2.

CONTROL SURVEYING
2.1 Introduction
The determination of the precise position of a number of stations, usually spread over a
large area, is referred to
as control surveying. Control surveys can be horizontal or vertical.
The objective of horizontal control surveys is to establish a network of control stations
whose position is
specified in terms of latitude and longitude, whereas the objective of vertical control
survey is to provide the
elevations of fixed benchmarks with respect to the mean sea level datum. These control
surveys are located
where other surveys can be conveniently and accurately tied in to them.
The results of the control surveys are used as a basis from which surveys of smaller
extent can be originated.
Boundary surveys, construction, route surveys, topographic and hydrographic surveys
and other may be
involved.
Horizontal control can be carried out by precise traversing, by triangulation, by
trilateration, and perhaps by
same combination of these methods. Intersection, resection, and satellite positioning are
also the other methods
in horizontal control surveys. The exact method used depends of the terrain, equipment
available, information
needed and economic factors.
With traversing, a series of horizontal distances and angles are measured. This is
generally cheaper due to
shorter sights and convenience to carry it out under less favorable weather conditions
than the other methods. Its
disadvantage is that, there are fewer checks available for locating mistakes in the work
and the whole system
can rather easily sway or bend. To check a traverse it is necessary to form a loop
returning to its starting point
or to tie it in to previously established control points.
A triangulation consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles in which an
occasional line (called the
base line) is measured and all other sides of the triangles are calculated from angles
measured at the vertices of
the triangles. The lines of a triangulation system form a network that ties together all the
triangulation stations at
the vertices of the triangles. A triangulation has the following advantages:
1. More redundancies or checks are available i.e. more than one route can be followed to
compute the
length of a line.
2. There is little tendency for the system to sway or bend i.e. azimuths can be easily and
accurately carried
or established throughout system.
3. Outstanding landmarks such as steeples, water tanks, etc. can be located by
establishing directions from
different stations.
Its disadvantages are it needs long-range inter visibility, which in turn requires the
erection of special towers
and signals, making the system the most expensive. Moreover, a good weather is
required to attain inter
visibility.
With trilateration, the lengths of the sides of a series of joined or overlapping triangles
are measured (usually
with the EDM equipment) and the angles are computed from the lengths. It has the
following advantages:
1. It is more accurate than the other two types due to the fact that distances can be
measured more
accurately than angles.
2. It is generally less expensive than triangulation.
3. More checks are available.
Unlike triangulation, it is not easy to position transmission towers, steeples, water tanks,
etc. by the EDM
because to do so requires reflectors on these landmarks. These landmarks can be located
if angular
measurements are made to them.
In combined triangulation and trilateration systems all sides and angles in the joined or
over lapping triangles
are measured. This method provides the strongest control network.
2.2 Triangulation
Triangulation as a form of horizontal control is applied when a large area is to be
surveyed and when the
methods of traversing would not be expected to maintain a uniformly high accuracy over
the entire area. The
methods of triangulation require a maximum number of precise angle measurements and
a minimum number of
distance measurements. The triangles are developed in to a net of interconnected figures,
and certain lines,
called base lines, must be measured in order to compute the other sides in the net.
Triangulation is necessary to control the location of large bridge structures, state and
federal highways, dams,
canals, and other engineering works of a massive nature. A large project, such as
boundary location, power
development, water resources development, flood control, irrigation, or reclamation,
requires triangulation in
order to maintain the necessary accuracy throughout the system.
Once a triangulation system, whether large or small, has been developed, measured and
adjusted, the points in
the system then furnish control for subsequent traversing, minor triangulation,
trilateration, intersection, and
resection needed for day-to day engineering operations.
2.3 Classification of Triangulation Systems
Survey or accuracy standards are generally defined as being the minimum accuracies
deemed necessary to
obtain certain specific objectives. Survey specifications can be defined, as the field
operations or “recipes”
needed to achieve the particular standards desired.
Accuracies required for horizontal control depend on the type of survey and the ultimate
use of the control
points. There are three orders of triangulation based on their uses: first order (primary),
second order
(secondary) and third order (tertiary) triangulation.
First order is the highest accuracy and is required for developing the national network of
horizontal control, for
the study of small crustal movements in areas of seismic activity, and for large
metropolitan control expansion.
Since it covers a large area, the effect of earth’s curvature is to be taken in to account-
geodetic triangulation. It
may cover the whole country primary grids may be provided.
Second order (secondary) triangulation provides point at greater density than first order
triangulation. This
network is adjusted to fit its parent primary triangle or its surrounding primary control.
Less refinement is
needed as the network is surrounded by the primary control. It is recommended for
controlling extensive land
subdivision and construction.
