7.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY IN SPORTS (XI)

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

Anatomy: The word anatomy has been derived from a Greek word "Anatome" meaning to cut up. It is the study
of structures that make up the body and how those structures relate with each other.

Anatomy is divided into the following categories: Gross/Macro anatomy is the study of the larger structures of the
body, those visible without the aid of magnification. It deals with the large body structures such as heart, lungs and
bones. Microscopic anatomy is the study of those structures of body which can't be seen with the naked eye. Gross
anatomy may further be subdivided into the following categories:
1. Systemic anatomy: Systemic anatomy is the study of the working and structures of a discrete body system. It is
the study of a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function. e.g., a systemic study of
the muscular system would include all of the skeletal muscles of the body.
2. Regional anatomy: is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region. Regional
anatomy helps us appreciate the interrelationships of body structures, such as how muscles, nerves, blood vessels,
and other structures work together to serve a particular body region. e.g., the study of an area of the body such as
the abdomen would include a study of all organs, blood vessels, etc., in that part of the body.
3. Surface anatomy: this is a study of external features of the body like the bony projections of the body which act as
a landmark and help us to locate the other deeper structures. e.g., skin, nails, hair, etc. Microscopic anatomy
includes:
(i) Cytology or the study of the internal structure of cells
(ii) Histology or the study of tissues (groups of cells)

Physiology: The word physiology has been derived from a Greek word "physis-logia" meaning study of nature. It
is the study of how the body and its parts work or function.
 Hence, anatomy and physiology are studied together to give students a full appreciation and understanding
of human body.
 Physiology is further divided into sub parts which are as follows:
 Human physiology: This branch of physiology refers to the study of a specific organism, ie., the human being.
 Cellular and systemic physiology: Cellular physiology is the study of the function of cells while systemic
physiology is the study of the function of the body's systems.

Importance of Anatomy and Physiology: The relationship between physiology and anatomy is very
important. The study of Anatomy and Physiology:
• Helps in valuation of a player's capacity.
• Helps to study the effects of exercises on human body.
• Helps in positioning of body during training session.
• Helps in preventing sports injuries.
• Helps in providing adequate information of sports nutrition.
• Helps in speedy rehabilitation from sports injuries.
• Helps in improving the sports performance of a player.
• Helps a player to choose any capacity.
• Helps in recovery of fatigue occurred during training session.
• Helps in the study of ill-effect of alcohol to human body.
• Provides information of positive or negative aspects of a player's body structure.

FUNCTION OF SKELETON SYSTEM, CLASSIFICATION OF BONE AND TYPES OF JOINTS

Skeletal System
The human body is designed in a particular shape because of the skeletal system. The bones and associated
cartilages of the skeleton create a supportive framework for the muscles and organs of the body. The bones are rigid
while the cartilage components of the skeleton are flexible. The joints, or articulations, form the junctions between
individual bones. The muscles pull against the bone levers to cause movement. The axial skeleton consists of the
skull, vertebral column, and ribcage. The appendicular skeleton consists of the arms, legs, and supporting structures
in the shoulders and pelvis.

It is of two types:
• Axial Skeleton: This skeleton consists of the following bones:
■Skull: 28
■Sternum: 1
■Ribs: 24
■ Hyoid bone: 1
■Vertebral column: 26 for adults and 33 for children

• Appendicular Skeleton: This skeleton consists of the following bones:

■ Upper Limbs: 64
■Lower Limbs: 62

Classification of bones: The bones of the body come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The four principal types
of bones are long, short, flat and irregular.
• Long Bones: Bones that are longer than they are wide are called long bones. These consist of a long shaft with two
bulky ends or extremities. These are primarily compact bone but may have a large amount of spongy bone at the
ends or extremities. Long bones include bones of the thigh, leg, arm, and forearm.
• Short Bones: Short bones are roughly cube shaped with vertical and horizontal dimensions approximately equal.
These consist primarily of spongy bone, which is covered by a thin layer of compact bone. Short bones include the
bones of the wrist and ankle.
• Flat Bones: Flat bones are thin, flattened and usually curved. Most of the bones of the cranium (or the upper skull)
are flat bones.
• Irregular Bones: Bones that are not in any of the above three categories are classified as irregular bones. These are
primarily spongy bones that are covered with a thin layer of compact bone. The vertebrae and some of the bones in
the skull are irregular bones. All bones have surface markings and characteristics that make a specific bone unique.
There are holes, depressions, smooth facets, lines, projections and other markings. These usually represent passage
ways for vessels and nerves, points of articulation with other bones or points of attachment for tendons and
ligaments.

