Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of Employment and Training

Course : TNPSC Combined Civil Services Examination - IV(Group IV / VAO)

Subject : Zoology
Topic : Human diseases including communicable and non – communicable diseases – prevention
and remedies

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 Human diseases including communicable and non –
communicable diseases - prevention and remedies

 Some diseases last for only very short periods of time, and these are called acute
diseases. We all know from experience that the common cold lasts only a few days.
 Other ailments can last for a long time, even as much as a lifetime, and are called chronic
diseases. An example is the infection causing elephantiasis, which is very common in
some parts of India.
Communicable Diseases

 Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy person through
air, water, food or physical contact are called communicable diseases.
 Examples of such diseases include cholera, common cold, chicken
pox and tuberculosis.
 Example of a carrier is the female Anopheles mosquito, which carries the parasite
of malaria. Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier of dengue virus.
 Robert Köch (1876) discovered the bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) which
causes anthrax
 How do infectious diseases spread? Many microbial agents can commonly move from an
affected person to someone else in a variety of ways. In other words, they can be
„communicated‟, and so are also called communicable diseases.
 Such disease-causing microbes can spread through the air. Examples of such diseases
spread through the air are the common cold, pneumonia and tuberculosis.
 Diseases can also be spread through water. This occurs if the excreta from someone
suffering from an infectious gut disease, such as cholera, get mixed with the drinking
water used by people living nearby.
 The sexual act is one of the closest physical contact two people can have with each other.
Not surprisingly, there are microbial diseases such as Syphilis or AIDS that are
transmitted by sexual contact from one partner to the other.

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 Other than the sexual contact, the aids virus can also spread through blood-to-blood
contact with infected people or from an infected mother to her baby during pregnancy or
through breast feeding.
 We live in an environment that is full of many other creatures apart from us. It is inevitable
that many diseases will be transmitted by other animals. These animals carry the infecting
agents from a sick person to another potential host. These animals are thus the
intermediaries and are called vectors. The commonest vectors we all know are
mosquitoes.
 In many species of mosquitoes, the females need highly nutritious food in the form of
blood in order to be able to lay mature eggs. Mosquitoes feed on many warm-blooded
animals, including us. In this way, they can transfer diseases from person to person.
Organ-Specific And Tissue Specific Diseases

 Different species of microbes seem to have evolved to home in on different parts of the
body. In part, this selection is connected to their point of entry.
 If they enter from the air via the nose, they are likely to go to the lungs. This is seen in the
bacteria causing tuberculosis.
 If they enter through the mouth, they can stay in the gut lining like typhoid causing
bacteria. Or they can go to the liver, like the viruses that cause jaundice.
 An infection like HIV, that comes into the body via the sexual organs, will spread to lymph
nodes all over the body.
 Malaria-causing microbes, entering through a mosquito bite, will go to the liver, and then
to the red blood cells.
 The virus causing Japanese Encephalitis, or brain fever, will similarly enter through a
mosquito bite. But it goes on to infect the brain.
 The signs and symptoms of a disease will thus depend on the tissue or organ which the
microbe targets. If the lungs are the targets, then symptoms will be cough and
breathlessness. If the liver is targeted, there will be jaundice. If the brain is the target, we
will observe headaches, vomiting, fits or unconsciousness.
 In addition to these tissue-specific effects of infectious disease, there will be other
common effects too.

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 Most of these common effects depend on the fact that the body‟s immune system is
activated in response to infection.
 An active immune system recruits many cells to the affected tissue to kill off the disease-
causing microbes. This recruitment process is called inflammation. As a part of this
process, there are local effects such as swelling and pain, and general effects such as
fever.
 In some cases, the tissue-specificity of the infection leads to very general-seeming effects.
For example, in HIV infection, the virus goes to the immune system and damages its
function. Thus, many of the effects of HIV-aids are because the body can no longer fight
off the many minor infections that we face every day. Instead, every small cold can
become pneumonia. Similarly, a minor gut infection can produce major diarrhoea with
blood loss. Ultimately, it is these other infections that kill people suffering from HIV-aids.
Principles of Treatment

 There are two ways to treat an infectious disease. One would be to reduce the effects of
the disease and the other to kill the cause of the disease.
 For the first, we can provide treatment that will reduce the symptoms. The symptoms are
usually because of inflammation. For example, we can take medicines that bring down
fever, reduce pain or loose motions. We can take bed rest so that we can conserve our
energy. This will enable us to have more of it available to focus on healing.
 But this kind of symptom-directed treatment by itself will not make the infecting microbe go
away and the disease will not be cured. For that, we need to be able to kill off the
microbes.
 How do we kill microbes? One way is to use medicines that kill microbes. We have seen
earlier that microbes can be classified into different categories. They are viruses, bacteria,
fungi or protozoa.
 Each of these groups of organisms will have some essential biochemical life process
which is peculiar to that group and not shared with the other groups. These processes
may be pathways for the synthesis of new substances or respiration. These pathways will
not be used by us either.
 For example, our cells may make new substances by a mechanism different from that
used by bacteria. We have to find a drug that blocks the bacterial synthesis pathway

