Cover Story

Designing
Pneumatic Conveying
Systems
Eric Maynard Use this 9-step methodology
Jenike & Johanson, Inc.
to design and operate
a reliable and cost-effective system to
efficiently transport materials.

P
neumatic conveying is a practical form of transport unit distance conveyed, dilute-phase pneumatic conveying
that has been successfully applied in many facets of is by far the most expensive method of transporting mate-
the chemical process industries. One may be sur- rials. But, in many cases, these higher costs are justified
prised at the wide variety of powders and granular materi- because the alternatives are not practical, due to layout
als this operation can move from one location to another limitations, containment or cleanliness issues, and fre-
— whole grains, powdered drinks, soap flakes, sludge pel- quent maintenance.
lets, candy, pressed metal parts, stringy or fibrous materi- Pneumatic-conveying systems are also limited in their
als and — believe it or not — even live chickens and capacity and overall conveying distance. The largest sys-
prairie dogs. Fundamentally, the process is quite basic. tems handle up to 300 ton/h or distances of 3,000 ft. Other
But, the engineer faced with the task of designing a safe, concerns include the potential wear of equipment, espe-
reliable and efficient pneumatic conveying system will cially at the elbows, and the attrition of bulk-solid parti-
contend that it is difficult to find a proven design proce- cles. These situations are more common if the system is
dure that is easy to understand. improperly designed and operated.
The design methodology presented here is applicable to
pneumatic-conveying systems with low-to-moderate solids Equipment description
loadings or “dilute-phase systems,” starting with the selec- A pneumatic-conveying system consists of four basic
tion of the major system components. It may be used to components — the gas mover, the solids feeder, the
troubleshoot common problems experienced, including pipeline and the separator. While their placement may
plugging and buildup, capacity limitations, pipeline ero- vary depending on whether the system is operating in a
sion and particle attrition (1, 2). For a better understanding vacuum- or pressure-conveying mode, their basic func-
of the design process, the terms that are commonly used in tions remain the same. The gas mover provides a gas
pneumatic conveying are defined in the box on p. 25. flowrate that transports the solids at the proper velocity
Compared with other bulk-solid transport systems, a and pressure. The solids feeder introduces the solid parti-
properly designed pneumatic conveying system affords cles at a controlled rate into the pipeline, where they are
many advantages, including: flexible pipeline routing; mixed with the conveying gas.
multiple pickup points (as in vacuum systems) and deliv- Conveying systems can be configured and classified in
ery points (as in pressure system); little to no cross-con- a number of ways, depending on their function and operat-
tamination; dust-free operation; and an inert atmosphere. ing pressure, which can described for the system as posi-
However, pneumatic conveying is not suitable for tive, negative, combined (using both positive and nega-
every application. One of its primary drawbacks is high tive-pressure gas) or closed loop (4). Positive-pressure
power consumption. Based on the cost per unit weight per systems require devices that can feed material from atmos-

CEP www.cepmagazine.org May 2006 23

Cover Story

Figure 1. A positive-pressure conveying system must be able
Figure 2. A vacuum-conveying system is well-suited for
to deliver solids into a pressurized pipeline, which can lead to multiple pickup points and handling toxic or dusty powders.
multiple delivery points.

pheric pressure into a pressurized pipeline (Figure 1), define the material’s intrinsic particle and bulk properties
while vacuum systems (Figure 2) may require feeders first (box, above), particularly particle size, hardness,
with a good seal, to minimize the leakage of gas into the propensity for degradation (friability) and stickiness. Then,
pipeline. An acceleration zone is required right after the obtain the critical flow properties of the material under the
feed point to achieve the steady transport velocity. The conditions expected in the solids-handling equipment.
pipeline consists of straight sections, both horizontal and Step 2. Define the requirements of the conveying sys-
vertical, connected with bends. In the separator, the solids tem, including logistics and how it is expected to perform
are recovered from the gas stream, and then stored in a under normal and upset operating conditions.
silo or fed to another unit. The gas is typically released Conveying rate: The minimum, average and maximum
into the atmosphere. conveying rates must be defined for the system so that all
In contrast, closed-loop pneumatic conveyors recirculate of the components are appropriately selected. The maxi-
the gas and use it to convey additional solids. Process con- mum vacuum in most conveying lines is –5 to –7 psig,
trol and instrumentation is required, which challenges the whereas pressures of up to an order of magnitude greater
designer to find, for the each part of the system, the hard- than this are found in positive-pressure systems.
ware and software that will achieve the most efficient per- Because of the availability of greater pressure drops,
formance over a range of specified conditions. These condi- positive-pressure systems provide higher conveying rates
tions are bound at one end by the gas alone (no entrained than vacuum systems, which generally do not have an
solids) and at the other end by the solids that are essentially upper limit on their transfer rate. The conveying distance
extruded through the pipeline. Most industrial conveying for vacuum systems becomes much shorter and the line
systems operate somewhere between these two extremes, size, much larger, at high transfer rates because of the lim-
and, depending on the relative solids loading and velocity, ited pressure differential available.
are classified as dilute-phase or dense-phase conveyors. Equipment layout: Develop a scaled drawing with three
Reliable flow from a bin/silo through the solids feeder orthographic and isometric views illustrating all current
and into the pipeline is critical for optimum equipment per- and new components of the conveying system. Designate
formance. Unfortunately, most bin/silo and feeder suppliers the walls, floors, open and restricted areas, and other
do not consider the effects of solids flow on downstream physical details of the plant.
equipment. Similarly, many pneumatic-conveying system Pipeline layout and scope: Although pneumatic convey-
suppliers often overlook the need to design or specify a bin ing allows more flexibility in routing than mechanical con-
or feeder that provides reliable material flow (5). veyors, it is best to limit the number of bends and to avoid
The following step-by-step approach for designing placing them close together. Allow a length of at least 20D
dilute-phase pneumatic-conveyors may be used to obtain a (20 pipe diameters) between bends to facilitate re-accelera-
system that operates properly. An illustrative example is tion of the solids. If the layout requires a large number of
provided at end of the article. turns and closely placed elbows, the conveying line will be
Step 1. Define the characteristics of the material to be susceptible to plugging, due to a loss of solids velocity.
conveyed. The suitability of a material for pneumatic con- Looking at the scenario from another angle, reducing
veying depends more on the physical nature of the solid the number of elbows lowers the pressure drop in the
than its generic classification. Against this backdrop, lines, thereby lowering solids velocities and reducing par-

