Digestive System:

The digestive system of Calotes is composed of the alimentary canal and

digestive glands.
Alimentary canal:
 The alimentary canal starts from the mouth.
 The mouth is a transverse terminal aperture provided with jaws.
 The jaws are provided with teeth.
 The teeth are sharp, small, pointed and recurved backwards.
 They are actually simple cones (haplodont) having an enamel cap and an
interior ortho-dentine.
 The ortho-dentine encloses a large pulp cavity.
 All the teeth are similar in size and shape, i.e., they are of homodontous type.
 But the teeth differ markedly in size in different regions of the jaws.
 The mouth leads into the buccal cavity which is large and compressed dorsoventrally. At the
posterior part of the roof of buccal cavity, there are two openings for the internal nares. The
floor of the cavity houses a median and muscular tongue. The tongue is protrusible and the
apex of the tongue is slightly bifurcated. The buccal cavity passes to the stomach through
pharynx and oesophagus.
 The stomach is elongated, sac-like and placed more or less vertically. The stomach is
divisible into a cardiac and a pyloric portion. The pyloric part of the stomach is followed by
small intestine which is narrow tubular and coiled.
 The small intestine may again be divided into a U-shaped duodenum and a long much
coiled ileum. The small intestine is followed by a large intestine (or rectum) which is small,
sac-like and opens into the cloaca. At the junction of ileum and rectum a small projection,
called coeliac caecum, is present.
 The colon is absent. The cloaca opens to the exterior by the anus (or vent). The whole of the
alimentary canal is kept in position by folds of peritoneum.

 The stomach is attached with the body wall by the mesogaster, the ileum by the mesentery
and the rectum by the mesorectum.
Digestive glands:
 Small unicellular salivary and mucous glands are present in the buccal cavity. These glands
are few in number.
 The most important of the digestive glands is the LIVER which is massive and situated dorsal
to the stomach. The liver is divided into left and right lobes. Both the lobes are united
anteriorly. The upper margin of the liver and the apex of the ventricle are connected by
gubernaculum cordis. The liver secretes bile. The bile remains stored in the gall-bladder.
The GALL-BLADDER is a small and roundish sac. which is situated on the outer margin of
the right lobe of liver.
 The inner wall of the stomach is beset with a large number of unicellular parietal glands and
gastric glands which secrete hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes respectively.
 Another important digestive gland is the PANCREAS. It is a flat and elongated structure.
The colour is white. It opens into the beginning of the duodenum. The secretion of pancreas
is called pancreatic juice. The juice is alkaline in nature and contains digestive enzymes.
These enzymes are trypsin, amylopsin and lipase.
 The SPLEEN is a small rounded glandular structure situated in the mesentery below the
stomach. It is morphologically connected with the digestive tract, but has got no digestive
role. The spleen stores the erythrocytes and also destroys them, when necessary.
Respiratory System:
 Calotes is a true lung breather. Structurally the respiratory organs do not show any great
improvement over the amphibians but functionally the lungs have become more efficient.

Respiratory structures:
 The respiratory structures include a pair of nostrils (or external nares) situated a little ahead of
the eyes. The nostrils lead to nasal passages which open into the roof of the buccal cavity. The
glottis opens into the larynx which is box-shaped and is made up of cartilages.

 The larynx opens into the trachea which is narrow, tubular and beset with complete
cartilaginous tracheal rings. The trachea is bifurcated into two and forms a pair of narrow
passages, called bronchi. Each bronchus enters into a lung.

 The lungs are elongated sac-like structures. The right lung is slightly larger than the left one.
Internally each lung is incompletely divided into small chambers by the development of many
incomplete septa. These chambers are called alveoli. The alveoli are the actual areas where
exchange of gases occurs. It constitutes about one-third part of the whole lung. The wall of the
lung is made of squamous epithelium.
Circulatory System:
Transportation of various substances within an organism is conducted by the circulatory
system. The circulatory system consists of cardiovascular system and lymphatic system.
The cardiovascular system includes:
(a) The heart which is an efficient machine to propel,
(b) The fluid vehicle, the blood into the pipelines of (c) arteries and (d) veins.

Structure of Heart:
 The heart of Calotes lies in the pleuroperitoneal cavity and occupies a position which is
midway between the fore-limbs though the ventricle extends slightly beyond the level of the
axillae. Thus the position of the heart is rather forward and such a disposition indicates a lower
grade of organisation because such condition is observed in Sphenodon.