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 without affecting our own. This is what is achieved by the antibiotics that we are all
familiar with. Similarly, there are drugs that kill protozoa such as the malarial parasite.
Why are Antibiotics effective against Bacterial Infections but not Viral Infections?

 One reason why making anti-viral medicines is harder than making antibacterial medicines
is that viruses have few biochemical mechanisms of their own. This means that there
are relatively few virus-specific targets to aim at.
 Despite this limitation, there are now effective anti-viral drugs, for example, the drugs that
keep HIV infection under control.
 Taxonomically, all bacteria are closely related to each other than to viruses and vice
versa. This means that many important life processes are similar in the bacteria group but
are not shared with the virus group. As a result, drugs that block one of these life
processes in one member of the group is likely to be effective against many other
members of the group. But the same drug will not work against a microbe belonging to a
different group.

 As an example, let us take antibiotics. They commonly block biochemical pathways

important for bacteria. Many bacteria, for example, make a cell-wall to protect
themselves. The antibiotic penicillin blocks the bacterial processes that build the cell wall.
As a result, the growing bacteria become unable to make cell-walls, and die easily.

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 Human cells don‟t make a cell-wall anyway, so penicillin cannot have such an effect on us.
Penicillin will have this effect on any bacteria that use such processes for making cell-
walls. Similarly, many antibiotics work against many species of bacteria rather than simply
working against one group.
 But viruses do not use these pathways at all, and that is the reason why antibiotics do not
work against viral infections. If we have a common cold, taking antibiotics does not reduce
the severity or the duration of the disease. However, if we also get a bacterial infection
along with the viral cold, taking antibiotics will help. Even then, the antibiotic will work only
against the bacterial part of the infection, not the viral infection.
Principles of Prevention

 What are the specific ways of prevention? They relate to a peculiar property of the
immune system that usually fights off microbial infections.
 Let us cite an example to try and understand this property. These days, there is no
smallpox anywhere in the world. But as recently as a hundred years ago, smallpox
epidemics were not at all uncommon.
 In such an epidemic, people used to be very afraid of coming near someone suffering from
the disease since they were afraid of catching the disease.
 However, there was one group of people who did not have this fear. These people would
provide nursing care for the victims of smallpox.
 This was a group of people who had smallpox earlier and survived it, although with a lot of
scarring. In other words, if you had smallpox once, there was no chance of suffering from
it again.
 So, having the disease once was a means of preventing subsequent attacks of the same
disease. This happens because when the immune system first sees an infectious microbe,
it responds against it and then remembers it specifically.
 So the next time that particular microbe, or its close relatives enter the body, the immune
system responds with even greater vigour. This eliminates the infection even more quickly
than the first time around. This is the basis of the principle of „vaccination‟ has come into
our usage.
 We can now see that, as a general principle, we can „fool‟ the immune system into
developing a memory for a particular infection by putting something, that mimics the

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 microbe we want to vaccinate against, into the body. This does not actually cause the
disease but this would prevent any subsequent exposure to the infecting microbe from
turning into actual disease.
 Many such vaccines are now available for preventing a whole range of infectious
diseases, and provide a disease-specific means of prevention.
 There are vaccines against tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough, measles, polio and many
others.
 Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae, spraying of
insecticides in ditches, drainage areas and swamps, etc. can prevent proliferation of
mosquitoes. Such precautions have become all the more important especially in the light
of recent widespread incidences of the vector-borne (Aedes mosquitoes) diseases
like dengue and chikungunya in many parts of India.
 Traditional Indian and Chinese medicinal systems sometimes deliberately rubbed the skin
crusts from smallpox victims into the skin of healthy people. They thus hoped to induce a
mild form of smallpox that would create resistance against the disease.
 Famously, two centuries ago, an English physician named Edward Jenner, realized that
milkmaids who had had cowpox did not catch smallpox even during epidemics.
 Cowpox is a very mild disease. Jenner tried deliberately giving cowpox to people, and
found that they were now resistant to smallpox. This was because the smallpox virus is
closely related to the cowpox virus. „Cow‟ is „Vacca‟ in latin, and cowpox is „Vaccinia‟.
Diseases in Indian Children

Gastroentitis

 Gastroentitis is an infection in the digestive system and it is one of the most common
childhood illnesses.
 Symptoms of gastroentitis include diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting, tummy cramps, and
fever.
 One of the main risks with gastroentitis is that it causes dehydration in children.
Rickets

 Rickets occurs due to Vitamin D deficiency.