24 www.cepmagazine.org May 2006 CEP

 Pneumatic conveying terminology
Numerous terms are used to Dense-phase conveying: This
describe the flow of solids and the pres- Dilute Phase
occurs when particles are conveyed in
sure conditions within pneumatic-con- the gas stream at a velocity that is less
veying equipment, include the following: than the saltation velocity. Two general
Saltation velocity: The gas velocity modes of flow can result in dense
at which particles that are fully sus- phase (e.g., plug or piston flow and
pended within a horizontal conveying moving-bed (dune) flow) (Figure 4).
line begin to drop out of suspension
Figure 3. Dilute-phase conveying. The bulk material is With plug flow, coarse, permeable bulk
and settle in a layer on the bottom of conveyed through the pipeline in suspension in the con- solids, such as pellets or coffee beans,
the pipeline (3). veying gas. Gas velocities must be high (e.g., 2,400 can be reliably conveyed. With moving-
Choking velocity: The gas velocity ft/min for fine powder, to 3,200 ft/min for fine granular bed flow, fine, impermeable bulk solids
at which particles that are conveyed material) compared to dense-phase systems. like cement or pulverized fuel ash are
upwards within a vertical pipeline effectively conveyed. The term “dense
approach their free-fall velocity. As a phase” also refers to the solids loading
Small Particles
result, the material is no longer con- within the conveying line.
veyed upwards; instead it collapses into A “dense-phase” system conveys
a fluidized bed. This situation is also more than 15 lbm solids/lbm gas at a
known as a refluxing condition. higher pressure (> 15 psig) than for a
Conveying pressure: The pressure dilute-phase system. A dense-phase
required to overcome resistances in the Plug (or Piston) Flow system offers several advantages over
system caused by interactions between a dilute-phase system, including
the conveying gas and the material Dense Phase reduced conveying-gas velocity. This
being conveyed, the pipeline and other results in less pipeline wear and parti-
system components. It is also referred Large Particles cle damage, lower gas requirements
to as “pressure drop.” The conveying and operating costs, and, often, long
pressure is the difference measured conveying distances.
between the beginning and the end of Volumetric gas flowrate: Several
the pneumatic system and is applicable different definitions apply. During con-
to both positive-pressure and vacuum veying, it is expressed as “free air deliv-
(negative-pressure) systems. Moving bed (or Dune) Flow ered” (FAD) std. ft3/min; SCFM). More
Pickup velocity: This refers to the specifically, FAD is the flowrate at the
gas velocity required to pick up, sus-
Figure 4. Dense-phase conveying. The material is con- suction port of a positive-pressure
pend, entrain or detach particles that veyed at low velocity in a non-suspension mode, through blower or compressor, or at the dis-
have settled on the bottom of a horizon- all or part of the pipeline. Two versions of dense flow are charge port of a vacuum blower, vacu-
tal pipeline. It also refers to the gas slug or plug-type flow, in which the material is conveyed
as full-bore plugs separated by air gaps, and moving-bed um pump or compressor.
velocity at which solids introduced into Standard atmospheric conditions
flow, in which the material is conveyed in dunes on the
the conveying gas stream are picked up bottom of the pipeline, or as a pulsating moving bed. refer to the atmospheric pressure at
and suspended. sea level, an ambient temperature of
Minimum conveying velocity, 68°F and a relative humidity of 36%. Units of actual ft3/min (ACFM;
Vmin, ft3/min: The lowest gas velocity that can be used to prevent also called inlet ft3/min) are used when the flowrate is measured at
the material from plugging the pipeline. Since the minimum convey- the conditions where the equipment is located. ACFM is calculated
ing velocity occurs at the material feed point in the system, it is also from SCFM by taking into account the elevation of the location and
known as the “pick-up” velocity. the ambient conditions.
Dilute-phase conveying: Occurs when particles are conveyed Pressure vs. vacuum systems: A positive-pressure system uti-
in the gas stream at a velocity that is greater than the saltation and lizes gas pressure above atmospheric conditions to entrain the bulk
choking gas velocities. This type of system is often referred to as a solids and transport the material to either one or multiple destinations
stream-flow system because particles are fully suspended in the gas (often at atmospheric pressure). Conversely, a vacuum-conveying
stream. Almost any bulk solid can be conveyed in dilute-phase system picks up solids at near atmospheric pressure (often from mul-
mode; however, potential adverse effects, such as pipeline wear or tiple locations) and discharges the material into a vessel that is at a
particle attrition, could result, due to high conveying velocities. The pressure less than atmospheric conditions. Positive-pressure sys-
term “dilute phase” also refers to the solids loading within the con- tems can convey materials over long distances. Vacuum systems are
veying line. Typically, a dilute-phase line conveys less than 15 lbm typically limited to less than 200 ft and are well suited for handling
solids/lbm gas at a relatively low pressure (generally less than 15 dusty or toxic materials. There are specialized systems that incorpo-
psig). A depiction of the particles conveyed in a dilute-phase rate features of both positive- and negative-pressure conditions, such
pipeline is shown in Figure 3. as pull/push systems used in ship/railcar unloading equipment.