Third order (tertiary) triangulations used to establish control for local developments and
improvements,
topographic and hydrographic surveys or other such projects for which they provide
sufficient accuracy. They
are not carried out for rural areas. They may not be adjusted to fit the national network.
2.4 Triangulation figures and choices
Although triangles are the basic figures in triangulation networks, they are not allowed to
exist alone because
they do not provide sufficient checks on measurements and subsequent computations.
Triangles are combined
to form other geometrical entities. The most common figure used is the braced
quadrilateral (fig1.1b).It is best
suited to long narrow systems. Braced polygons (fig1.1c) can also be used in the case of
wide systems.
(a) Chain of triangles (b) chain of quadrilaterals (c) chain of polygons.
Fig 1.1 triangulation figures
Triangulation procedure
1. Reconnaissance, select the locations of stations;
2. Evaluation of the strength of figures;
3. Erection of signals, and in some cases, tower for elevating the signals and /or
instruments;
4. Observation of directions or angles;
5. Measurement of base lines;
6. Astronomic observation at one or more locations,
7. Computations including reduction to sea level, calculation of the lengths of all sides
and coordinates for
all stations, and adjustment of the triangulation network to provide the best estimates of
co-ordinates of
all points.
Reconnaissance
The success of any triangulation depends on the reconnaissance, which is the most
difficult and exacting tasking
of the extensive survey.
Reconnaissance consists of selection of stations, determination of the size and shape of
the resulting triangles,
the number of station to be occupied and the number of angle or direction to be observed.
The inter visibility
and accessibility of stations, the usefulness of stations in latter work, the cost of the
necessary signals, and the
convenience of base-line measurements are considered.
In order to acquire the information, available maps, survey information and aerial
photographs of the area are
used. Field inspection and rough measurements may also be carried out to supplement
the study, select
favorable location for station and check suitability.
Heavily wooded country is the most difficult in which to carry triangulation. A valley of
proper width, with
peaks on either side, is the most favorable. The stations are located on higher points,
provided that their
locations will give the best-shaped triangles. The ideal condition is one in which no or
low towers are used and
no clearing is required.
A most important and difficult part is to determine the height of towers necessary to
make the sight between any
two of the stations clear of obstruction.
A mistake on the part of the person may lead to a delay of the work, especially in the first
and second order
triangulation work where observation is done after dark.
2.5 Angle and side conditions
To ensure homogenous results from the computations of the sides of the triangles in a
triangulation net, the
network must have adequate geometric strength. Two important factors that affect
geometric strength are the
angle and side conditions in the network, and the magnitude of the angles observed.
Angle condition equations in a figure express the following:
1. The sum of the interior angles in a polygon equals some multiple of 1800.
2. A station equation exists if an angle  1 can be expressed in terms of an angle 1at a
station.
3. If a horizon is closed, a center-point equation which states that the sum of these angles
is equal to 3600 is
required.
To see how angle conditions are determined, consider fig 1.2 below. Start with one line a
and no angle. Add
another line b at an angle 1from a. Next, add another line c to yield 2. This process
continues adding line n to
yield (n-1) angles, so that n lines result in (n-1) angles to produce a determinate figure.
Any angles measured in excess of these required for the determinate case are redundant
and need a condition
equation. For example, for a plane triangle, if three angles are measured, there is one
redundancy for which the
angle condition is
1+2+3=1800
It is necessary to evaluate the number of angle conditions in a given figure. Let
CA=total number of angle conditions (including center-point equations)
L= number of lines in a polygon;
A= number of angles measured in the polygon.
Then CA=A-(L-1)=A-L+1
Angle condition equations can be satisfied without having consistent lengths in sides
therefore, a side condition
equation is necessary when lengths of a side of a triangle can be computed in more than
one route using the law
of sines.
To locate any third station in a triangle three lines are needed, and two lines are needed to
locate any additional
station. All other lines in excess of there are redundant and need a condition equation.
Fig 1.3 (a) Inconsistent Sides (b) Side Condition
The number of extra lines or the number of side conditions is
CS = n’ – 3 – 2 (s-3) = n’ – 2s + 3
Where CS = number of side conditions;
n’= number of side in a figure;
S = number of stations in the figure.
The total number of side and angle conditions is there fore
C = CA + CS = (A – L + 1) + (n1 – 2S + 3 ) or
C=n-no where n-no of angles measured,
no-minimum no of angles required to plot the figure.
2.6 Strength of Figures
When a triangulation project is being evaluated in the preliminary stages of the work, it is
necessary to
determine the strength of figure for the network. This step is required in order to ensure
uniform accuracy
throughout the network. The strength of figure is a function of:
1. The geometric strength of the triangles that make up the network. Ideally, the triangles
should be
equilateral.
