APPROVAL SHEET

Complete report of Human Anatomy and Physiology experiment with title

“Reflex in Human” which has been written by:
Name : Sartika
ID : 081404157
Group : 6
Class : Biology ICP
After checked by assistant and coordinator assistant, this is report accepted.

Makassar, November 2010

Coordinator Assistant Assistant

(Djumarirmanto) (Surahman Nur, S.Pd )

Responsible Lecturer

(Drs. Musawwier Taiyeb, M. Kes)

Reg. No: 196404161988031002
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background
The nervous system controls and correlates basic bodily functions and
behavior. There are two main parts: the central nervous system, which consists
of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which is made
up of cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and the nerves of the autonomic (involuntary)
nervous system. The body monitors itself and its surroundings through receptors.
These are nerve endings specialized in registering specific stimuli. Changes
inside the body are detected by internal proprioceptors and interoceptors. Stimuli
from outside the body are detected by receptors called exteroceptors, which are
concentrated in the skin, eyes, nose, tongue, and ears. They detect changes in
contact (touch), pressure, pain, heat, cold, light, scent, taste, and sound. Together
these receptors perform functions known as the senses.
From the brain, the spinal cord extends down inside the spine, bulging at
intervals where pairs of spinal nerves branch out to other parts of the body. Its
main role is to provide a highway for nerve impulses passing to and from the
brain, but it also processes basic sensory information and initiates appropriate
motor responses without recourse to the brain. These movements are known as
reflexes. The reflex movements in human will be experimented through this lab
work with some of the students as the objects.
B. Purpose
T.
C. Benefit
The advantages we can get from this experiment:
1. The students know skeletal arrangement.
2. The students know what the scientific names of the bones.
 CHAPTER II
PREVIEW OF LITERATURE