CEP www.cepmagazine.org May 2006 25

Cover Story

Key characteristics of solids

Particle size, distribution and shape are known to be among the regation potential of a given bulk solid is determined by conducting
most significant variables affecting pneumatic conveying. For exam- segregation tests (7). Segregation is often a greater consequence in
ple, uniformly sized, round and smooth particles are easier to con- dense-phase conveying than in dilute-phase conveying. Explosivity
vey than angular, rough particles with a wide size distribution. properties, such as minimum ignition energy (MIE), minimum ignition
Larger particles of heavy material require higher gas velocities to temperature (MIT) and minimum explosible concentrations (MEC) (8)
become entrained in the conveying stream. Often, particles with a of dust clouds and settled layers of material should be known in order
Moh’s hardness number greater than 5 induce erosive pipeline wear for one to assess the process safety hazards of the bulk solid. Static
in higher-velocity conveying systems. charges can accumulate when solids are conveyed through pipelines,
If particle friability or attrition is a concern, a low-velocity system and may be a source of ignition for materials that are prone to explo-
may be appropriate, since attrition is a very strong function of veloc- sion. In such cases, the charge must be either dissipated by proper
ity. Attrition leads to fines generation, which may cause flow prob- grounding or by neutralization.
lems in downstream bins and silos, or may increase the propensity But, even if the bulk and particle properties are defined, many
of some materials to cake. Excessive fines results in a dustier mate- analytical and empirical correlations do not agree upon the minimum
rial that increases the risk of a dust explosion, or, for toxic materials, conveying velocity Vmin that should be used. One reliable method of
increases the risk of exposure for workers. If the material to be con- determining Vmin is to obtain data from an existing system that is
veyed is abrasive (such as sand and fly ash), a low-velocity system conveying the same material. If an existing system is not available,
is often required. conduct tests in a pilot-scale conveying loop and scale up the results.
Bulk properties of a powder, such as its compressibility and per- Make sure that the test loop and the full-scale system are as similar
meability, determine how readily the material will deaerate, and how as possible, and that the test conditions in the pilot system cover an
gas flowing through a bed or plug of material will affect the bulk solid adequate range of conveying velocities and solids loadings. Another
(6). For instance, if a powder has good air-retention properties, it may benefit of running these tests is the ability to observe buildup, erosive
be suitable for moving-bed flow in dense-phase conveying. The seg- wear, particle attrition, unsteady conveying behavior and segregation.

ticle attrition. Since the system flowrate is inversely pro- ed, minimizing the pressure drop at the elbows helps to
portional to the line length, it is prudent to minimize the increase conveying capacities.
overall length instead of “stretching-out” the line in order The key factors to consider during the selection of pipe
to reduce the pressure drop. Avoid inclined lines by using bends are abrasive wear, product degradation, product
only horizontal and vertical runs, and include a pipeline buildup and pressure loss. Abrasive wear is by far the
length of at least 30D (30 pipe diameters) after the solids most critical element in elbow selection. Since virtually all
in-feed point to allow the particles to accelerate to the gas of the wear in a pipeline occurs at the bends, abrasive
conveying velocity. Lastly, ensure that all pipeline compo- material will quickly wear through an elbow, especially at
nents (e.g., elbows, diverters, gates) have the same internal high conveying velocities. Since the velocities are typical-
diameter to avoid the formation of lips or ledges. ly higher near the discharge point, most wear is found at
Feed and discharge points: Vacuum systems have the the end of pneumatic-conveying lines. It has been well
advantage of accommodating multiple feed points, since the established in industry that wear is proportional to the
gas mover is located at the discharge end. Therefore, a vacu- velocity of the conveying gas raised to a power of 2–4.
um system may be appropriate when feeding from multiple Wear is also a function of the relative hardness of the
silos or bins to a receiving hopper (Figure 2). If the process particles being conveyed and the impact angle of the parti-
requires the product to be delivered to multiple locations cles on the bend. In general, wear in steel and aluminum
(e.g., a single silo that feeds multiple receiving bins), a pres- elbows is highest for impact angles around 20 deg, which
sure system may be advantageous, since the air mover is are found at the entrance of long-radius elbows. In this
located upstream of the solids feed point (Figure 1). case, one can reduce wear by using either short-radius
Elbows: Perhaps the single most debated question elbows or blind tees However, these options will increase
regarding the pipeline is what type of elbow is best. The the pressure drop across the elbow, and may cause particle
answer, of course, depends on the application. However, in attrition. For mildly abrasive media, the use of hard, wear-
many systems, the type of bend makes relatively little dif- resistant materials of construction may prolong the service
ference in the performance and operation of the system. life of the elbow. But, for highly abrasive solids, even the
For systems handling non-abrasive material that does not toughest materials will erode.
degrade during conveying, the type of elbow is not a criti- The most effective way to minimize wear is to reduce
cal design factor and should probably be based on cost. the gas velocity. In fact, abrasive wear is one of the pri-
However, when the maximum available pressure is limit- mary reasons that low-velocity, dense-phase conveying

