones have a built in solar charger and are commercially available
for GSM cell phone models. Solar cell phone chargers come in different shapes and
configurations including folding and rotating types.

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 Fig: 5.6 Solar Cell Phone Charger

5.7 Solar Fan

A solar fan is a mechanical fan powered by solar panels. The solar panels are either
mounted on the device or are installed independently. Solar fans mostly do not require
secondary power sources other than solar power, as most of them are used for cooling
purposes during day time. Some types are also used for heating purposes. It runs the
fastest when it is the hottest outside providing savings on air conditioning costs.

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 Fig: 5.7 Solar Powered Fan

5.8 Solar Street Light

Solar street lights are raised light sources which are powered by photovoltaic panels
generally mounted on the lighting structure. The photovoltaic panels charge a
rechargeable battery, which powers a fluorescent or LED lamp during the night.

Most solar panels turn on and turn off automatically by sensing outdoor light using a light
source. Solar streetlights are designed to work throughout the night. Many can stay lit for
more than one night if the sun is not available for a couple of days. Older models
included lamps that were not fluorescent or LED. Solar lights installed in windy regions
are generally equipped with flat panels to better cope with the winds.

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Latest designs use wireless technology and fuzzy control theory for battery management.
The street lights using this technology can operate as a network with each light having
the capability of performing on or off the network.

Fig: 5.8 Solar Street Light

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 CHAPTER SIX
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION &
RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Discussion

A smart solar tracker which consists of an automated tracking mechanism is reviewed in

this project. The studies over the components and types of solar tracking system are
overviewed. The project reveals that the use of stepper motor enables accurate tracking of
the sun. Light Depending Resistors (LDR) has been used to determine the solar light
intensity. In this project a brief review is done over photo-voltaic characteristics to design
of an automatic solar tracking system.

Building and testing smaller sections of the system made the project more manageable
and increases efficiency. The testing of the project started with the testing of the power
supply unit to ensure it could supply the required power to the circuit. The motor
controller was tested next to ensure that it would rotate in the clockwise and
anticlockwise as well as stop positions. After the whole system unit (electrical and
mechanical) had been coupled, the solar elevation tracker was tested as a functional unit
and it still working under direct sunlight.

The advantages of a solar tracking system depend mainly on its placement which
provides higher efficiency and solar panel can collect more heat from sunbeam. It can be
installed at limited space. Its operation is fully automatic. It can decrease our electrical
cost.

However, it has some disadvantages too. Initial investment is high on solar panels.
Moving parts and gears which will require regular maintenance. May require repair or
replacement of broken parts over a long run.

The total cost of the project is 3208tk. The minimum price of the tracking system in
market is around 7000tk. So this project could be very economic & effective.

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6.2 Conclusion
Automatic Solar Tracker system has been successfully designed, implemented and tracking has
been tested. An automatic solar tracking system is designed employing the new principle of
using small solar cells to function as self-adjusting light sensors, providing a variable indication
of their relative position to the sun by detecting their voltage output.

Finally, it may be said that Solar tracker system today offer an innovative method to track the
solar insulation and provide economic compatibility of the generation of electric power where
grid connections are difficult to setup and costly.

6.3 Recommendation
The goals of this project were purposely kept within what was believed to be attainable within
the allotted timeline. As such, many improvements can be made upon this initial design. That
being said, it is felt that this design represents a functioning miniature scale model which could
be replicated to a much larger scale. The following recommendations are provided as ideas for
future expansion of this project:

• Increasing the sensitivity and accuracy of tracking by using a different light sensor. A
phototransistor with an amplification circuit would provide improved resolution and better
tracking accuracy or precision.

• Utilize a dual-axis design versus a single-axis to increase tracking accuracy.

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 References
 AbdallahaS. and BadranbO., “Sun Tracking System for Productivity Enhancement of
Solar Still”, Desalination,220(2008), pp. 669–676.
 Al-MohamadA., “Efficiency Improvements of Photo-Voltaic Panels Using a Sun-
Tracking System”, Appl. Energy, 79(2004), pp. 345–354.
 California Institute of Technology. Basic research needs for solar energy utilization.
Report of the basic energy sciences workshop on solar energy utilization; April 18–21,
2005.
 http://us.sunpower.com/power-plant/products-services/trackers/.
 http://www.energymatters.com.au/renewable-energy/solar-power/solar-panels.php.
 LDR sensors, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoresistor.
 NnadiD.B.N.,“Environmental/Climatic Effect on Stand-Alone solar Energy Supply
Performance for Sustainable Energy”, Nigerian Journal of Technology Vol. 31, No. 1,
March, 2012.
 Oladiran M.T., “Mean global radiation captured by inclined collectors at various surface
azimuth angles in Nigeria. Applied Energy 1995;52:317–30.
 Roth P, Georgiev A, Boudinov H. “Cheap two-axis sun following device.” Energy
Conversion and Management 2005;46:1179–92.
 Solar Tracker, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_tracker.
 Stepper Motors, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepper_motor.
 Walraven R. Calculating the position of the sun. Solar Energy 1977;20:393–7.
 Zahnd A., McKayH. and KimberH. M., “Benefits from a Renewable Energy Village
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