Vol. 14 No.

1 – April 2014

Word Formation: A Morphological Analysis

Viator Lumban Raja

English Department, Santo Thomas University

Abstract

New words are required not only to increase our vocabulary but also to create new sentences.
New words are acquired by the process of word formation which can be done in several ways. One of
the most commonly used ways to form new words is affixation either through prefixation or
suffixation. Confixation or infixation is hardly ever used and is evidenced in the Indonesian
Language. Other methods of word formation include coining, clipping, blending, acronym, and
compounding. A difficulty arises when one has to decide which morpheme comes first, if he
encounters a word with bound morphemes at both sides, since the two bound morphemes are not
simultaneously attached to the root. Confixation occurs when morphemes are bounded both ends of
the root simultaneously. Confixation can be seen in the Indonesian language.

Key words: word formation, bound morphemes at both sides

What is word? If words are viewed from their class, they

can be grouped into content and structural
Words have a pivotal role in words which altogether form the parts of
communication both in written and oral form. speech. Content words include noun, verb,
Without words, communication is almost adjective and adverb. Structural words
impossible because a sentence, a group of include conjunctions, prepositions, articles,
words which is semantically acceptable and numerals, pronouns, and interjections.
grammatically correct, allows us to
communicate effectively. Without But, what is a word really? It is not easy
communication, life could cease to exist. So to give a precise definition of a word because
important are the words we use that we have what seems to be a word to the speakers of
to select them carefully when we talk. Diction one language many not be a word to the
or word choice is an important factor to speakers of another language. For example,
consider before we talk or write. We try not amo in Latin, for most of us it seems like a
to hurt other people with words we use when word but actually it is a sentence which
talking or writing. means I love. Words are the minimum free
form that is the smallest form that can occur
Words can be viewed from several by itself (Aitchison, 1978: 3). Thus, a form
aspects. If they are seen from their internal that can stand by itself is called a word. The
structure, they can be classified into simple form book for example is a word because it
and complex words. Simple words are those can occur by itself. Richards (1985: 311)
which cannot be further segmented. For gives a similar definition that a word is the
example, water, is a simple word because it smallest linguistic unit that occurs on its own
cannot be further divided. Whereas complex in speech and writing. The form “a” in English
words are those which can be further divided. is a word although it consists of only a letter.
For example, watered, is a complex word, However, {-s} in “books” is not a word despite
because it can be further segmented into the fact that it is also a letter. The word
water and {-ed} as a bound morpheme. undesirable is a single word but has three
morphemes. If the most elemental units of

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meaning are assumed to be the words of a because they are not closely related in
language, then {un-} has the same meaning in meaning.
unlikely, untouchable,and unchangeable as it
has in undesirable because they all consists of How is a word developed?
two units of meaning: {un-} + desirable,
likely, touchable, changeable (Fromkin and We will have a limited number of
Robert, 1974: 103). However, {un-} is not a sentences if there are no new words
word because it cannot stand by itself. produced. This means that not all our needs
Although it constitutes a certain meaning, it can be expressed by a limited number of
can only be meaningful if it is attached to words. New words can be developed from
another word. Therefore, a word should be existing words or invented due to
distinguished from a morpheme. A word technological advancement. According to
must be a morpheme, that is a free Akmajian, et.al (1991: 21-24) new words can
morpheme, but a morpheme is not be formed by coining and compounding.
necessarily a word like in the example above Whereas Rachmadie 91985: 48-67) adds that
“undesirable”, {un-} is not a word but a words can also be formed by blending,
morpheme, a bound morpheme, which never clipping, and through acronyms. But the most
occurs on its own but it is always attached to commonly used way used to form new words
another morpheme. So, “undesirable” is one is affixation.
word but it has three morphemes.
Bauer (1983: 12-13) shows the 1. Affixation
difference between word form and lexeme.
The word form “shot” is a form of the lexeme Affixation is a process of attaching an
“shoot”. Likewise, the words “shoots”, affix to the root either to the left side or right
“shooting” and “shot” are all the from the side of the root. When an affix is attached to
lexeme “shoot”. In other words, it can be said the end of the root or to the right side of the
that the words, shoot, shoots, shooting and root, it is called a suffix. For example, free + {-
shot are all subsumed under the lexeme dom} - freedom. When an affix is attached
shoot. to the front of the root or the left side of the
Todd (1987: 49) states that we can root, it is called a prefix. For example, {dis-}+
isolate four of the most frequently implied continue  discontinue. Prefixes and suffixes
meaning of “word”: the orthographic, the are affixes attached to the bases or to various
morphological, the lexical, and the semantic combinations of the morphemes
word. An orthographic word is one which has (Wardhaugh, 1977: 84). Wardhaugh further
a space on either side of it. For example, He states that English does not use infixes, the
had a book. There are four words in this nearest equivalent being the kind of situation
sentence because each has a space on either that occurs in the plural of man  men. In
side of it. A morphological word is a unique general, suffix changes the category of the
form which considers only form not meaning. word, except those of inflectional
The word “table”, for instance, is one morphemes. Whereas hardly any prefix
morphological word, but “tables” are two changes the category of the word.
morphological words. A lexical word covers
the various forms of items which are closely {dis-} + continue (verb)  discontinue (verb)
related by meaning. Thus, take, takes, taking , good (adjective) + {-ness}  goodness (noun)
took, taken, are five morphological words but free (adjective) + {-dom}  freedom (noun)
only one lexical word. This is really similar to leep (verb) + {-y} sleepy (adjective)
what Bauer (1983) defines as lexeme and {un-} + true (adjective)  untrue (adjective)
word form. A semantic word involves
distinguishing between items which may be From the examples above, it can be seen that
morphologically identical but have a different suffixes change the category of the word,
meaning. The word table , for instance, can while prefixes do not. However, there is a
refer to a piece of furniture or to a schedule. prefix which can change the category of the
Thus, they belong to the same morphological word, that is the prefix {en-}.
word but they are also two semantic words {en-} + danger (noun)  endanger (verb)
{en-} + rich (adjective)  enrich (verb)
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first phoneme of the second syllable of the