26 www.cepmagazine.org May 2006 CEP

 Rough elbows, which cause the particles to tumble rather
Nomenclature than slide, reduce the extent of streamer generation. Coarse
surfaces are created by sand blasting or shot peening, or by
A = pipeline cross-sectional area, ft2
using specially made grooved-pipe components. Since these
D = pipeline diameter, ft interior walls are likely to become smooth over time, peri-
ƒ = friction factor, dimensionless odic surface treatment is usually necessary. Specialty
g = acceleration due to gravity, ft/s2 elbows are also available to alleviate this problem.
gc = gravitational constant, 32.2 lbmft/lbf s Step 3. Calculate the gas mass flowrate. Once an equip-
ID = pipeline internal diameter, ft ment and pipeline layout has been developed and the mate-
L = pipeline length, ft
rial and conveying characteristics have been considered, the
Lact = actual length of pipeline (straight runs only), ft
Leq = equivalent length of pipeline, ft
required gas mass flowrate (Mg) is determined using the
Leqb = equivalent length of pipeline bends, ft solids loading ratio (φ) and the desired mass flowrate of the
Mg = mass flow rate of gas, lbm/h solids (Ms). Based on pneumatic conveying test results with
Ms = mass flow rate of solids, lbm/h the material for a new system or on data from an operating
Patm = atmospheric pressure, abs system, use Eq. 1 to calculate Mg where φ and Ms are
∆P = pressure drop, psig known values. Note that pilot-scale testing will help to
∆PT = total ∆P for conveying system, psig
specify the appropriate values of solids loading.
∆Pgf = ∆P due to the movement of gas through a conduit, psig
∆Psf = ∆P due to moving solids through pipeline, psig
∆Psa = ∆P due to accelerating the solids velocity to Vmin, psig φ = Ms/Mg (1)
∆Psl = ∆P due to lifting solids through vertical conduits, psig
∆Psb = ∆P due to the movement of solids through bends, psig The solids-loading ratio is used in place of the particle
∆Pmisc = loss due to miscellaneous factors, psig concentration to describe the relative amounts of flowing
Qg = volumetric gas flowrate, ft3/min air and flowing conveyed product. Unlike the main alter-
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
native, particle concentration, φ is dimensionless and does
Tg = absolute gas temperature, °R
V = velocity, ft/s
not change with the conveying air pressure:
Vmin = minimum conveying velocity, ft/s Rearrange Eq. 1 to solve for Mg:
Z = elevation change in the conveyor, ft
Mg = Ms /φ (2)
Subscripts
abs = absolute Step 4. Calculate the pipeline diameter using the
corr = corrected
desired minimum gas velocity, Vmin. The continuity
g = gas
s = solids
equation states that Mg equals the product of the gas den-
sity (ρg), gas velocity (Vg), and the pipeline cross-section-
Greek symbols al area (A). Consistent units for these parameters are pre-
ρ = density, lbm/ft3 sented in the nomenclature table:
ε = roughness, dimensionless
φ = solids loading ratio; phase density, dimensionless Mg = ρgVgA (3)
µ = dynamic viscosity, lbm/ft-s
λs = solids friction factor, dimensionless
With a circular pipe cross-section, the terms in Eq. 3
are rearranged to solve for pipeline diameter (D).
systems are used. With a low-velocity system, the magni-
tude of wear can be reduced to the point that expensive D = (4Mg/ρgVgπ)0.5 (4)
wear-resistant components are not needed and standard
bends can be used without excessive wear. Vg is a critical variable in this calculation, since too low
In certain applications, such as the handling of plastic of a value results in line plugging, and too high of a value
pellets, molten material may accumulate on the pipe walls. increases the pressure drop and thus, the potential for line
These layers, also referred to as streamers, angel hair or wear and particle attrition. In dilute-phase conveying, where
snakeskins, can occasionally break loose and wreak havoc typically all of the solids are suspended in the moving gas
on downstream equipment. The residue is caused by local- stream, the lower boundary for velocity is Vg = 50 ft/s or
ized melting of the pellets due to residual heat from the 3,000 ft/min. It is well known that larger particles with
extrusion process, hot conveying air, ambient conditions higher particle densities require higher minimum velocities
and particle friction. to prevent saltation and choking; Vmin = 70 ft/s or 4,200

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Cover Story

Table 1. Internal diameter (ID) of nominal pipe sizes per Table 2. Equations for estimating equivalent pipeline length.
ANSI/ASME B36 piping standards.
Nominal ID, Sch. 10, in. ID Sch. 40, in. ID Sch. 80, in. Pipeline component Equivalent pipeline length
Pipe Size, in.
Horizontal pipe Use actual length
2 2.157 2.067 1.939 Vertical pipe Double the actual length to account for “lifting”
3.5 3.760 3.548 3.364
Short radius bend L = 30–60D for bend radius < 4D
4 4.260 4.026 3.826 eqb
6 6.357 6.065 5.761 Long radius bend L = 15–30D for bend radius > 8D
eqb
8 8.329 7.981 7.625 Diverter valve L = 15–30D
eq
10 10.420 10.020 9.562
Flexible hose L = actual length x 4
12 12.390 12.000 11.374 eq
Specialty bend L = 40–60D
eqb
(Vortice ell, Gamma bend)
ft/min is chosen for many powders and granular solids in a
dilute-phase mode. Ideally, pilot-scale testing with a repre-
sentative material that is subjected to the anticipated solids- Use Darcy’s equation to find ∆P due to the frictional loss-
loading range will lead to an good estimation of Vmin. es between the conveying gas and the pipe wall (∆Pgf):
After calculating the pipe diameter with Eq. 4, compare
the result to standard size pipelines. Table 1 provides a ∆Pgf = fg (ρg/gc)Vg2(L/2D) (6)
snapshot of the internal diameters (ID) of common pipe
sizes used in pneumatic-conveying applications. These where gc is the acceleration of gravity and L is the pipeline
data are per ANSI/ASME B36 piping standards. length. The gas friction factor (ƒg) can be determined
Note that in order to prevent mechanical plugging of through the use of the Moody diagram, which is depicted
conveying lines, D must be at least 3–5 times greater than in Figure 5 (9) for laminar and turbulent pipeline flow,
the maximum particle dimension. In most conveying where the relative pipe internal roughness (ε) and
applications, D is dictated by the required gas flowrate and Reynolds number (Re) are known. The relative roughness
not the aforementioned rule. If the D does not match one is the ratio of absolute roughness (εabs) to D. A typical
of the standard pipe values, recalculate the gas velocity value of εabs for a smooth-bore steel pipeline is 0.0005 ft.
based on the square of the ratio of the diameters (e.g., Vg Values for other types of pipe are listed in most fluid
= Vmin(D2/D1)2; where D2 is the calculated diameter and mechanics textbooks. Re is found using Eq. 7:
D1 is the standard pipe ID from Table 1). This procedure
is illustrated in the example at the end of this article. Re = VgρgD / µ g (7)
Step 5. Calculate the required system pressure drop.
This requirement is closely coupled with the solids and where µ g is the dynamic viscosity of the gas.
gas flowrates. In fact, the same amount of solids can be Another way to determine fg is to use the compressible-
transported in a line using a number of velocity and pres- gas flow theory and the Fanning friction factor. A closed-
sure-drop combinations. Proper calculation requires an form solution is available through the input of Re, D and
iterative procedure that must be performed in steps along εabs. The length term in Eq. 6 can be either the equivalent
the pipeline to account for the change in Vg. or actual length of the pipeline, depending upon the calcu-
The total pressure drop of the system (∆PT ) must be lation need. Leq accounts for horizontal and vertical
estimated in order to properly select the gas mover. The pipelines and the estimated Leq for short and long radius
major forces involved in pneumatic conveying of bulk bends. To estimate Leq, use the rules in Table 2. Leq is
solids in a gas stream are: friction between flowing solids highly dependent on Vg, φ and in the case of a bend, the
or gas and the pipeline wall; the force required to move radius of the bend.
gas through vertical pipeline sections; and the force The pressure drop due to the acceleration of solids from
required to lift solids through vertical pipeline sections or the feed point to the conveying velocity (∆Psa) can be
to accelerate solids from the feed-point velocity to the determined with Eq. 8.
conveying velocity.
∆PT is calculated using Eq. 5: ∆Psa = φ (ρg / gc)/(Vg/Vs) (8)