Functions of bones: Our bones perform seven important functions:

• Support: Bones provide a framework that supports the body and cradles its soft organs. For example, bones of the
lower limbs act as pillars to support the trunk of the body when we stand and the rib cage supports the thoracic wall.
• Protection: The fused bones of the skull protect the brain, the vertebrae surround the spinal cord and the rib cage
protects the vital organs of the thorax.
• Movement: Skeletal muscles, which attach to bones by tendons, use bones as levers to move the body and its
parts. As a result, we can walk, grasp objects and breath. The design of joints determines the types of movements
possible.
• Mineral and growth factor storage: Bone is a reservoir for minerals, most importantly calcium and phosphate. The
stored minerals are released into the blood stream in their ionic form as needed for distribution to all parts of the
body.
• Blood cell formation: Most blood cell formation, or hematopoiesis, occurs in the red marrow cavities of certain
bones.
• Triglyceride (fat) storage: Fat, a source of energy for the body, is stored in bone cavities.
• Hormone production: Bones produce osteocalcin, a hormone which not only helps regulate bone formation, but
also protects against obesity, glucose intolerance and diabetes mellitus.
Classification of Joints: A joint also called an articulation, is any place where adjacent bones or bone and
cartilage come together to form a connection. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally. Structural
classification of joints take into account, whether the adjacent bones are strongly anchored to each other by fibrous
connective tissue or cartilage, or whether the adjacent bones come together within a fluid-filled space called a joint
cavity.
Joints are classified according to the amount of movement of which they are capable and their structural
composition in three categories:
(i) Immovable Joints: These joints are also called fibrous joints, because the bones are connected by fibrous tissue.
These joints cannot be used for movement of body parts.
(ii) Slightly Movable Joints: In these joints, surfaces of bones are separated by some intervening substance and only
slight movement is possible.
(iii) Freely Movable Joints: These joints are also called synovial joints. These joints include most of the joints of the
body.
These freely movable joints are further classified into these categories:
(a) Gliding Joints: These joints permit gliding movements only, as in the joints between bones of the wrist,
between bones of the ankle.
(b) Hinge Joints: These joints permit angular movement in one direction, like a door on its hinges. The
movements of these joints are called flexion and extension e.g., elbow, knee and ankle joints, etc.
(c) Condyloid Joints: These joints allow an angular movement in two directions e.g., wrist joint. Movements of
this joint include flexion and extension, but no rotation.
(d) Saddle Joints: These joints permit a great freedom of movement e.g., joint of thumb. It enables the thumb
to oppose the fingers.
(e) Ball and Socket Joints: These joints have an angular movement in all directions and a pivot movement. In
this form of joint, a more or less rounded head lies in cup. For example, shoulder joint and hip joint.

Meaning of Circulatory System: The circulatory system is sometimes called the blood-vascular system. It consists of
the heart, which is a muscular pumping device, and a closed system of vessels called arteries, veins, and capillaries.
As the name implies, blood contained in the circulatory system is pumped by the heart around a closed circle or
circuit of vessels as it passes again and again through the various "circulations" of the body. As in the adult, survival
of the developing embryo depends on the circulation of blood to maintain homeostasis and a favourable cellular
environment. In response to this need, the circulatory system makes its appearance early in development and
reaches a functional state long before any other major organ system. The primitive heart begins to beat regularly
early in the fourth week following fertilisation.

Heart: The heart is a muscular pump that provides the force necessary to circulate the blood to all the tissues in the
body. Its function is vital because, to survive, the tissues need a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients and
metabolic waste products have to be removed. Deprived of these necessities, cells soon undergo irreversible
changes that lead to death. While blood is the transport medium, the heart is the organ that keeps the blood moving
through the vessels.

Structure of the Heart: The human heart is a four- chambered muscular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a man's
closed fist with two-thirds of the mass to the left of midline.
The heart is enclosed in a pericardial sac that is lined with the parietal layers of a serous membrane. The visceral
layer of the serous membrane forms the epicardium.