 The heart is covered by a thin and transparent pericardial membrane. The space between the
heart and pericardium is filled with pericardial fluid. The heart is triangular in shape. The
auricular region is wider than the ventricular region (Fig. 8.10A).
Sinus venosus:
 The heart is made up of five chambers. The sinus venosus is reduced and is disposed
transversely and dorsal to the lower half of the auricles.
 It is thin-walled and is formed by the confluence of the venae cavae.
 The right half of the sinus venosus is larger than its left part and is formed by the right anterior
vena cava (precaval vein) and posterior vena cava (postcaval vein).
 The sinus venosus opens into the right auricle near the region of the constriction by a
semicircular sinuauricular aperture. The aperture is provided with sinuauricular valves. The
valves develop from the upper and lower margins of the aperture and the free end of the valves
which is slightly frilled projects into the lumen of the right auricle.
Auricle:
 The right auricle is larger than the left auricle and appears darker than the left auricle. The wall
of the right auricle is thick and its inner lining is thrown into a number of musculi pectinate.
 The left auricle is smaller than the right auricle. The pulmonary aperture is circular in outline
and is located close to the inter-auricular septum.
 Internally the left and right auricles are separated by a thin inter-auricular septum. The septum
extends posteriorly for a short distance within the ventricle and bears at its posterior tip the
auriculoventricular valves.
Ventricle:
 The ventricle is muscular, spongy and triangular in appearance. Its apex is directed caudad
and bears a thin and white cord of tissue, called gubernaculum cordis. It penetrates the
pericardium and reaches the upper margin of liver. The thick-walled ventricle (Fig. 8.10 C)
is provided internally with an inter-ventricular septum which divides it incompletely into
left and right halves.
 In the middle of the ventricle and close to the line of seperation between the auricles and
ventricle, there are three apertures from which the aortic arches arise. The inner wall of
the ventricle is provided with thick interlacing muscles, called columnae carnae. There are
bunches of thread-like muscle fibres, called chordae tendineae, by which the valves remain
attached to the columnae carnae.

Valve:
 The different compartments of the heart are intercommunicated by apertures having swing
door-like flaps, called the valves. These valves control the passage of blood and direct the
flow in one direction.
Circulatory System:
 Thus, though the ventricle in Calotes is morphologically incompletely divided, there is a
tendency for the physiological separation of the two types of blood, at least in two auricles
completely and in the ventricle partially.

Blood:
 Blood of Calotes is red in colour and is made up of plasma and blood cells. The white
blood corpuscles are irregular in outline, non-pigmented and each bears a spherical
nucleus.

Arterial System:
 Of the six pairs of arterial arches joining the dorsal aorta to the ventral aorta during
embryonic development of arteries, the third, fourth and sixth pairs persist in adult
Calotes and other reptiles. Ventricle of Calotes arise three aortic arches.
These arches are:
(a) One pulmonary aorta and (b) Two systemic aortae, right and left (Fig. 8.11).
 Internal Carotid:Forehead, nose, eye, ear External Carotid:Face, neck
 Pulmonary Artery:The artery transfer blood from heart to lungs The
pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs for
purification.
 Systemic arch: A paired blood vessel that carries blood from the aorta
to the trunk and hind limbs
 left Subclavian artery supplies blood to the left arm and the Right
subclavian artery supplies blood to the right arm
 Vertebral arteries are major arteries of the neck. Typically, the
vertebral arteries originate from the subclavian arteries.
 Oesophageal arteries are a group of arteries from disparate sources
supplying the esophagus
 parietal artery (posterior temporal) is a small artery supplying the
head.
 celiac artery supplies oxygenated blood to the liver, stomach,
abdominal esophagus, spleen and the superior half of both the
duodenum and the pancreas.
 gastric artery supplies blood to the lower curvature of the stomach
 Mesenteric artery is a major blood vessel in the digestive system. This
artery branches off the abdominal aorta and supplies oxygenated
blood to the pancreas and the lower parts of the intestine. This
includes the lower duodenum, as well as transverse colon.
 Internal iliac artery: supplies the perineum and sexual organs.
 External iliac artery: supplies hind limb
Pulmonary aorta:
It arises independently from the right portion of the ventricle and soon splits into two branches,
each entering into a lung. It carries deoxygenated blood.

Left systemic aorta:

This aorta originates independently from the right.
Then it curves round the heart and goes downwards towards right systemic aorta.
From the left systems arch four oesophageal arteries arise.