∆PT = ∆Pgf + (∆Psa + ∆Psf + ∆Psl + ∆Psb) + ∆Pmisc (5) Because of the drag forces between the flowing gas and

28 www.cepmagazine.org May 2006 CEP

the solids, the particle velocity (Vs)
will always be lower than Vg.
Commonly, the ratio of Vs/Vg (called
slip) ranges from 0.5 to 0.9. Heavier,
coarser particles (e.g., gravel or plastic
pellets) have a slip ratio closer to 0.5,
while lighter, finer powders (e.g., talc)
will have a value closer to 0.9. The
solids loading ratio (φ) is an important
factor in Eq. 8, since ∆Psa is directly
proportional to the phase density.
The pressure drop due to conveying
the solids through the pipeline (∆Psf)
is found with Eq. 9:

∆Psf = λsφ (ρg/gc)Vg2(Lact /2D) (9)

The solids friction factor (λs) can be

experimentally determined.
Alternatively, common values can be
found in several classical texts on
pneumatic conveying (11, 14).
Figure 5. The Moody chart is used to select gas friction factors for pipeline pressure drop (9).
Use Eq. 10 to find the pressure drop
due to lifting the solids through the
vertical sections of the pipeline: where Vg_corr is the corrected Vg and Patm is the atmos-
pheric pressure.
∆Psl = φ g Z (ρg/ gc)/(Vs/Vg) (10) Note that temperature effects on gas compressibility
are also important to consider generally when dealing
where Z is the change in elevation of the conveyor. The with pressure drops greater than 5 psig. To account for
pressure drop due to the solids conveying through the temperature, modify Eq. 12 by multiplying the product by
elbows (∆Psb) is: the absolute temperature ratio (using the suitable refer-
ence temperature).
∆Psb = Leqb(∆Psf / Lact) (11) Re-evaluate Vg_corr to ensure it is sufficient for con-
veying at the solids feed point. If Vg is calculated to be
∆Pmisc can be due to the solids separator or any other too high (especially towards the end of the line, due to the
miscellaneous losses. After determining of each of the gas density dropping), consider line “stepping.” Line
pressure-loss components, the total pressure drop for a stepping involves increasing the internal diameter of the
system will be known, which allows progression to Step 6. line at discrete points, thereby locally reducing the gas
Step 6. Recalculate the gas velocity at the solids feed velocity. Exercise caution during “stepping” to avoid
point. After ∆PT is calculated, the air velocity at the reducing the velocity to a point where either saltation
solids feed point must be recalculated, due to the higher occurs or where an unstable conveying regime exists. Gas
pressure than the initially assumed atmospheric condi- extraction can also be used with higher ∆P systems,
tions and corresponding air density. Eqs. 12 and 13 are where the conveying gas is actually drawn out of the con-
used to calculate the new ρg and Vg based on the ∆PT veying line because of its expansion and the correspon-
determined in Step 5. Use absolute pressure and temper- ding effect on increasing velocity. Though these two tech-
ature, when appropriate, in these calculations. niques are highly effective, successfully implementing
either requires a solid understanding of the total system
ρg_corr = ρg(∆PT + Patm)/Patm (12) operation and pneumatic-conveying theory.
Step 7. Select a suitable gas mover. Fans, positive-dis-
Vg_corr = Vg(ρg/ρcorr) (13) placement (PD) rotary blowers and compressors are all
used to provide the volumetric (Qg) gas flowrate necessary

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Cover Story

conveying duty, but it is usually not cost effective for pres-

Percent of rated discharge pressure, %

sures less than 20 psig, unless a source of “free” process

100
Compressed gas is available that is suitable for the conveying require-
Gas/Nozzle
80 ments. In the case of fans and rotary blowers, the flowrate
Roots-Type
Blower is a function of the speed of the machine and the operating
60 pressure. Such systems are operated in conjunction with a
Radial
pressure receiver to store a volume of compressed gas and
40 allow the compressor to operate intermittently. The use of
Blade Fan
compressed gas for conveying requires some means to
20
control both the gas flowrate and pressure. Flowrate con-
0
trol can be accomplished by using a feedback flow-control
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 device, or a static-flow-control orifice or choked-flow noz-
Percent of rated flow discharging
zle. Types of gas compressors include sliding vane, liquid-
to atmosphere, % ring, rotary-screw and reciprocating configurations.
A comparison of the typical relationship between