 Deficiency of Vitamin D occurs in a child because of lack of exposure to sunlight.

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 Lack of adequate calcium in the diet can also cause rickets.
 Rickets is a disease which involves softening and weakening of bones in children.
 Children between the ages of 6 to 24 months are at the highest risk of developing the
disease because that is the age when their bones are rapidly growing.
Conjunctivitis

 Conjunctivitis is caused due to inflammation of the conjunctiva.

 Conjunctiva is the outermost layer of the eye and the inner surface of the eyelids.
 Conjunctivitis often starts in one eye at first and then spreads to the other eye.
 For children suffering from conjunctivitis it is important to see a doctor to know what kind
of conjunctivitis it is.
 Symptoms of conjunctivitis include redness of eyes, irritation in the eye, and eye watering.
Scabies

 Scabies is an infection of the skin.

 Scabies is caused by tiny insects called mites.
 These scabies mites burrow into the skin and lay eggs which become adult mites very
soon.
 Symptoms of this infection include superficial burrows, rash and severe itching.
 Blisters on the palm and soles of the feet are characteristic symptoms of scabies in
infants.
 Scabies is one of the highly contagious diseases and a child can develop it by coming into
contact with someone else who has been infected.
 Children with scabies must not be sent to school or day care until it gets completely cured.
Upper Respiratory Tract infection (URTI)

 Upper Respiratory Tract Infections are extremely common due to air pollution and
vehicular emission.
 Upper respiratory tract infections include common cold, influenza and sore throat.
 Tonsillitis is also one of upper respiratory tract infections.
 Tonsillitis is caused due to infection of the tonsils.
 Tonsils are the areas of lymphoid tissue on either side of the throat.
 Symptoms of tonsillitis include a severe sore throat, coughing, headache and difficulty
swallowing.
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 Tuberculosis

 Tuberculosis also affects children and is known as Primary Complex or Childhood

Tuberculosis infection.
 Children under the age of two years are more at risk of developing tuberculosis because
their immune system is under developed or still developing.
 Tuberculosis is completely curable and early diagnosis can help in effective treatment.
Typhoid

 It is a water borne disease rampant in children due to poor sanitation.

 Cases of typhoid are more common in countries like India and some other South Asian
countries and in other low developed nations and have been seen lesser in countries like
the USA.
 Symptoms of typhoid in children are poor appetite, body ache, discomfort in abdomen,
lethargy and weakness, fever with rising and falling pattern.
 Some children may also experience headache, chest congestion, diarrhoea and vomiting
and rose spots on the abdomen.
Bronchitis and Asthma

 Bronchitis and asthma are common in children.

 Bronchitis and asthma are caused due to high exposure to air borne pollutants.
 Bronchitis and asthma need to be treated with antibiotics and bronchodilators.
Some Other Diseases

Diseases Caused by Worms

 Ascaris, the common round worm and Wuchereria, the filarial worm, are some of
the helminths which are known to be pathogenic to man. Ascaris, an intestinal parasite
causes ascariasis.
 Symptoms of these disease include internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anemia and
blockage of the intestinal passage. The eggs of the parasite are excreted along with the
faeces of infected persons which contaminate soil, water, plants, etc. A healthy person
acquires this infection through contaminated water, vegetables, fruits, etc.
 Wuchereria (W. bancrofti and malayi), the filarial worms cause a slowly developing
chronic inflammation of the organs in which they live for many years, usually the lymphatic

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 vessels of the lower limbs and the disease is called elephantiasis or filariasis. The
genital organs are also often affected, resulting in gross deformities. The pathogens are
transmitted to person through the bite by the female mosquite.
Old Age Diseases: Dementia

 Dementia is “one of the major causes of disability and dependency among older people
worldwide”
Pollution related diseases: Silicosis

 Silicosis is a lung disorder caused by inhalation, retention and pulmonary reaction to

crystalline silica, as a result of exposure during mining, stone crushing and quarrying
activities.
Zoonotic Diseases

 zoonotic diseases — are spread between animals and humans, and are common in
societies where poverty is widespread
 Chikungunya, dengue, Avian influenza, plague, SARS and acute encephalitis syndrome
(AES) are some of the zoonotic diseases.