Right systemic aorta:

This important aorta emerges independently from the right ventral margin of the base of the
ventricle and moves forward. It then curves to the right side of the heart. It meets the left
systemic aorta posteriorly to form the dorsal aorta. It carries oxygenated blood.
The following arteries originate from the dorsal aorta chronologically along the antero-
posterior axis.

These are:
(a) Anterior oesophageal artery. Single and originates from the ventral surface of the dorsal
aorta,
(b) First pair of Parietal arteries from dorsal aorta,
(c) First and second pairs of gastric arteries which supply the cardiac stomach,
(d) Second and third pair of parietal arteries,
(e) Fourth and fifth pairs of gastric arteries followed by third pair of parietal arteries,
(f) Sixth and seventh pairs of gastric arteries followed by fourth pair of parietal arteries,
(g) Eighth pair of gastric arteries followed by fifth and sixth pair of parietal arteries.
It is to be noted that the number of gastric arteries varies from 4-8 pairs.
(h) Anterior mesenteric artery which supply the intestine,
(i) Coeliac artery which runs obliquely cranial to supply the pyloric stomach.
(ii) A splenic artery is given off by it to supply the spleen,
(j) Seventh and eighth pairs of parietal arteries.
(k) Posterior mesenteric artery or Hepato- intestinal artery. The anterior or hepatic supplies
the gall-bladder while posterior or intestinal supplies the intestine.
(l) Ninth pair of parietal arteries,
(m) The right and left genital arteries. The point of origin of the right one is a bit up than its
counterpart on the left,
(n) Tenth and eleventh pairs of parietal arteries,
(o) Left and right renal arteries. There may be more than one pair,
(p) Twelfth and thirteenth pairs of parietal arteries,
(q) One pair of iliac arteries. Each branch bifurcates into external and internal iliac. From near
the point of bifurcation a slender vesicular artery is given off by each branch,
(r) The dorsal aorta now enters into the tail as caudal artery.
Venous System:
 The deoxygenated blood from the different parts of the body is brought back to heart by means
of veins except the pulmonary veins which carry oxygenated blood. The veins run parallel to
the arteries, appear dark and in position are superficial to arteries.
 The central meeting arena of all veins in the body is the sinus venosus. Sinus venosus is a
triangular structure and its two base angles receive left and right Percival’s while the apex
receives a single median postcaval (Fig. 8.12).
Each precaval vein has been formed by the union of three veins.
These are:
(a) The external jugular which brings back blood from the floor of mouth and tongue,
(b) The internal jugular which drains blood from the brain and
(c) The subclavian which draws blood from the forelimb.
The right precaval gets an azygos vein. The postcaval is constituted by the large median vein
which is formed by the union of right and left efferent renal veins emerging from the two
kidneys. Genital veins join the left and right efferent renal veins before their union. A pair of
stout but short hepatic veins joins the median postcaval before its entry into the sinus venosus.
A median caudal vein carries blood from the tail region. The caudal vein ultimately bifurcates
into two veins which enter into the kidneys. Each vein gives rise to the renal portal vein to the
kidney and pelvic vein which receives femoral and sciatic veins from the hind limb.

The pelvic veins unite to form a median epigastric (or anterior abdominal) vein which
ultimately opens into the left liver. The anterior abdominal vein and the postcaval are free of each
other except through the renal portals in the kidneys. The blood from the visceral organs, i.e.,
stomach, intestine, pancreas, etc., enters into the left lobe of the liver by a hepatic portal vein.
 In Calotes both renal portal and hepatic portal systems are present. These systems have got
many advantages and fulfil the demand for a second set of capillaries through which blood
must flow. The organisms having such a portal system are always provided with double
supplies of blood, arterial and venous.

 The pulmonary venous circuit comprises of pulmonary veins. From each lung two pulmonary
veins carry blood to the heart. Of these veins, one comes out from the anterior part while the
other comes from the posterior part of lung (Fig. 8.13). Near the left auricle all these four
branches unite and open into the left auricle. The pulmonary veins bring oxygenated blood to
the heart from the lungs.
Nervous System:
The nervous system of Calotes consists of:
(a) Central nervous system,
(b) Peripheral nervous system consisting of cranial and spinal nerves which originate from brain
and spinal cord respectively and
(c) Autonomic nervous system (or sympathetic nervous system).