Figure 6. This graph compares the performance of different gas- flowrate and operating pressure for fans, blowers and com-
mover equipment. pressed-gas systems is shown in Figure 6. Since most con-
veying systems experience a range of operating pressure
for conveying. Qg is calculated using Eq. 14. Standard between the extremes of an empty line to a fully loaded
conditions are typically used in specifying a gas mover. condition, the gas flow through the system will change
according to the characteristics of the supply system. It is
Qg = Mg(1 h/60 min)/ρg (14) apparent from Figure 6 that a system driven by a fan may
experience a significant change in gas flowrate for small
Equipment vendors typically have performance curves that changes in pressure, while a system supplied with com-
depict the operating ranges for the gas mover under speci- pressed gas may operate at essentially constant flowrate
fied conditions (e.g., pressure, temperature, speed of oper- over a wide range of pressure. The ability of compressed-
ation, etc.). Typically, for pressures less than 5 psig, a radi- gas and lobe-type blower systems to provide a nearly con-
al-blade centrifugal fan can be used. For pressures up to stant gas flowrate over a wide range of pressures provides
15 psig, a Roots-type PD blower is often selected, because stability and allows these systems to recover from upset
centrifugal fans cannot overcome the higher pressure loss- conditions that may cause pressure fluctuations (10, 11).
es in the conveying line. When line pressures exceed 15 Step 8. Select a solids feeder. When solids are fed into
psig, a compressor is normally utilized. a positive-pressure system, it is necessary to form a seal
One of the most common devices for moving gas in a against the pressure in the pipeline (12). Devices used for
pneumatic-conveying system is the Roots-type rotary-lobe this purpose include rotary valves, customized screws,
blower. It provides an economical source of gas flow that and eductors. Some of these devices control the rate of
meets the pressure (or vacuum) and velocity requirements solids flow into the line or provide a pressure seal, while
of the largest category of systems — those that operate at others do both.
less than 15 psig for pressure systems, and less than –6 Rotary valves can be used to provide a seal, as well as
psig for vacuum systems. A key feature of this blower is meter solids into a line. As feeders, they are placed at the
its ability to deliver nearly constant-volume flow over its outlet of the hoppers of silos and bins, and their speed
operating-pressure range. determines the solids throughput. Although rotary valves
Fan systems are generally limited to high-volume, low- are primarily used for low-pressure systems, there are
pressure applications and require careful design because of some that can seal up to 100 psi. Using a rotary valve as a
the inherent operating characteristics of fans. The most feeder and as a pressure seal reduces the amount of equip-
common fans used are radial-blade machines typically ment needed, and restricts the size of the opening from the
having maximum pressure ratings on the order of 20–40- hopper to the conveying line to that of the rotary valve.
in. H2O gauge (0.7–1.5 psig). For applications handling When handling cohesive solids, flow stoppages may
very light materials, such as chopped textile fiber, recycled occur, due to arching and ratholing in the hopper above.
foam, saw dust and some non-abrasive solids, these sys- Furthermore, rotary valves that are used as feeders may
tems offer a simple, yet effective, way to transport materi- cause flow problems if they draw the material non-uni-
al. In many cases, the product is conveyed through the fan. formly through the outlet of the overhead hopper. Solids
Compressed gas can be used for any positive-pressure- enter the rotary valve (or, exit the hopper outlet) on

30 www.cepmagazine.org May 2006 CEP

 Double Leakage through a rotary valve can be reduced by ensuring
Diaphragm Clean-Air that the valve is properly vented, the valve is not blocked or
Valve Plenum
positioned too high for the type and size of valve used, and a
Walk-in
Pulse Pulse Manifold Pipe tight fit is secured between the rotor tips and the valve body.
Access Entry
Header Clean-Floor Design The last step in this procedure is the selection of a device to
remove the solids from the gas stream.
Step 9. Select an appropriate gas/solids separator.
Separating the solids from the gas stream can be accom-
plished in a number of ways, ranging from inertial separa-
tion to pulse-jet-cleaned fabric filters (Figure 7). In most
circumstances, it is nearly impossible to discharge gas
Filter Bags from a conveying system without using a high-efficiency
fabric filter to meet environmental regulations. In most
pneumatic-conveying systems, separation actually occurs
via a combination of inertial separation and filtration
processes. Since many of the materials conveyed consist
of a wide range of particle sizes, the larger particles sepa-
rate as the gas stream enters the receiving vessel and the
smaller particles are separated at the filter surface. In
applications where material is delivered to several receiv-
ing bins, it is not uncommon to use an inertial or cyclone
Hopper with separator at each delivery point and direct all of the con-
Inlet Equipped with
Heavy-Duty
Gas-Distribution Baffle veying gas to a single fabric filter. This is more economi-
Construction
cal than providing a fabric filter at each delivery point, but
Dust Discharge it does run the risk of cross-contamination between the
receiving bins, as well as the need for an additional step to