Non Communicable Diseases (Lifestyle Diseases)

Lifestyle diseases cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and blood pressure
fluctuations have emerged as the biggest cause of deaths in India.

Four behavioural risk factors are responsible for significant proportions of these
diseases— tobacco use, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, and harmful use of alcohol

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 New data reveals that one in two deaths in country, estimated in the period 2010-13 is due
to NCD
Cardiovascular diseases are the biggest killers within NCDs
In rural areas, deaths due to NCDs were much lower than urban areas
World Economic Forum estimated that India stands to lose $4.58 trillion before 2030 due
to NCDs and mental health conditions.
Non Communicable Diseases
WHO has developed a comprehensive Global Monitoring Framework and Action Plan for
prevention and Control of NCDs. India is the first country globally to adopt it to its National
Context -
National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular
Diseases & Stroke
National Programme of Health Care of elderly
National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control programme
National Programme for Control of Blindness
National Mental Health Programme
National Programme for Prevention and Control of Deafness

The focus of addressing NCDs should be behavioural change at the family and community
levels, promoting healthy dietary practices, physical activity, prevention of smoking,
alcohol and pollution, starting early in life.

Microbes or Microorganisms

 Microorganisms [microbes] include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, some algae, viruses,

viroids and also prions that are proteinacious infectious agents. Viruses reproduce only
inside the cells of the host organism, which may be a bacterium, plant or animal.

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 Microorganisms may be single-celled like bacteria, some algae and protozoa,
or multicellular, such as algae and fungi. They can survive under all types of
environment, ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs and deserts to marshy lands.
 Microorganisms like amoeba can live alone, while fungi and bacteria may live in colonies.
Diseases Caused by Microorganisms
Organism
Of
Causative Agent

Transmission

Of
Affected
Disease

Details
Mode

Type

Diseases Caused By Bacteria

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Acne Propionibact Humans/ Skin disease that occurs when

contact/close
vulgaris (or erium acnes Adolesce hair follicles become clogged with
simply nts dead skin cells and oil from the
acne or skin.
pimples) Causes == Genetics + Excessive

contact
growth of the bacteria

Direct
Propionibacterium acnes.

Anthrax Bacillus Most Causes skin infections and

Contact with infected

anthraces animals Gastrointestinal (GI) infection that

including are fatal.
humans French scientist Louis Pasteur
developed the first effective
meat

vaccine in 1881.

Cholera Vibrio Humans Effects small intestine. The

cholerae classic symptom is large amounts
of watery diarrhea that lasts a few
days. Vomiting and muscle
cramps may also occur. Diarrhea
can be so severe that it leads
Water/food

within hours to severe

dehydration and electrolyte
imbalance.

Citrus Xanthomona Citrus fruit Infection causes lesions on the

Canker s axonopodis plants leaves, stems, and fruit of citrus
Air

trees.

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Diptheria Corynebacter Humans Symptoms: sore throat and fever.
ium The neck may swell in part due to
diphtheriae large lymph nodes. Complications
may include myocarditis,
inflammation of nerves, kidney
problems, and bleeding problems
due to low blood platelets.

Air/direct contact
Myocarditis may result in an
abnormal heart rate and
inflammation of the nerves may
result in paralysis.

Pneumonia Streptococcu Humans Pneumonia is an inflammatory

[caused by s condition of the lung affecting
bacteria or pneumoniae primarily the microscopic air sacs
viruses] and known as alveoli.
Haemophilus
influenzae
Air borne droplets of sneeze

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Peptic Helicobacter Humans Ulcers in the lining of stomach
ulcers pylori and starting part of small intestine

Plague Yersinia Humans Unhygienic conditions is the main

pestis cause. [You know why Surat is
one of the cleanest cities in
India?]
The symptoms of plague depend
on the concentrated areas of
infection in each person: bubonic
Air/ direct contact

plague in lymph nodes,

septicemic plague in blood
vessels, pneumonic plague in
lungs.

Tuberculos Mycobacteriu Humans Tuberculosis generally affects the

is m lungs, but can also affect other
tuberculosis parts of the body. Most infections
do not have symptoms, known as
latent tuberculosis. About 10% of
latent infections eventually
progresses to active disease
which, if left untreated, kills about
half of those infected. The classic
symptoms of active TB are a
chronic cough with blood-tinged
sputum, fever, night sweats, and
Air

weight loss.

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Typhoid Salmonella Humans Often there is a gradual onset of
typhi a high fever over several days.
Weakness, abdominal pain,
constipation, and headaches also

Water
commonly occur.

Diseases Caused By Viruses

AIDS Human Humans Severely weakens immunity and

Immunodefici and makes way for a number of other
exchange

ency primates pathogens.