Central nervous system:

 The brain and the spinal cord constitute the Central Nervous System.
Brain:
 The brain is encased in the cranium. The nervous tissues of the brain are protected by two
meninges, called piamater and duramater.
 The piamater remains in close contact with brain and it is highly vascular. The duramater lies
just outside the piamater and is mainly fibrous in nature.
 The two coverings remain separated from each other and the space between them is called
subdural space.
Brain of an adult Calotes is differentiated into
 Forebrain, (b) Midbrain and (c) Hind- brain (Fig. 8.14A).
Forebrain:
 The forebrain consists of telencephalon anteriorly and diencephalon posteriorly. From the
side wall of telencephalon emerges a pair of sac-like projections, called olfactory lobes. The
posterior part of the telencephalon is elongated and is called cerebral hemisphere or
cerebrum. The diencephalon bears on the dorsal surface two projections, called parietal
organ and pineal body. The parietal organ is situated anterior to the pineal body
 Another projection called paraphysis, is present in a reduced condition. From the ventral side
of the diencephalon hangs a funnel-like structure, called infundibulum, on the apex of which
is situated the pituitary body or hypophysis.
Midbrain:
 The midbrain consists of a pair of oval optic lobes or corpora bigemina which arise as
projections of the dorsolateral walls. Ventral to the optic lobes, there are a pair of longitudinal
bands or peduncles, called crura cerebri, which connect the hindbrain to the midbrain.
Hindbrain:
 The hindbrain consists of a narrow and non-convoluted metencephalon or cerebellum and a
long myelencephalon or medulla oblongata which continues posteriorly with the spinal
cord.

Spinal cord:
 It is the posterior prolongation of the brain through the neural canal. Its walls are thick and
the roof and the floor bear dorsal and ventral furrows. Externally the spinal cord is made up
of white matter consisting of medullated fibres and internally there is grey matter
containing ganglionic cells and non-medullated fibres.
Excretory System:
 The excretory system of Calotes consists of a pair of metanephric kidneys situated in the
abdominal cavity. Each kidney is dark-red in colour and is lobed. The kidneys are free at the
anterior end but are united along the inner margins at the posterior part.
 Histologically each kidney is made up of a central portion, the medulla and a peripheral
portion, the cortex. The cortex contains numerous renal or Malpighian corpuscles. Each
corpuscle consists of Bowman’s capsule which is a double-walled cup of epithelial cells.
 The renal tubules open into the collecting tubule which communicates with the ureter. The
kidney has a double set of capillary system. One set is formed by the afferent and efferent
renal arteries while the other set is formed by renal and renal portal veins.
 There are a pair of ureters arising one from each kidney. The ureters are short and open into
the cloaca separately. From the lateral wall of the cloaca arises a single urinary bladder.
Reproductive System:
 Sexes in Calotes are separate and it is difficult to distinguish between the male and the
female from external morphological features.
Male reproductive system:
 This system includes a pair of testes situated in the abdominal cavity which remain suspended
by a special dorsal fold of the mesentery, called mesorchium. The testes are white oval
bodies. The testis of the right side is larger in size compared to that of the left side.
 The testes undergo a drastic change in size. In the breeding time they become larger than
they are at the non-breeding period. From the inner surface of each testis runs the epididymis
which receives the vasa efferentia. The epididymis proceeds posteriorly as vas deferens.
 Two vasa deferentia open separately by small papillae into the cloaca but before opening into
the cloaca each receives the ureter of the corresponding side. So through this common duct
both urine and male gametes pass into the cloaca which is designated as the urinogenital duct.
 The posterolateral side of the cloaca is provided with a pair of copulatory sacs each of which
houses a hemipenis. The hemipenis is reversible. The hemipenes (plural of hemipenis) are
actually the bilateral sacculations of the cloaca which extend posteriorly below the skin.
 The distal end of each hemipenis is large and rounded. The hemipenes are grooved to conduct
sperms from the cloacal cavity of the male into that of a female.
Female reproductive system:
 This system includes a pair of ovaries which have similar position as that of testes. Each
ovary is fixed to the dorsal side by a special fold of mesentery, called mesovarium. The
female gonoduct is called oviduct. The oviduct is attached with the body wall by a special
fold of peritoneum, called broad ligament.
 The anterior end of the oviduct is wide, funnel-shaped, ciliated and is situated near the
corresponding ovary below the level of lungs. The oviducts are not coiled but are folded which
run posteriorly to open independently into the cloaca.
 The diameter of the oviduct shows gradual increase towards the posterior side in cross-section.
The lower part of the oviduct is designated as the uterus where the eggs are stored temporarily
prior to laying.
 In the anterior part of the oviduct there are many albumen glands and the posterior part is
provided with shell glands which secretes albumen and shell of the eggs respectively.