Functions of Heart: The heart circulates blood through two pathways: the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit.
In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart via the pulmonary artery and
travels to the lungs, then returns as oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart via the pulmonary vein. In the
systemic circuit, oxygenated blood leaves the body via the left ventricle to the aorta, and from there enters the
arteries and capillaries where it supplies the body's tissues with oxygen. Deoxygenated blood returns via veins to the
vena cava, re-entering the heart's right atrium.
Arteries: Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has low oxygen content
from the right ventricle to the lungs. Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body
tissues. Blood is pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries that branch repeatedly into smaller and
smaller arteries until the branching results in microscopic arteries called arterioles. The arterioles play a key role in
regulating blood flow into the tissue capillaries. About 10 percent of the total blood volume is in the systemic arterial
system at any given time.

Capillaries: Capillaries, the smallest and most numerous of the blood vessels, form the connection between the
vessels that carry blood away from the heart (arteries) and the vessels that return blood to the heart (veins). The
primary function of capillaries is the exchange of materials between the blood and tissue cells.

Veins: Veins carry blood towards the heart. After blood passes through the capillaries, it enters the smallest vein,
called venules. From the venules, it flows into progressively larger and larger veins until it reaches the heart. In the
pulmonary circuit, the pulmonary veins transport blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. This blood has
high oxygen content because it has just been oxygenated in the lungs. Systemic veins transport blood from the body
tissue to the right atrium of the heart. This blood has reduced oxygen content because the oxygen has been used for
metabolic activities in the tissue cells.

Functions and structure of respiratory system

Nose and Nasal Cavity: The nose and nasal cavity form the main external opening for the respiratory system and are
the first section of the body's airway- the respiratory tract through which air moves. The nose is a structure of the
face made of cartilage, bone, muscle, and skin that supports and protects the anterior portion of the nasal cavity.
The nasal cavity is a hollow space within the nose and skull that is lined with hair and mucus membrane. The
function of the nasal cavity is to warm, moisturise and filter air entering the body before it reaches the lungs. Hair
and mucus lining the nasal cavity help to trap dust, moulded pollen and other environmental contaminants before
they can reach the inner portions of the body. Air exiting the body through the nose returns moisture and heat to
the nasal cavity before getting exhaled into the environment.

Mouth: The mouth, also known as the oral cavity, is the secondary external opening for the respiratory tract. Most
normal breathing takes place through the nasal cavity, but the oral cavity can be used to supplement or replace the
nasal cavity's functions, when needed. Because the pathway of air entering the body from the mouth is shorter than
the pathway of air entering from the nose, the mouth does not warm and moisturise the air entering the lungs as
well as the nose performs this function. The mouth also lacks the hair and sticky mucus that filters air passing
through the nasal cavity. The one advantage of breathing through the mouth is that its shorter distance and larger
diameter allow more air to quickly enter the body.

Pharynx: The pharynx, also known as the throat, is a muscular funnel that extends from the posterior end of the
nasal cavity to the superior end of the esophagus and larynx. The pharynx is divided into 3 regions: the nasopharynx,
oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. The nasopharynx is the superior region of the pharynx found in the posterior of the
nasal cavity. Inhaled air from the nasal cavity passes into the nasopharynx and descends through the oropharynx,
located in the posterior of the oral cavity. Air inhaled through the oral cavity enters the pharynx at the oropharynx.
The inhaled air then descends into the laryngopharynx, where it is diverted into the opening of the larynx by the
epiglottis. The epiglottis is a flap of elastic cartilage that acts as a switch between the trachea and the oesophagus.
Because the pharynx is also used to swallow food, the epiglottis ensures that air passes into the trachea by covering
the opening to the oesophagus. During the process of swallowing, the epiglottis moves to cover the trachea to
ensure that food enters the oesophagus and to prevent choking.

Larynx : The larynx, also known as the voice box, is a short section of the airway that connects the laryngopharynx
and the trachea. The larynx is located in the anterior portion of the neck, just inferior to the hyoid bone and superior
to the trachea. Several cartilage structures make up the larynx and give it its structure. The epiglottis is one of the
cartilage pieces of the larynx and serves as the cover of the larynx during swallowing. Inferior to the epiglottis is the
thyroid cartilage, which is often referred to as the Adam's apple as it is the most commonly enlarged organ and is
visible in adult males. The thyroid holds open the anterior end of the larynx and protects the vocal folds. Inferior to
the thyroid cartilage is the ring- shaped cricoid cartilage which holds the larynx open and supports its posterior end.
In addition to cartilage, the larynx contains special structures known as vocal folds, which allow the body to produce
the sounds of speech and singing. The vocal folds are folds of mucus membrane that vibrate to produce vocal
sounds. The tension and vibration speed of the vocal folds can be changed to change the pitch that they produce.