Blood

Virus (HIV)

Chicken varicella Humans Chickenpox, also known as

Pox zoster virus varicella, is a highly contagious
(VZV) disease. The disease results in a
characteristic skin rash that forms
Air/contact

small, itchy blisters. Less severe

than small pox. Almost eradicated
after the invention of vaccination.

Small Pox Variola Humans One of the highly dreaded

Air/contact/water

major and Va diseases that is highly

riola minor contagious.
Almost eradicated after the
invention of vaccination.

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Chikungun Chikungunya Causes severe joint pains. Animal

Aedes mosquitoes,
such as A. aegypti
ya virus reservoirs of the virus include

and A. albopictus
monkeys, birds, cattle, and
rodents. This is in contrast to
dengue, for which primates are
the only hosts

Cold, Rhino Humans Summer are hostile for the virus.

influenza viruses Most common during winter
droplets of
(flu) and months.
Air borne

sneeze
most
coughs

Dengue Flavivirus Humans high fever, headache, vomiting,

fever muscle and joint pains, and a
characteristic skin rash.
In a small proportion of cases, the
disease develops into the life-
threatening dengue hemorrhagic
Female Aedes mosquito

fever, resulting in bleeding, low

levels of blood plateletsand
blood plasma leakage, or into
dengue shock syndrome, where
dangerously low blood pressure
occurs.

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Ebola Ebola virus Humans Ebola infection shows a sudden
and onset of the disease resulting
Some initially in flu-like symptoms:
Animals fever, chills and malaise.
As the disease progresses, it
results in multi-system
involvements indicated by the

Animal to man
person experiencing lethargy,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and
headache.

Foot and Picornavirus[ Animals Serious problem to animal

to-animal
animal-
contact

spread
Close-

Mouth genus farming in India.

Disease Aphthovirus]

Hepatitis B hepatitis B Humans Affects the liver. Acute as well as

[Sexuall
ge, STD

disease
transmi
Exchan
Blood

virus (HBV) chronic.

tted
y

Measles measles Humans Complications occur in about

virus 30% and may include
diarrhea, blindness,
inflammation of the brain, and
Air

pneumonia among others.

Polio or Poliovirus Humans Weak muscles leading to

Water/faecal-

Poliomyeliti deformations.
mouth

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Zika Zika virus Humans

Aedes mosquitoes, such as A. aegypti

and A. albopictus
Disease

Protozo
Caused

ans
By
s

Amoebiasi Entamoeba Humans Symptoms may include

Contaminated Water/food

s (amoebic histolytica abdominal pain, mild diarrhoea,

dysentery) bloody diarrhea or severe colitis
with tissue death and perforation.
This last complication may cause
peritonitis. People affected may
develop anemia due to loss of
blood.

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Dysentery Leishmania
(An
infection of
the
intestines
marked by
severe
diarrhoea)

Kala-Azar Leishmania Humans This disease is the second-

or Visceral genus largest parasitic killer in the world
leishmania (after malaria).
sis The parasite migrates to the
internal organs such as the liver,
spleen (hence “visceral”), and
bone marrow, and, if left
untreated, will almost always
result in the death of the host.
Signs and symptoms include
fever, weight loss, fatigue,
Sandflies

anemia, and substantial swelling

of the liver and spleen.

Malaria Different Humans Malaria causes symptoms that

species of typically include fever, fatigue,
Female Anopheles

Plasmodium vomiting, and headaches. In

(P. vivax, P. severe cases it can cause yellow
malaria and skin, seizures, coma, or death.
mosquito

P.
falciparum)

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Sleeping Trypanosom Humans Initially, in the first stage of the
Sickness a disease, there are fevers,
headaches, itchiness, and joint
pains. This begins one to three
weeks after the bite. Weeks to

Infected tsetse fly

months later the second stage
begins with confusion, poor
coordination, numbness and
trouble sleeping.

Yellow Bhendi Okra Okra are dwarfed, malformed.

Vein yellow vein plant
Mosaic of mosaic virus
Okra
[Ladies
Insect

finger]
Disease

Caused

Fungi
By
s

Ringworms Fungi Humans The fungi that cause parasitic

belonging to infection, collectively
the dermatophytes, feed on keratin,
Microsporum the material found in the outer
Skin-skin contact

Trichophyton layer of skin, hair, and nails.

and
Epidermophy
ton

21
Rust of Puccinia rust Wheat Wheat leaf rust is a fungal

Air/seeds
wheat fungus and other disease that affects wheat, barley
crops and rye stems, leaves and grains.

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