MODERN TRENDS IN CONTROL SURVEYING

A control surveying is the framework of survey stations whose coordinates have been precisely

determined and are often considered definitive. The stations are the reference monuments, to

which other survey work of a lesser quality is related. By its nature, a control survey needs to be

precise, complete and reliable and it must be possible to show that these qualities have been

achieved. This is done by using equipment of proven precision, with methods that satisfy the

principles and data processing that not only computes the correct values but gives numerical

measures of their precision and reliability.Since care needs to be taken over the provision of

control, then it must be planned to ensure that it achieves the numerically stated objectives of

precision and reliability. It must also be complete as it will be needed for all related and

dependent survey work. Other survey works that may use the control will usually be less precise

but of greater quantity. Examples are setting out for earthworks on a construction site, detail

surveys of a greenfield site or of an as-built development and monitoring many points on a

structure suspected of undergoing deformation.

The practice of using a control framework as a basis for further survey operations is often called

‘working from the whole to the part’. If it becomes necessary to work outside the control

framework then it must be extended to cover the increased area of operations. Failure to do so

will degrade the accuracy of later survey work even if the quality of survey observations is

maintained.

For operations other than setting out, it is not strictly necessary to observe the control before

other survey work. The observations may be concurrent or even consecutive. However, the

control survey must be fully computed before any other work is made to depend upon it.
Fundamental Control Surveying:
This is the control survey to determine the coordinates for field work of bridging and its
related at both beach sides. This is the first and second order trilateration method using
electromagnetic distance meter (EDM) and theodolite. Ten reading works in one set are
continued three times and the allowable deviation of reading distance in one set is
within 20mm in consideration of all meteorological data. The difference between actual
measured distance and checking survey is as follows:
Table 1. Distance Check (Spherical)
First Order Net

Second Order Net

Fundamental control survey was performed using the Range-master-III type, YHP
3808A Wild T3 and T2. After 1963, K+E Auto-ranger-JX and Sokkia Total Station SET
2EX were used instead of Range-master. The result of over-sea levelling using Wild N3
and T3 is as follows:
– The standard deviation of one observation value + 11.3mm
– The standard deviation of mean value + 1.9mm
At the both beaches the first order levelling was performed and the error was –0.6mm
and

–0.7mm compared to the national levelling points.

Control Survey of Main Tower and Cable:
The control survey of the main tower has been done in the factory and checked in
fabricating process each 30 step and used three dimensional comparator machine. The
several points are checked as each scaffolding step whether the position accuracy is kept
within 1/10,000 and finally at the top of the tower in the filed, accuracy of coordinates
was controlled within 28.3mm. Also vertically was surveyed by EDM system. This
operation was performed during midnight, sometimes continued up to the early morning
and finally placed within 1/5,000 of the tower lenght at the top of tower. In fact the
verticality error was +5.26mm in south direction and 0.06mm in east direction and

1.08mm as mean value in all direction and gained high accuracy result

The control survey of cable was performed using laser oscillators when it hanged over
the bridge. The figure shows the field works, A is laser oscillators and B is receiver. At
the center of cable, the sag is adjusted so as to keep the predetermined value in

consideration of temperature affection

 TRIANGULATION:

Technique used in surveying to determine distances, using the

properties of the triangle. To begin, surveyors measure a certain length exactly to
provide a base line. From each end of this line they then measure the angle to a distant
point, using a theodolite. They now have a triangle in which they know the length of one
side and the two adjacent angles. By simple trigonometry they can work out the lengths
of the other two sides.
It is a technique based on principal angular measurements. Before the middle of the 20th
century, it was the most common method for establishing geodetic control networks and
for sole calculation of conspicuous points, marks and other aids to navigation or
photogrammetric ground control points. Since
the 1960s Electronic Distance Measuring equipment (EDM) or Electro Optical Distance
Measurement (EODM) has superseded the above methods. More recently they have been
replaced by satellite methods, particularly since a permanent global coverage was
established in the 1990´s The earliest form of triangulation for hydrographic purposes
consisted of a series of observations as in Fig. 6.3, with a relatively small number of
measured sides (baselines) and a large number of angular measurements, which are
showed here with the observed directions. Such a diagram provides a great deal
of redundancy; each double-diagonal quadrilateral has three angular verifications created
by adding or subtracting values. Nevertheless the network scale is still determined by the
baselines.
In old unconnected geodetic controls, position and orientation were established from
astronomic observations of latitude, longitude and azimuth in a datum. Now days, if
marks are use from these kinds of networks, it is usually necessary to re-observe and
recalculate via GNSS in order to convert coordinates into a universal system like WGS
84 (see 2.2.3 at Chapter 2).In general it should be noted that distances from the baselines
could be measured within accuracies ranging from 1ppm to 3ppm, directions from ± 0.5"
to ± 2", and transition from a base to another (that is, the contrast between the base
transfer by triangle resolution and the other measured base) could normally
be checked within 20 ppm and 40 ppm. These limitations should be taken into account
when trying to adjust an old triangulation network to a present framework via GNSS
observations, with distances of 200 or 300 km there can be differences of
several meters (2 or 3). Besides tolerating differences of these orders, it is necessary to
have a sufficient number of well-distributed connections to common datums and of
datum conversion algorithms in order to absorb the distortions typical of the old networks
(see Chapter 2) Not withstanding the above statement, densification by GNSS of datums
with fixed co-ordinates computed from old triangulations should be avoided; such cases
often lead to distortions and inaccuracies in the final results. If unavoidable due to the
need to keep the co-ordinates of an old datum, it will be necessary to adopt very
particular computation strategies and the limitations of the values obtained must be stated
at an early stage.

In lower order work, it was normal to select a few higher order points at a time, as in Fig.
6.4 left; though in some cases for control densification networks selection of a larger
number of points with shorter side observations (Fig. 6.4, right) was carried out,
particularly whenever triangulation towers had been removed. These towers were used to
elevate the line of sight over trees, topographic features and other obstacles interfering
with the observations. Obviously their removal prevented long sights from being
conducted which led to this type of solution.

In some cases, in hydrographic surveying, the term triangulation has been used to
describe survey points with flare triangulation by intersection (see 2.2.4). These flares
were dropped with parachutes vertically over the point to be located and, whilst burning,
directions from control points would be simultaneously observed; this was conducted
towards many coastal points requiring to be surveyed, as many were not
visible. Balloons, luminous shots or mobile, elevated signals were also used for the same
purposes.
The term triangulation has also been used when measuring angles to control points with a
sextant, sometimes in combination with observations from such points. The exclusive use
of observations from points to be calculated is treated as a resection in 2.2.4.
Although these survey techniques are becoming obsolete due to intensive use of other
more responsive modern methods, they still are effective.
One of the typical problems of triangulation is the error propagation dependence on the
figure shapes, on which the error results (positions) rely not only on the measurement
error but also on the network geometry. This problem is dealt with for particular cases in
2.2.4 though it admits more complex generalisations. For example, a single chain of
equilateral triangles is more rigid than a chain with unequal angles. Also, a two-diagonal
square chain is more rigid than a chain with rectangles or trapeziums with similar
diagonals.

The fundamental principles upon which the surveying is

being carried out are

 working from whole to part.

 after deciding the position of any point, its reference must be kept from at least
two permanent objects or stations whose position have already been well
defined.

The purpose of working from whole to part is

 to localise the errors and

 to control the accumulation of errors.

This is being achieved by establishing a heirarchy of networks of control points. The
less precise networks are established within the higher precise network and thus restrict
the errors. To minimise the error limit, highest precise network (primary network) Figure
1.1 of control points are established using the most accurate / precise instruments for
collection of data and rigorous methods of analysis are employed to find network
parameters. This also involves most skilled manpower and costly resources which are
rare and cost intensive. Further elaboration has been done in Lesson 3 under "Overview
of Land Surveying".

Working from whole to part:

In order to localize errors and prevent their accumulation, a set of control

points is always established with great precision first for the whole area to be

surveyed.

Later on, details or filled in between these control points to a relatively smaller

precision.
This fundamental work principle is known as “Working from whole to part”. The
first step in extensive surveys such as town or topographical surveys, is to
establish a system of control points with high precision.For horizontal control the
points are established by triangulation(by making a triangles) or by precise
traversing(by making polygons).