This is the only prefix which can change the word dormitory.
category of the word, other prefixes do not
change the category of the word they are However, this is not always the case.
attached to. Nevertheless, the process of Sometimes, a word of four syllables is clipped
affixation is the most commonly used way to into two syllables or one only. For examples :
form new words.
composition  compo
2. Coining or Inventing Words professional  pro
advertisement  ads
Coined words are those words which cafeteria  café
keep entering a language. The speakers dormitory  dorm
invent new words to name previously non-
existent objects that result from technology, From the examples above, the word
such as Xerox, klenex, Kodak, laptop, composition and cafeteria are consistently
computer, e-mail, digital, etc. In other words, clipped, but not with the other words in spite
coining words is the creation of new original of being four syllables. In the word
words by writers, inventors, scientists, and composition and cafeteria, the first and the
others who are in need of a term to express a second syllable are taken to form the clipped
certain meaning or to name a product like word, but the rest are not similarly treated. In
coca cola, pentium, camera, tip-ex, laser disc, the word professional only the first syllable is
etc. Some coined words like radar and laser taken to form the clipped word as if it were a
were originally created as acronyms, radio word of two or three syllables. The word
detecting and ranging, light amplification by dormitory should be clipped as “dormi” like
stimulated emission of radiation. But people the previous examples of composition and
quickly forget such origins and they become cafeteria. But people say “dorm” instead of
new independent words. They do not realize “dormi”. Therefore, the process of clipping
that such words are in fact the result of cannot be applied to all words in the same
acronym but since they are already familiar way.
with them they do not regard them anymore
as acronyms. 4. Blending Words

3. Clipping Words Blending is the fusion of two words into one,

usually the first part of one word with the last
Clipping is the process of shortening a part of another, so that the resultant blend
longer word. It occurs when the long word consists of both original meanings. For
has a very common use and the shorter form example:
results because it is simpler and more easily
understood. These clipped forms are usually motor + hotel  motel
appropriate in informal conversation but smoke + fog  smog
some of them are also used in standard breakfast + lunch  brunch
English.
The word motel is used to mean a hotel for
pub  clipped from public motorists, smog is used to mean smoke and
mag  clipped from magazine fog, and brunch is used to mean a meal taken
dorm  clipped from dormitory instead of both breakfast and lunch.
pro  clipped from professional
Again, the process of blending does not
There is no exact rule of how to clip longer follow an exact rule. Like clipping, it is formed
words. In general, only the first syllable and according to the speaker’s ease, meaning easy
the first phoneme of the second syllable are to say and easy to recall. Here below some
taken as a clipped word if the word consists more examples of blends.
of two or three syllables. The clipped word
“dorm” is taken from the first syllable and the radio + telegram  radiogram
biological + mechanic  bionic
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American + Asian  Ameranesia God bless you  G.B.U