2. The number of stations occupied for angle or direction measurements lines occupied at
only one end
should be avoided whenever possible.
3. The number of angle and side conditions used in adjusting the network should be large
in proportion to
the numbers of observations.
The following equation is used to evaluate the strength of figure:
Where R = Strength of figure
D = the number of directions observed in the figure.
C = total number of angle and side conditions
δ A and δB are the respective differences of the sines.
The subscripts A and B refer to the two distance angles in each of the triangles under
consideration.
For a triangle with all stations occupied
C = CA + CS = (A – L + 1) + (n1 – 2s + 3)
In the above equation, the two factors (D – C)/D and ( 2 2)
are related only to the number of
conditions and observations and the geometry of the triangles. Thus the value for R is
independent of the
precision of the measurements. Consequently this procedure is useful primarily as a
means of comparing
various network configurations so as to obtain optimum geometric conditions and a
desirable number of
conditions versus number of measurements. It is also used as a means for determining the
most favouable route
for calculating through a network of triangulation.
Note:
1.The stronger the figure, the lower the value of R becomes.
2.The A angle is opposite the side to be computed, whereas the B angle is opposite the
known side
3.The third angle in each of the triangles is referred to as the azimuth angle the strength
of the figure does
not depend on the size of the azimuth angle, only on the A and B.
Also as the distance angles A and B approach the ideal value of 450, the term in the
summation become
smaller. The stronger the figure is, the smaller the value of R.
Triangulation Stations
The points forming the triangulation stations are selected on the basis of visibility as for
example on the top of
hills or church steeples, or radio towers, or water tanks. As a result, the points are not
uniformly spaced. Some
of the points are obviously inaccessible and it is necessary to establish eccentric stations
from them and to
determine the distance and directions from the main stations to the eccentric stations.
Sometimes it is necessary to build special towers for making the observations. These
towers contain one tower
built inside another so that the towers supporting the instrument and the instrument
operator are independent.
For triangulation of lower accuracy, a small pole signal about 2m high guyed in place, or
an object already in
place might be used for sighting. As most triangulation works of higher accuracy are
carried out between late
afternoon and night, an electric lamp or an automobile headlight may be used as a signal.
Signal should be free
from phase.
In general, the type of signal used depends on the length of the line and the accuracy
required whereas its form
depends on the locality and available materials.
Triangulation stations should be marked and referenced very carefully for use at later
days. The signals used
must permit centering the instrument if the station is to be occupied (for instance, an iron
pipe set vertically so
that a pole can be inserted in to it for sighting and this pole can be removed when
centering the instrument over
the station)
When towers are required due to flat terrain, heavy timber or other factors, it is necessary
to determine the
minimum height of towers required from the equation for earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
2.7 Adjustment of Triangulation networks
The primary objective of triangulation is to determine the co-ordinates of the
triangulation stations for further
surveys. Before computations of the positions carried out, the net should be adjusted as
follows.
1. All baselines have to be corrected for systematic errors and reduced to sea level
distances;
2. Observed directions and angles should be reduced to average values and triangles
checked for closure;
3. Necessary reductions to center should be made where eccentric stations have been
occupied;
4. Spherical excess should be computed where lines and triangles are of sufficient
length.In the adjustment
process, the following conditions have to be satisfied:
(1)Angle conditions (2) side conditions (3) length conditions (4) azimuth conditions and
(5) position
conditions.
There as to methods of adjustment: the approximate method and the least square method.
Triangulation Adjustment by the Approximate Method
Connections in triangulation nets can be either by means of triangles or quadrilaterals, or
by a combination of
different kinds of figures. When triangles are used the only adjustment to be made is to
satisfy the condition that
the sum of the three angles of each triangle should equal 1800 plus any spherical excess.
The adjustment is made
ordinarily by correcting each angle by one – third of the closure in that triangle. Although
the work involved is
simple, the only check on the computed lengths is afforded by measuring additional base
lines.
When quadrilaterals are used, additional checks on angular measurements are provided
by the added geometric
conditions in each figure. Checks on the computed lengths are afforded by following four
different
combinations of triangles in each quadrilateral. Unless the measured angles have been
adjusted, it is unlikely
that the four computed lengths will agree exactly. The purpose of the adjustment is to
correct the observed
angles so that the various conditions relative to the sums of the angles will be satisfied,
and in addition, so that
the computed lengths of a side will have the same numerical value regardless of the
triangles used in the
computation.
Tech-Zone Engineering College

SURVEYING

Assignment on Triangulation
 Prepared by:Berhanu Gizaw
IDNO.:030/2001
Submitted to:Eng.Asmelash-B
Date:8/3/2012