The skeleton performs numerous vital functions. It shelters and supports

softer tissues, and provides mechanical rigidity. Its surfaces form the attachment sites
and lever arms for muscles, tendons, and ligaments that posture and move the body
parts. It is our storehouse for mineral salts, particularly calcium, and parts of the
skeleton are the source of red blood cells. There are officially 206 bones in the adult
human skeleton, but the unpredictable supernumerary bones, especially those in the
hands and feet, increase that number. The lists of bones indicate whether they are
paired and what the plural forms are. Bony element in a sub adult vary in number
with age, as parts of bones appear form more than 800 centers of ossification and
subsequently unite. It is customary to distinguish the axial skeleton (bones of the
head and trunk) from the appendicular skeleton (bones of the limbs) (Cole, 2004).
According to Marieb (2004), besides contributing to body shape and form,
our bones perform several important functions:
1. Support, bones provide a framework that supports the body and cradles its soft
organs. For example, bones of lower limbs act as pillars to support the body
trunk when we stand, and the rib cage supports the thoracic wall.
2. Protection, the fused bones of the skull protect the brain. The vertebrae surround
the spinal cord and the rib cage helps protect the vital organs of the thorax.
3. Movement, skeletal muscles, which attach to bones by tendons, use bones as
levers to move the body and its parts. As a result, we can walk, grasp objects,
and breathe. The arrangement of bones and the design of joints determine the
types of movement possible.
4. Mineral storage, bone is a reservoir for minerals, the most important of which
are calcium and phosphate. The stored minerals are released into the
bloodstream as needed for distribution to all parts of the body. Indeed, ‘deposits’
and ‘withdrawal’ of minerals to and from the bones go on almost continuously.
5. Blood cell formation, most blood cell formation, or hematopoieses, occurs in the
marrow cavities of certain bones.
When learning bone names, there are several hints to make some of them
easier to learn. The radius and ulna of the arm are easily confused since they twist
over each other. If you remember that the radius is on the thumb side of the hand and
that the ulna is on the little finger side of the hand, it will make them easier to
remember. Carpal bones are wrist bones. This is easy to remember since most people
have heard of carpal tunnel syndrome, which is a repetitive motion injury. The tibia
and fibula, two lower leg bones, are often confused. However, if you notice that the
smaller of the two is the fibula, it may remind you to “tell a little fibula.” The tibia
boast a ridge, which women will relate to since they often cut their legs shaving due
to the shape of this bone. Joints between the bones are filled with synovial fluid or
have cartilage gristle) to allow the bones to freely move around one another and not
grind down. A common urban legend is that popping your knuckles will give you
arthritis. This is not true! So far, no studies have proven that popping knuckles causes
arthritir – or makes your joints larger, for that matter. When you “pop” your
knuckles, you are actually compressing air found in the joint cavity along with the
synovial fluid. It takes a perios of time before the air comes out of the solution for
you to be able to pop you knuckles again (Walch, 2006).
The structure formed by all the body’s bones is called the skeleton. It is
divided into two main parts: the central, or axial, part, consisting of the head and
trunk, and the appendages—the arms, hands, legs, and feet. The appendages are
connected to the axial skeleton by two roughly circular bone structures: the shoulder
girdle, where the shoulders connect to the body, and the pelvic girdle, where the legs
connect to bones at the lower end of the trunk. The two girdles are different in one
main way: the arms need free movement but do not have to bear the weight of the
body, so the shoulder girdle is not a complete circle of bone (which would give it
more strength than it needs) but has many muscular connections (which allow the
arms to move in many directions). The pelvic girdle, by contrast, needs strength
because it supports the whole weight of the upper body but does not need a wide
range of motion (ability to move in many directions). Thus the pelvic girdle is a
complete circle of bone, with fewer muscle connections than the shoulder girdle
(Kittredge, 2001).
According to Rudd (2005), the general bone structure is:
1. Diaphysis (shaft) A mainly tubular shape made of compact bone. This is hard,
with a rigid structure (for weight bearing), yet lightweight (to permit movement).
2. Medullary cavity A cavity inside the diaphysis, filled with yellow bone marrow.
3. Sometimes called the marrow cavity. This is where the bone stores fat.
4. Epiphyses The ends (head/foot) of the bone, made of spongy bone tissue.
5. Articular cartilage Each epiphysis is covered with a layer of smooth, shiny
cartilage that acts like a cushion to protect the joint from wear and tear.
6. Periosteum This is a strong fibrous membrane that covers the entire bone with the
exception of the joint surfaces. The periosteum provides an anchoring point for
tendons and ligaments.
7. Endosteum A fibrous membrane that lines the medullary cavity.
8. Bone cells Bone contains bone-forming cells called osteoblasts and bone-
destroying cells called osteoclasts.
There are two primary types of bone material. Compact bone, which makes
up 80 percent of all bone, is the dense, rigid outer layer of that provides strength and
structural integrity. Cancellous bone, of which the remaining 20 percent is
comprised, is honeycombed bone in structure and makes up much of the enlarged
ends of the long bones and ribs. The structure of this type of bone enables it to absorb
large amounts of stress. The bones of the human skeleton are not static. The skeletal
system is vibrant and continuously active, contributing a steady stream of new blood
cells through bone marrow. Bone tissue is also subject to loss or damage through
wear and tear, disease, or injury. Through the process of bone remodeling, bone
tissue is constantly being dissolved, removed, and replaced by new building blocks
of remodeled bone. Bone formation is affected by factors such as diet and hormonal
influences and by a lack of nutrients, such as calcium and vitamins C and D. The
absence of these nutrients from the diet can harm bone development
(Rogers, 2002).
The bones of the body fall into four general categories: long bones, short
bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. Long bones are longer than they are wide and
work as levers. The bones of the upper and lower extremities (ex. humerus, tibia,
femur, ulna, metacarpals, etc.) are of this type. Short bones are short, cube-shaped,
and found in the wrists and ankles. Flat bones have broad surfaces for protection of
organs and attachment of muscles (ex. ribs, cranial bones, bones of shoulder girdle).
Irregular bones are all others that do not fall into the previous categories. They have
varied shapes, sizes, and surfaces features and include the bones of the vertebrae and
a few in the skull. Bones are composed of tissue that may take one of two forms.
Compact, or dense bone, and spongy, or cancellous, bone. Most bones contain both
types. Compact bone is dense, hard, and forms the protective exterior portion of all
bones. Spongy bone is inside the compact bone and is very porous (full of tiny
holes). Spongy bone occurs in most bones. The bone tissue is composed of several
types of bone cells embedded in a web of inorganic salts (mostly calcium and
phosphorus) to give the bone strength, and collagenous fibers and ground substance
to give the bone flexibility (Applegate, 2010).
Bones are tough and usually don't break even when we have some pretty bad
falls. I'm sure you have broken a big stick at one time. When you first try to break the
stick it bends a bit but with enough force the stick finally snaps. It is the same with
your bones. Bones will bend a little, but if you fall the wrong way from some
playground equipment or maybe your bike or skateboard you can break a bone.
Doctors call a broken bone a fracture. There are many different types of fractures.
Luckily, bones are made of living cells. When a bone is broken your bone will
produce lots of new cells to rebuild the bone. These cells cover both ends of the
broken part of the bone and close up the break (Anonymous, 2010).
 CHAPTER III
EXPERIMENT METHODE