medical + care  medicare air conditioned  a.c
mono + rail  monorail Post merediem  P.M
turbo+ propeller  turboprop Over dose  O.D
cheese + hamburger  cheeseburger Ante merediem  A.M
road traffic accident  R.T.A
From the examples above, it can be seen that
there is no exact rule in forming a blend as These kinds of acronyms are now used a lot
shown above. It seems that practicality in text messages, and everybody understands
becomes one of the factors taken into their meaning even when seeing them for the
consideration to make a blend. first time. The phrase “by the way” is made
into btw, and “God bless you” into GBU.
5. Acronym Words are clipped irregularly such as
“thanks” becomes thx, “you” becomes u, and
An acronym is the result of forming a Christmas becomes Xs.
word from the first letter or letters of each
word in a phrase. This process happens 6. Compounding
because the name of the phrase is too long to
say, therefore the speakers create a shorter Compound words are formed by
way to say the phrase. For examples: combining two or more words into one unit
with a perceptible meaning. For examples:
Aeronautics and Space Administration
 NASA class (noun) + room (noun)  classroom
Test of English as a Foreign Language green (adjective) + house (noun) 
 TOEFL greenhouse
Very important person sun (noun) + bathe (verb)  sunbathe
VIP pick (verb) + pocket (noun)  pickpocket,
World Health Organization cut-throat
 WHO hit (verb) + run (verb)  hitrun
Teaching English as a Foreign Language cut (preposition) + cast (verb)  outcast
 TEFL
These compound words can be made of many
Acronyms usually name political, combinations but the most frequent
industrial, and social institutions, not single combination is those of noun and noun. This
or compound words. They usually consist of a is the largest sub-grouping of compounds.
long phrase which is then made into an Many types of semantic relationship can be
acronym and formed into a word. However, isolated within this grouping (Bauer, 1983:
some acronyms have already become 202). It can be difficult to decide whether a
permanent entries in the lexicon of English combination of words is a compound or
such as radar (radio detecting and ranging), simply a noun phrase. The criterion taken to
laser (light amplification by stimulated distinguishing between the two is the stress.
emission or radiation), and scuba (self- If the stress is on the first word, then it is a
contained under water breathing apparatus). compound. This is not difficult if the
People have forgotten that they are combination consists of a noun and a noun –
acronyms, instead they regard them as new like movie star, classroom, ticket agent, etc.
entries in English. But when the combination consists of an
adjective and a noun like deep structures or
Besides the long phrases which are made dancing teacher, it can result in a different
into acronyms, there are some short phrases meaning. When the stress is on the left, deep
as well which one made into acronyms. structure, then it is a compound word which
refers to a part of transformational grammar.
Down payment  D.P When it is a phrase with the stress on the
Brought in dead  BID right or on the second element, the meaning
Delivery order  D.O is “a structure which is deep”. Likewise,
Ante cenam  a.c (before meals) “dancing teacher, when it is a compound
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word with the stress on the left, it means a

teacher who teaches dancing. Whereas when dis agree ment
it is a noun phrase with the stress on the
right, it means a teacher who is dancing. X
However, these cases are quite rare, and only
those with the –ing form can result in The process of confixation is not used in
difficulty. One way to decide whether a form English. Both affixes are not simultaneously
is a compound or a phrase is through its attached, but they are attached one by one.
meaning. If the meaning can be unveiled by a The problem is which is attached first, the
relative pronoun, then it must be a phrase. On prefix or the suffix.
the contrary, if the meaning can be unveiled
by a preposition, then it must be a compound. (1) a. dis agree ment or
For example, dining table, it must be a
compound since the meaning is a table for
dining, not a table which is dining. Some,
however, can be confusing like dancing b. dis agree ment
teacher, hunting dog, flying planes, etc.