Figure 7. Example of a reverse-pulse jet baghouse. handle the very fine particles from the filter.
The selection of a gas-solids separator should be based
whichever the side of the outlet has empty pockets that let on the material characteristics (e.g., particle size, tempera-
the bulk solid through first. In addition, internal conver- ture, abrasiveness, friability, cohesiveness, etc.), degree of
gence of some rotary valves can reduce the active cross- separation required, environmental regulations, the con-
sectional area of the hopper opening, again resulting in centration of solids and equipment cost (14). Filter selec-
non-uniform discharge from the hopper. These problems tion criteria, listed from most-to-least important, include:
can cause unreliable flowrates from the hopper, even if the temperature, moisture, particle size, gas stream chemistry,
hopper is properly designed. Such problems can be avoid- gas/cloth ratio, particle abrasiveness, and mechanical fac-
ed by using the valve as a pressure seal only. tors (e.g., cleaning, installation). Some dust collector man-
In positive-pressure systems handling fine materials, ufacturers can provide basic design guides for the selec-
pressure seals and venting at the feed point are critical. tion of separations equipment (15). Separator efficiency
Fine powders often flow out of hoppers at rates much strongly depends upon the type of separator utilized.
lower than those of coarse, granular materials. When Reverse-jet-pulse fabric filters are known to be the most
designing vessels that handle fine powders, calculate the efficient at collecting fine particles, while cyclones and
maximum discharge rate from an unrestricted outlet to inertial collectors are the least efficient.
ensure that the opening is large enough to feed the down-
stream process. This calculation is a strong function of the Example problem
permeability and compressibility of the powder. If the The following example illustrates the use of the design
hopper opening is too small, the flowrate will be limited, process. Consider the design of a positive pressure-con-
no matter how fast a feeder is run. veying system that must transport 10,000 lb/h of a pow-
This problem is exacerbated by gas leakage from the der using ambient air. Based on a preliminary layout, the
pneumatic-conveying line into the hopper. The amount of pipeline and equipment arrangement is as shown in
leakage through a rotary valve is a function of the total pres- Figure 8.
sure drop across the valve, the size of the valve, as well as Step 1. Measure, collect and review all bulk and parti-
the clearance between the rotor tips and the valve body (13). cle characteristics.

CEP www.cepmagazine.org May 2006 31

Cover Story

length Leq = 30D, or based on the 0.31 ft diameter pipe,

50 ft the Leqb = 9 ft/elbow or 18 ft for two bends. The Leq = 50
ft + 30 ft + 50 ft + 18 ft = 148 ft. Plugging the appropriate
terms into Eq. 6 yields:
30 ft

⎛ 0.075 lb m /ft 3 ⎞
( 77ft/s )2 ⎛⎜⎝
50 ft 148 ft ⎞
∆Pgf = 0.023 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 32.2 lb m ft/lb f s2 ⎟⎠ 2 × 0.296 ft ⎠

Figure 8. Layout of a positive-pressure conveying system for

worked example. ∆Pgf = 80 lbf/ft2 = 0.55 psig

Step 2. Define the conveying requirements of the sys- Using a slip ratio of 0.8 for this fine powder in Eq. 8
tem. Through pneumatic conveying tests, Vmin for this provides the acceleration term:
material ranges from 60 to 70 ft/s. The solids friction fac-
tor λs = 0.02 and the solids loading ratio φ = 7 (based on
⎛ 0.075 lb m /ft 3 ⎞
(0.8 ) ( 77 ft/s )
2
stable conveying results). The absolute roughness of the ∆Psa = 7 ⎜ 2⎟
pipeline εabs = 0.0005 ft. Assuming the conveying gas is ⎝ 32.2 lb m ft/lb f s ⎠
70ºF air at sea level conditions, use a bulk gas density of
ρg = 0.075 lbm/ft3 (adjust if not at these conditions) and
dynamic viscosity of µ g = 0.000012 lbm/ft-s. ∆Psa = 77 lbf /ft2 = 0.54 psi
Step 3. Calculate Mg = (10,000 lb/h)/7 = 1,429 lb/h
Step 4. Calculate D using the desired Vmin. Use Eq. 9 to calculate ∆Psf:

⎛ 0.075 lb m /ft 3 ⎞
( 77 ft/s )2 ⎛⎜⎝
4 × 1429lb m /h 130 ft ⎞
D= = 0.31 ft = 3.72 in. I.D. ∆Psf = 0.02(7) ⎜ 2⎟ ⎟
π (0.075lb m /ft 3 )( 70ft/s)( 3,600 s/h) ⎝ 32.2 lb m ft/lb f s ⎠ 2 × 0.296 ft ⎠

From Table 1, select 3.5 in. Sch. 40 pipe with an ID = ∆Psf = 425 lbf /ft2 = 2.95 psig
3.548 in. At this smaller ID, the velocity will be slightly
higher based on the ratio of the diameters squared. Use Eq. 10 to calculate ∆Psl:

V = Vmin(3.72 in./3.548 in.)2 = 77 ft/s

⎛ 0.075 lb m /ft 3 ⎞
Step 5. Calculate ∆P per Eq. 5. Find the value of each
7⎜
⎝ 32.2 lb m ft/lb f s2 ⎟⎠
(
32.2 ft/s2 × 30 ft )
of the terms by employing Eqs. 6–11. In Eq. 6, the gas ∆Psl =
0.8
friction factor can be located on the Moody diagram
(Figure 5) based on ε and Re. Calculate Re:
∆Psl = 20 lbf /ft2 = 0.14 psig

77 ft/s(0.075 lb m /ft 3 )(0.296 ft) Use Eq. 11 to calculate ∆Psb:

Re = = 142,450
0.000012 lb m /ft-s
∆Psb = 18 ft (2.95 psig/130 ft) = 0.41 psig
The relative roughness for this example equals 0.0017,
which is derived from the quotient of εabs and D. Since Re Assume ∆Pmisc = 0.22 psig for a dust collector at the end of
far exceeds 2,400, the air flowrate in the pipe is in the tur- the line:
bulent flow regime. The corresponding gas friction factor
(ƒg) from the Moody diagram is 0.023. ∆PT = 0.55 + 0.54 + 2.95 + 0.14 + 0.41 + 0.22 = 4.81 psig
Leq of the system is found by adding the horizontal and
vertical pipe lengths and the equivalent length from the Step 6. After the total pressure drop is calculated, the
two 90-deg bends (Leqb), which are assumed to have a air velocity at the solid’s feed point needs to be recalculat-
radius = 4D). For an elbow where r = 4D, the equivalent ed due to the higher pressure than the initially assumed
atmospheric conditions and corresponding air density:

32 www.cepmagazine.org May 2006 CEP

 ρg_corr = 0.075 lbm/ft3(4.81 psig + 14.7 psi)/14.7 psig Step 7. Qg is calculated with Eq. 14, assuming a Vg of
58 ft/s is sufficient.
ρg_corr = 0.0995 lbm/ft3
Qg = (1,429 lbm/h/0.075 lbm/ft3) (1 h/60 min)
The higher air density is clearly due to the pressure
drop through the system. With the corrected air density, a Qg ≈ 320 ft3/min at 5 psig
new air velocity can be calculated with Eq. 13.
Thus, a multistage centrifugal blower or a PD rotary-
Vg_corr = 77 ft/s(0.075 lbm/ft3/0.0995 lbm/ft3) = 58 ft/s lobe blower is suitable for this application. An open-wheel
fan is not a good candidate for this application due to the
If this new velocity is too low, increase the gas flowrate total pressure-drop requirement. A compressor would also
and reiterate these calculations. perform well, but would be much more expensive.
The pneumatic-conveying system is only a part of the
solids-handling process, and successful operation will
Literature Cited
require all parts of the process to work seamlessly. Adopting
a total system view, with an understanding of not only the
1. Purutyan, H., and T. Troxel, “Troubleshooting Pneumatic
Conveying Problems,” Chem. Proc. 63(8), Putnam Publications,
operation of the pneumatic-conveying system, but also its
pp. 40–43 (Aug. 2000). interaction with the solids-handling equipment upstream and
2. Maynard, E., “Pneumatic Conveying Problems? Practical downstream, will increase the potential for success. CEP
Solutions for the Cement Industry,” presented at 3rd N&S
American Cement Conference, Miami, FL (Feb. 2004).
3. Cabrejos, F. J., and G. E. Klinzing, “Minimum Conveying ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Velocity in Horizontal Pneumatic Transport and the Pickup and
Saltation Mechanisms of Solid Particles,” Bulk Solids Handling, The author wishes to thank Herman Purutyan,
a vice president at Jenike and Johanson, for his cooperation and
14(3), pp. 541–550 (July/Sept. 2000). assistance in preparing this article for publication.
4. Purutyan, H., et al., “Propel Your Pneumatic Conveying
System to Higher Efficiency,” Chem. Eng. Prog., 97(4), pp.
42–55 (Apr. 2001).
5. Maynard, E .P., “Designing Storage Bins for Bulk Solids: A ERIC MAYNARD is a senior project engineer and the education
Step–by–Step Procedure,” Chem. Proc., 64(9), pp. 4–8 coordinator for Jenike & Johanson, Inc. (1 Technology Park Drive,
(Sept. 2001). Westford, MA 01886; Phone: (978) 392-0300; Fax: (978) 392-
6. Royal, T. A., and J. W. Carson, “Fine Powder Flow 9980; E-mail: epmaynard@jenike.com). A bulk solids engineer
Phenomena in Bins, Hoppers and Processing Vessels,” Bulk and the firm’s cement industry specialist, Maynard has designed
2000 Proceedings, London (1991). solids-handling systems for a wide range of materials relevant to
7. Prescott, J., et al., “Bench-Scale Segregation Tests as a the chemical process industries (CPI). He lectures widely on
Predictor of Blend Sampling Error,” presented at American design, troubleshooting and best practices for bulk solids
Assoc. of Pharmaceutical Scientists PDA 2000, Indianapolis, equipment and conducts seminars onsite or offsite, including
IN (2000). those held by AIChE and the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME). Maynard received BS and MS degrees in
8. Eckoff, R., “Dust Explosions in the Process Industries,” 2nd
mechanical engineering from Villanova Univ. and Worcester
Ed., Elsevier, Oxford, U.K. (1997).
Polytechnic Institute, respectively.
9. Moody, L. F., “Friction Factors for Pipe Flow,” Transactions of
the ASME, 66(8), pp. 671–684 (Nov. 1944).
10. Mills, D., “Optimizing Pneumatic Conveying Systems: Air
Movers,” Chem. Eng., 108(2), pp. 83–88 (Feb. 2001). RELATED COURSES OFFERED BY AIChE/ASME IN 2006
11. Mills, D., “Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide,” 1st Ed., INSTRUCTED BY JENIKE & JOHANSON
Butterworths, London, U.K. (1990).
12. Carson, J. W., “Step-by-Step Process in Selecting a Feeder,”
Course #CH032: Flow of Solids in Bins, Hoppers, Chutes, and
2000 Powder & Solids Annual, special edition supplement to Feeders, Level 1
Chem. Proc., 63(5), pp. 38–41 (2000). Course #CH033: Conveying of Bulk Solids, Level 2
13. Rogers, J., et al., “A Simple Analytical Model for Estimating
Air Leakage Through Rotary Valves,” Proceedings of the For more information on these courses, please contact
Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part E, Journal of Process David Tonn at: (212) 591-7303 or tonnd@asme.org.
Mechanical Engineering, 214(E3), pp. 185–196 (Oct. 2000).
14. Klinzing, G. E., “Pneumatic Conveying of Solids,” 2nd Ed.,
Chapman & Hall, pp. 375–422 (1997). RELATED AIChE BOOKS
15. Scientific Dust Collectors, “A Scientific Review of Dust
Collection: The Real Dirt on Dust,” reference booklet provided
by Scientific Dust Collectors, Alsip, IL (2000). Center for Chemical Process Safety, “Guidelines for the Safe
Handling of Powders and Bulk Solids,” AIChE, New York, NY (2005).

CEP www.cepmagazine.org May 2006 33