Trachea: The trachea, or windpipe, is a 5-inch long tube made of C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings lined with pseudo-
stratified ciliated columnar epithelium. The trachea connects the larynx to the bronchi and allows air to pass through
the neck and into the thorax. The rings of cartilage making up the trachea allow it to remain open to air at all times.

Bronchi and Bronchioles: At the inferior end of the trachea, the airway splits into left and right branches known as
the primary bronchi. The left and right bronchi run into each lung before branching off into smaller secondary
bronchi. The secondary bronchi carry air into the lobes of the lungs-2 in the left lung and 3 in the right lung. The
secondary bronchi in turn split into many smaller tertiary bronchi. The tertiary bronchi split into many smaller
bronchioles that spread throughout the lungs. Each bronchiole further splits into many smaller branches less than a
millimeter in diameter called terminal bronchioles. Finally, the millions of tiny terminal bronchioles conduct air to
the alveoli of the lungs.
As the airway splits into the tree-like branches of the bronchi and bronchioles, the structure of the
walls of the airway begins to change. The primary bronchi contain many C-shaped cartilage rings that firmly hold the
airway open and give the bronchi a cross- sectional shape like a flattened circle or a letter D. As the bronchi branch
into secondary and tertiary bronchi, the cartilage becomes more widely spaced. The bronchioles differ from the
structure of the bronchi in that they do not contain any cartilage at all. The presence of smooth muscles and elastin
allow the smaller bronchi and bronchioles to be more flexible and contractile.
The main function of the bronchi and bronchioles is to carry air from the trachea into the lungs.
Smooth muscle tissue in their walls helps to regulate airflow into the lungs. When greater volumes of air are
required by the body, such as during exercise, the smooth muscle relaxes to dilate the bronchi and bronchioles. The
dilated airway provides less resistance to airflow and allows more air to pass into and out of the lungs. The smooth
muscle fibers are able to contract during rest to prevent hyperventilation. The bronchi and bronchioles also use the
mucus and cilia of their epithelial lining to trap and move dust and other contaminants away from the lungs.
Lungs: The lungs are a pair of large, spongy organs found in the thorax lateral to the heart and superior to the
diaphragm. Each lung is surrounded by a pleural membrane that provides the lung with space to expand as well as a
negative pressure space relative to the body's exterior. The negative pressure allows the lungs to passively fill with
air as they relax. The left and right lungs are slightly different in size and shape due to the heart pointing to the left
side of the body. The left lung is therefore slightly smaller than the right lung and is made up of 2 lobes while the
right lung has 3 lobes.
The interior of the lungs is made up of spongy tissues containing many capillaries and around 30
million tiny sacs known as alveoli. The alveoli Scan to know are cup-shaped structures found at the end of the
terminal bronchioles and surrounded by capillaries. The alveoli are lined with thin simple squamous epithelium that
allows air entering the alveoli to exchange its the capillaries.

Muscles of Respiration: Surrounding the lungs are sets of muscles that are able to cause air to be inhaled or exhaled
from the lungs. The principal muscle of respiration in the human body is the diaphragm, a thin sheet of skeletal
muscle that forms the floor of the thorax. When the diaphragm contracts, it moves inferiorly a few inches into the
abdominal cavity, expanding the space within the thoracic cavity and pulling air into the lungs. Relaxation of the
diaphragm allows air to flow back out of the lungs during exhalation.
Between the ribs are many small intercostal muscles that assist the diaphragm with expanding and
compressing the lungs. These muscles are divided into 2 groups: the internal intercostal muscles and the external
intercostal muscles. The internal intercostal muscles are the deeper set of muscles and depress the ribs to compress
the thoracic cavity and force air to be exhaled from the lungs. The external intercoastal are found superficial to the
internal intercoastal and function to elevate the ribs, expanding the volume of the thoracic cavity and causing air to
be inhaled into the lungs.
Pulmonary Ventilation: Pulmonary ventilation is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs to facilitate gas
exchange. The respiratory system uses both a negative pressure system and the contraction of muscles to achieve
pulmonary ventilation. The negative pressure system of the respiratory system involves the establishment of a
negative pressure gradient between the alveoli and the external atmosphere. The pleural membrane seals the lungs
and maintains the lungs at a pressure slightly below that of the atmosphere when the lungs are at rest. This results in
air following the pressure gradient and passively filling the lungs at rest. As the lungs fill with air, the pressure within
the lungs rises until it matches the atmospheric pressure. At this point, more air can be inhaled by the contraction of
the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles, increasing the volume of the thorax and reducing the pressure
of the lungs below that of the atmosphere again.
To exhale air, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax while the internal intercostal
muscles contract to reduce the volume of the thorax and increase the pressure within the thoracic cavity. The
pressure gradient is now reversed, resulting in the exhalation of air until the pressures inside the lungs and outside
of the body are equal. At this point, the elastic nature of the lungs causes them to recoil back to their resting volume,
restoring the negative pressure gradient present during inhalation.