To do this by triangulation, the area to be surveyed is divided into large triangles

which are surveyed with the greatest accuracy.They are further divided into small
triangles which are surveyed with less accuracy.The object of this system of
working is to prevent the accumulation of error and to control the localize minor
errors.On the other hand if we work from part to the whole, small errors are
magnified in the process of expansion and become uncontrollable at the
end.Thus in this method of surveying by chain angles, the surveyor fixes the
position ofthe part of a line Bb in the figure 1 below and from that he finds the
direction of the whole line BC.This method is opposed to the above principle and
should be used only in exceptional circumstances.

TO FIX THE POSITIONS OF NEW STATIONS AT LEAST BY

TWO METHODS:
The new stations are fixed from points already fixed by,
i. Linear Measurement
ii.Angular Measurement
iii.Both Linear and Angular Measurements

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING:

When  you  know  the  vertical  angle  and  either  thehorizontal or slope distance
between two points, you canapply the fundamentals of trigonometry to calculate
thedifference in elevation between the points. That is thebasic  principle  of
trigonometric  leveling.  This  methodof  indirect  leveling  is  particularly
adaptable  to  rough,uneven  terrain  where  direct  leveling  methods
areimpracticable or too time consuming. As in any survey,the equipment that you
will use in trigonometric levelingdepends  on  the  precision  required.  For
mosttrigonometric-leveling surveys of ordinary precision,angles are measured
with a transit, or alidade, anddistances are measured either with a tape or by
stadia,which you will study in chapter 8. On reconnaissancesurveys the vertical
angles may be measured with aclinometer, and distances maybe obtained by
pacing.The  method  used  in  trigonometric  leveling  …

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC LEVEL

NETWORKS:

Field works on three different locations have been done, to provide heights of
stabilized benchmarks on the central Adriatic islands. Zenith angles were measured
by electronic theodolites, and distances between points were obtained by total
station and GNSS measurements. Network points were stabilised on shortest
distances between island and mainland. Networks consist of two points on both
sides and an additional subsidiary benchmark. All distances were measured in
same time period with identical equipment.
Distances and angles were measured in both directions. Horizontal angles were
measured in four repetitions, two in each of the direct and reverse modes. For all
repetitions each point’s zenith angle was measured multiple times from both sides.
It was realised by measuring zenith angles 10 or more times, manipulating only
vertical tangent circle screw (horizontal circle was unchanged). Same procedure
was applied on all network points.
Integration in unique vertical system was realised by measuring closest vertical
control benchmark near stabilised points on the mainland and calculate their height
in the official vertical datum. Measuring height differences between points on a
same side by geometric levelling provided better precision and quality adjustment
results. The point location had to satisfy several parameters, like free horizon for
GNSS measurements, clear visibility between all network points for trigonometric
levelling etc.
Trigonometric levelling was realised by two instruments, total stations LEICA
TC2003 and LEICA TCA2003. Distances that could not be measured by total
station (large distance) were obtained using four GNSS instruments (Trimble R7).
Furthermore, GNSS measurements were used for evaluation of distances measured
by total stations.
GNSS/levelling was also applied and results were compared. For the purposes of
processing and adjustment of measurement and definition of the height differences
between network points the specially designed software for the adjustment of
measurements of this type were used in which is possible to arbitrarily define the
weights of individual measurements, and so this software allows specific analysis
of the impact of the weights on the results.
POSITIONING OF TRIGONOMETRIC LEVEL
NETWORK

The precise positioning is essential not only for calculations of different

corrections but also to provide quality points for national survey database. Trigonometric
leveling networks were not necessary relied on the state control network because only
distances between points were measured. Therefore, precise positions and quality heights
are very important if they will be used in future geodetic works. The network point
adjustment is realised by two fixed points, CROPOS GNSS network referent stations. To
achieve relative position accuracy of +1cm+2ppm, and +1cm+1ppm for vertical accuracy
static GNSS relative method was applied (1 hour of static measurements).
Trigonometric levelling

Trigonometric levelling measurements were carried out in two or sometimes three

stages. The adjustment of multiple measured vectors had been made using Microsoft
Excel services to get final height differences before final adjustment.
The table 3 shows trigonometric levelling results with comparison of the heights,
standard deviations of the unknown points and referent standard deviations. These results
represent the quality and reliability of points on islands. The comparison of standard
deviations for adjusted unknown values from different stages and final adjustment
standard deviation is made. It is noticeable that additional stages of trigonometric
levelling reduced standard deviation of unknowns.