7. Bound Morphemes on Both Sides

In English there is no so-called confixes

like in Indonesian. Confixes are affixes which (2) a. dis grace ful or
are simultaneously attached to both side of
the root. Thus the word, disagreement, does
not undergo the same process as the word
kebenaran in Indonesian. {ke – an } in
Indonesian is called confix because it must be b. dis grace ful
attached simultaneously, not one by one.

ke benar an ke benar an

X 
If we are faced with successive
peripheral constituents on both sides of the
ke benar an root, we have two ways to analyze, (1) by
analyzing the meaningful relationship, and
X (2) by studying the structural parallels (Nida,
1949: 89). By meaningful relationship it can
be decided that in (1a) {-ment} as a modifier
The description in the middle is the correct of disagree, meaning “being disagreed”, or in
one because the confix {ke – an } should come (1b) {dis-} + agreement, meaning “no
together to the root “benar”, then we have agreement”. Likewise, in example (2a) {ful-}
kebenaran. There is no “kebenar”, then suffix functions as a modifier of “disgrace”, meaning
{-an} is attached, nor “ benaran”, then prefix “full of disgrace”; or in (2b) {dis-} + graceful,
{ke-} is attached to it. Because of the meaning “not graceful”. Whereas by
existence of confixation in Indonesian, words structural parallels, we have to compare
are not formed by adding a prefix then a various types of combination with {dis-} and
suffix or vice versa. {-ment}, and {dis-}{ and {-ful}.
The prefix {dis-} mostly occurs with a
On the contrary, confixation is not found noun and a verb, and the resultant
in English. It is sometimes difficult to decide combination remains such disagree, discolor,
which affix is attached to the root first if a disrespect, etc. They remain as verbs since the
word has affixes on both sides. Look at this prefix {dis-} does not change the category of
example below. the word. Although the prefix {dis-} may

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occur with a noun, it is not productive like forming new words. Since confixation is not
{dis-} + harmony  disharmony. Whereas known in English, one has a difficulty to
the suffix {-ment} occurs with verb, and the determine how a word with bound
resultant combination is a noun such as morphemes on both sides of the root is
agreement, repairment, attonment, formed. A question may arise which
endowment, employment, etc. The suffix {- morpheme is firstly attached, the prefix or
ment} changes the category of the word to the suffix. The prefix and the suffix cannot be
which it is attached. Likewise, in example simultaneously attached because confixation
(2a) the suffix {-ful} occurs with the noun and is not available in English.
the resultant combination is an adjective such
as careful, tasteful, beautiful, handful, etc. In
other words, the suffix {-ful} changes the
category of the word to which it is attached.

Therefore, by doing structural parallel References

analysis, the most acceptable analysis is the
alternative (a) not (b) although the Aitchison,Jeans. Foundations of General
alternative (1b) indicates a noun like Linguistics. New York: Rinehart and
“agreement”, but that is not acceptable Winston, Inc.,1987.
because the noun “agreement” is a complex
word, not a root. The prefix {dis} + noun is Akmajian, Adrian. et.al. Linguistics: An
not productive, except with “harmony” as Introduction to Language and
shown above. If we tolerate the alternative Communication. Third Edition.
(1b), then we might have other combinations Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1991.
of {dis-}such as disshipment, disemployment,
discommandment, etc which are all rejected. Bauer, Laurie. English Word Formation.
Likewise, in example (2a), this procedure is Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
acceptable, and (b) is not because disgrace + 1983..
{-ful} becomes an adjective, that is the
function of suffix {-ful} to change the noun Fromkin, Victoria, and Robert Rodman. 1974.
into an adjective. If we employ procedure (b) An Introduction to Language. New York:
{dis-} + graceful, it still remains adjective, but Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1974.
contrary to the prefix {dis-} which is always
attached to a verb or a noun and never to an Nida, Eugene. Morphology: The Descriptive
adjective. Take another example, Analysis of Words. Ann Arbor: The
“disrespectful”, the root’s precisely bound- University of Michigan Press, 1949.
base “respect”, must be a noun, not a verb. If
it were a verb, then the prefix {dis-} is Rachmadie, Sabrony. Buku Materi Pokok:
attached to it, it is still acceptable, but suffix {- Vocabulary. Jakarta: Depdikbud,
ful} is never attached to a verb in order to Universitas Terbuka, 1985.
change it into an adjective. The suffix {-ful} is
attached to a noun to form an adjective. Richards, Jack. et.al. Dictionary of Applied
Therefore, we have to use the structural Linguistics. London: Longman Group,
parallel analysis to decide which morpheme Ltd., 1985.
comes first if we have successive peripheral
constituents on both sides of the root. Todd, Loreto. An Introduction to Linguistics.
Essex, U.K.: Longman Group, Ltd., 1987.
Conclusion
Wardhaugh, Ronald. Introduction to
The coverage of word formation in Linguistics. Second Edition. New York:
English is quite wide. One of the most widely McGraw Hill, Inc., 1987.
used ways to form new words is affixation,
comprising prefixation and suffixation.
Whereas coining, clipping, blending, acronym
and compounding have their own rules in
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