A. Time and Place

Day/Date : Wednesday/ December 1st 2010
Time : At 04.00 pm until 05.30 pm
Place : Biology laboratory eastern area 2nd floor of FMIPA UNM
B. Tool and Material
1. Tools
a. Skeleton simulation
b. Picture and list of skeleton
2. Materials
a. Paper
C. Work Procedure
1. The students were showed the skeleton simulation and made them point the
skeleton part when mentioned by assistant.
2. The students drew the picture of human skeleton.
 CHAPTER IV
EXPERIMENT RESULT AND DISCUSSION

A. Experiment Result
1. Entire human skeletal system

Note:
1. Vertebrate servicales
2. Clavicula
3. Humerus
4. Illium
5. Sacrum
6. Ischium
7. Phalanges
8. Femur
9. Patella
10. Fibula
11. Tibia
12. Metatarsal
13. Tarsal
14. Metacarpal
15. Ulna
16. Radius
17. Sternum
18. Cranium
2. Skull

Note:
1. Os Frontal
2. Os Spenoidal
3. Os Orbita
4. Os Nasale
5. Os Zygomatium
6. Os Maxilla
7. Os Mandibula
8. Os Oxipital
9. Os Parietal
10. Os Temporal

Note:
1. Os Maxilla
2. Os Pallatum
3. Zygomatikum curve
4. Os Zygomaticum
5. Oxipitalis condillus
6. Foramen magnum
7. Os Oxipital
3. Main part of body

Note:
1. Vertebrate servicales
2. Clavicula
3. Scapula
4. Illum
5. Ischium
6. Pubis
7. Sacrum
8. Sternum

4. Upper extremity

Note:
1. Humerus
2. Ulna
3. Radius
4. Metacarpal
5. Phalanges
6. Carpal
7. Clavicle
8. Scapula
 5. Lower extremity

Note:
1. Femur
2. Patella
3. Tibia
4. Fibula
5. Tarsal
6. Calcaneus
7. Phalanges
8. Metatarsal

B. Discussion
1. Skeletal system divided into two, those were axial skeleton and appendicle
skeleton. Axial skeleton included cranium or skull, columna vertebrae, ribs
(costa), and chest bone (sternum). Appendicular parts included pectoral circle
and frontal bone parts, and pelvis circle and backward bone parts.
2. Cranium consists of brain case which was included os frontal, os parietal (in
pair), os oxipital, os spenoidal (in pair), os temporal (in pair). Beside the brain
case, cranium also consists of facial bones such os nasalis, os lacrimalis, os
maxilla, os pallatum, os zygomaticum, and os mandibula. At oxipital there is
foramen magnum as the hole for spinal cord to coming out. In two sides of
foramen magnum there are condius oxipitalis, the place of joint with atlas. In
the posterior part of mandibula, there are two bumps, they are prosesus
koronoideus in anterior side, and prosesus kondiloideus in posterior side. At
maxilla and mandibula, the teeth are buried.
3. Columna vertebralis includes of servicalis vertebrae (7 internodes), toracalis
vertebrae (12 internodes), lumbalis vertebrae (5 internodes), sakralis
vertebrae (5 internodes), and caudalis vertebrae (5 internodes). Sternum
consists of manubrium, sternum body, and prosesus sifoidus. Ribs or costas
consist of costa vera that directly sticking into sternum with costa cartilage as
mediator, costa spuria are the ribs that sticking with the previous rib, costa
fluktuantes are the ribs that hanging, aren’t sticking with sternum.
4. Upper extremity parts consist of scapula, clavicle, humerus, ulna, radius,
carpal, and metacarpal, and phalanges. Scapula is the bone that connects the
humerus with clavicle. Clavicle is classified as a flat bone that makes up part
of the shoulder girdle. Humerus is the pipe bone at upper arms (or frontal feet
in animal) that lays between scapula and radius-ulna. Ulna is long bone that
lays in row with radius. Carpal is the sole cluster of the bones in the wrist
between the radius and ulna and the metacarpus. Carpal bones are not
considered part of the hand but are part of the wrist. Radius is the bone of the
forearm that extends from the lateral side of elbow to the thumb side of wrist.
Metacarpal is the intermediate part of the hand skeleton that is located
between the phalanges distally and the carpus which forms the connection to
the forearms. Phalanx is the toe and finger bone.
5. Lower extremity parts consist of illium, ischium, pubis, femur, patella, fibula,
tibia, tarsal, metatarsal, calcaneus, and phalanx. Illium is the uppermost and
largest bone of pelvis. Ischium forms the lower and back part of the hip bone.
Femur is the most proximal bone of leg in vertebrate. Femur is the longest
and largest bone in human. Patella is a thick, triangular, bone which
articulates with the femur and covers and protects the knee joint. Fibula is a
bone located on the lateral side of the tibia with which it is connected above
and below. Tibia is the larger and stronger of the two bones in the leg below
the knee in vertebrates and connects the knee with the ankle bones. Calcaneus
is the largest of the tarsal bones and the largest bone of foot. Tarsus are the
 cluster of bones in the foot between the tibia and fibula and the metatarsus.
Metatarsus consists of the five long bones of the foot. Phalanx is the toe and
finger bone.