Types of Respiration
(i) External Respiration: External respiration is the exchange of gases between the air filling the alveoli and the blood
in the capillaries surrounding the walls of the alveoli. Air entering the lungs from the atmosphere has a higher partial
pressure of oxygen and a lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide than does the blood in the capillaries. The
difference in partial pressures causes the gases to diffuse passively along their pressure gradients from high to low
pressure through the simple squamous epithelium lining of the alveoli. The net result of external respiration is the
movement of oxygen from the air into the blood and the movement of carbon dioxide from the blood into the air.
The oxygen can then be transported to the body's tissues while carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere
during exhalation.
(ii) Internal Respiration: Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between the blood in capillaries and the tissues
of the body. Capillary blood has a higher partial pressure of oxygen and a lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide
than the tissues through which it passes. The difference in partial pressures leads to the diffusion of gases along their
pressure gradients from high to low pressure through the endothelium lining of the capillaries. The net result of
internal respiration is the diffusion of oxygen into the tissues and the diffusion of carbon dioxide into the blood.

PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLES

All muscle cells share several properties: contractility, excitability, extensibility, and elasticity:
(a) Contractility is the ability of muscle cells to forcefully shorten. For instance, in order to flex (decrease the angle of
a joint) the elbow one needs to contract (shorten) the biceps brachii and other elbow flexor muscles in the anterior
arm. Notice that in order to extend your elbow, the posterior arm extensor muscles need to contract. Thus, muscles
can only pull, never push.
(b) Excitability is the ability to respond to a stimulus, which may be delivered from a motor neuron or a hormone.
(c) Extensibility is the ability of a muscle to be stretched. For instance, let's reconsider ourelbow flexing motion we
discussed earlier. In order to be able to flex the elbow, the elbow extensor muscles must extend in order to allow
flexion to occur. A lack of extensibility is known as spasticity.
(d) Elasticity is the ability to recoil or bounce back to the muscle's original length after being stretched.

Functions of muscle tissue:

• Movement: The body's skeleton gives enough rigidity to our body that skeletal muscles can yank and pull on it,
resulting in body movements such as walking, chewing, running, lifting, manipulating objects with our hands, and
picking our noses.
• Maintenance of posture: Without much conscious control, our muscles generate a constant contractile force that
allows us to maintain an erect or seated position, or posture.
• Respiration: Our muscular system automatically drives movement of air into and out of our body.
• Heat generation: Contraction of muscle tissue generates heat, which is essential for maintenance of temperature
homeostasis. For instance, if our core body temperature falls, we shiver to generate more heat.
• Communication: Muscle tissue allows us to talk, gesture, write, and convey our emotional state by doing such
things as smiling or frowning.
• Constriction of organs and blood vessels: Nutrients move through our digestive tract, urine is passed out of the
body, and secretions are propelled out of glands by contraction of smooth muscle. Constriction or relaxation of
blood vessels regulates blood pressure and blood distribution throughout the body.
• Pumping blood: Blood moves through the blood vessels because our heart tirelessly receives blood and delivers it
to all body tissues and organs.
Muscles help protect fragile internal organs by enclosing them and are also critical in maintaining the integrity
of body cavities. For example, fetuses with incompletely formed diaphragms have abdominal contents herniate
(protrude) up into the thoracic cavity, which inhibits normal lung growth and development.