1.
 CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

A. Conclusion
In this lab work, we could conclude:
1. The bones that construct cranium are os frontal, os parietal, os oxipital, os
spenoidal, and os temporal. And beside those, the cranial constructed by
facial bones such the maxilla, mandibula, zygomaticum, and nasal.
2. Body part bones constructed by columna vertebrae which are vertebrae
servicales, vertebrae toracales, vertebrae lumbales, sacrum, and coccigrus;
and chest bones or sternum.
3. Motioning part bones consist of upper extremity and lower extremity. Upper
extremity constructed by scapula, clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, carpal,
metacarpal, and phalanx. Lower extremity constructed by illium, ischium,
pubis, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal, metatarsal, calcaneus, and phalanx.
B. Suggestion
After we did this experiment, we could suggest:
1. Better if the students memorizing the bones’ names well before entering the
laboratory activity.
2. Better if the students draw their picture seriously.
 BIBBLIOGRAPHY

Anonymous. 2010. Skeletal System. http://www.massagenerd.com/body_

planes_.html. Accessed at December 3rd 2010.

Applegate, Kent M. 2010. The Skeletal System. http://home.comcast.net/~wnor/

terminologyanatplanes.htm. Accessed at December 3rd 2010.

Cole, Adrian. 2004. All of Human in One. Australia: Franklin Watts.

Kitredge, Mary. 2001. The Human Body: An Overview. USA: Chelsea House
Publishers.

Marieb, Elaine. 2004. Human Anatomy and Physiology. New Delhi: Pearson
Education.

Rogers, Kara. 2002. Bone and Muscle Structure, Force, and Motion. New York:
Britanica Educational Publishing.

Rudd, Stephen. 2005. The Factson File Ilustrated Guide Book to The Human Body.
New York: The Diagram Group.

Walch, Weston. 2006. Top Shelf Human Anatomy and Physiology. Maine: Walch
Publisher.
 The Skeletal System
The Skeletal System serves many important functions; it provides the shape and
form for our bodies in addition to supporting, protecting, allowing bodily
movement, producing blood for the body, and storing minerals.

Types of Bone

The bones of the body fall into four general categories: long bones, short bones,
flat bones, and irregular bones. Long bones are longer than they are wide and
work as levers. The bones of the upper and lower extremities (ex. humerus,
tibia, femur, ulna, metacarpals, etc.) are of this type. Short bones are short,
cube-shaped, and found in the wrists and ankles. Flat bones have broad surfaces
for protection of organs and attachment of muscles (ex. ribs, cranial bones,
bones of shoulder girdle). Irregular bones are all others that do not fall into the
previous categories. They have varied shapes, sizes, and surfaces features and
include the bones of the vertebrae and a few in the skull.

Bone Composition

Bones are composed of tissue that may take one of two forms. Compact, or
dense bone, and spongy, or cancellous, bone. Most bones contain both types.
Compact bone is dense, hard, and forms the protective exterior portion of all
bones. Spongy bone is inside the compact bone and is very porous (full of tiny
holes). Spongy bone occurs in most bones. The bone tissue is composed of
several types of bone cells embedded in a web of inorganic salts (mostly calcium
and phosphorus) to give the bone strength, and collagenous fibers and ground
substance to give the bone flexibility
Skeletal System This information will help you find out
how the skeletal system supports, protects and maintains our bodies.

What is the Skeletal System?

Your Skeletal system is all of the bones in the body and the tissues such as
tendons, ligaments and cartilage that connect them.
Your teeth are also considered part of your skeletal system but they are not
counted as bones. Your teeth are made of enamel and dentin. Enamel is the
strongest substance in your body.

How do bones break and heal?

Bones are tough and usually don't break even when we have some pretty
bad falls. I'm sure you have broken a big stick at one time. When you first try
to break the stick it bends a bit but with enough force the stick finally snaps. It
is the same with your bones. Bones will bend a little, but if you fall the wrong
way from some playground equipment or maybe your bike or skateboard you
can break a bone. Doctors call a broken bone a fracture. There are many
different types of fractures.

Luckily, bones are made of living cells. When a bone is broken your bone will
produce lots of new cells to rebuild the bone. These cells cover both ends of
the broken part of the bone and close up the break.