Cross Section of Roads

Cross Section of Roads
In the cross section of roads, it is that portion of the roadway between the outer
edge of the outer traffic lane and the inside edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or slope.
Shoulders are provided for the safe operation and to allow the development of
full traffic capacity. Shoulder also provides a place for vehicle to park in
emergency e.g. for changing tires. Shoulders also function to laterally support the
pavement structure.
Bypass
A bypass is a road or highway that avoids or "bypasses" a built-up area, town, or
village, to let through traffic flow without interference from local traffic, to
reduce congestion in the built-up area, and to improve road safety. A bypass
specifically designated for trucks may be called a truck route.
Ring Road
A ring road is a road or a series of connected roads encircling a town, city, or
country. The most common purpose of a ring road is to assist in reducing traffic
volumes in the urban center, such as by offering an alternate route around the city
for drivers who do not need to stop in the city core.
Camber
Passenger Car
passenger car is a road motor vehicle, other than a moped or a motor cycle,
intended for the carriage of passengers and designed to seat no more than nine
persons (including the driver).
Avenues
Avenues, meanwhile, have the same attributes as streets but run perpendicular to
them,
Boulevard
while a boulevard is essentially a wide street (or avenue), with a median through
the middle. A lane is, predictably, smaller.
Pedestrian
A pedestrian is a person travelling on foot, whether walking or running. In
modern times, the term usually refers to someone walking on a road or pavement,
but this was not the case historically.
Single-Unit Trucks:
Are vehicle configurations designed to transport property, where the

cargo carrying capability of the vehicle is integral to the body of the
vehicle (i.e. - it does not carry its cargo in an attached trailer). These
vehicles when greater than 10,000 lbs. GVWR are recorded in the
FMCSA SAFETYNET database and grouped based upon number of
tires and axles present.
• Single-Unit Truck (2 axles, 6 tires)
• Single-Unit Truck (3 or more axles)
Level of Service
Level of service (LOS) is a qualitative measure used to relate the quality of motor
vehicle traffic service. LOS is used to analyze roadways and intersections by
categorizing traffic flow and assigning quality levels of traffic based on
performance measure like vehicle speed, density, congestion, etc.
Definition of Highway Capacity:
Highway capacity is associated with traffic volume and traffic density.
Traffic volume is the number of vehicles passing a given point on a roadway
during a specified time period. This is usually expressed as vehicles per hour.
Design speed of a road?
Design speed is a selected speed used to determine the various geometric features
of the roadway. The assumed design speed should be a logical one with respect
to the topography, anticipated operating speed, the adjacent land use, and the
functional classification of the highway.
Carriageway
A carriageway (British English) or roadway (North American English) consists
of a width of road on which a vehicle is not restricted by any physical barriers
or separation to move laterally.
Crash Cushion
An impact attenuator, also known as a crash cushion, crash attenuator, or
cowboy cushion, is a device intended to reduce the damage to structures, vehicles,
and motorists resulting from a motor vehicle collision. Impact attenuators are
designed to absorb the colliding vehicle's kinetic energy.
Guardrail
A Guardrail is a longitudinal barrier used to protect motorists from roadside
hazards. The purpose of a guardrail is to reduce the severity of collisions by
preventing a vehicle from veering off the roadway into an embankment or fixed
object.
Cross section in filling and cutting
The cross-section method involves plotting cross sections of the existing and
proposed levels at regular intervals across the project site. For each of the cross
sections, the cut area and the fill area is determined. This can save a great deal of
time if you are using the cross-section method.
Stopping sight distance (SSD)
Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a
highway at any spot having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle
traveling at design speed, safely without collision with any other obstruction.
Typical cross-section of a railway track
Components of Railway Track

Gauge – Inner to inner distance between two rails.
Types of Gauges
• Broad Gauge (BG) – 1.676m
• Meter Gauge (MG) – 1m
• Narrow Gauge – 0.762m
• Feether Track Gauge – 0.61m
Cant or Superelevation `
Cant or superelevation is the amount by which one rail is raised above the
other rail. It is positive when the outer rail on a curved track is raised above
inner rail and is negative when the inner rail on a curved track is raised above the
outer rail.
Sleeper Density in Railways
Rail Corrugation
Rail corrugation is a phenomenon of great diversity but appears now to be
substantially understood. This review proposes some differences in classification
of the phenomenon to take account of work undertaken since a widely cited
review was published by Grassie and Kalousek in 1993, it attempts to fill holes
in an overall understanding of the problem, and answers questions that remained
open in 1993 and several that have arisen since. All types of corrugation that have
been documented to date are essentially constant-frequency phenomena. By
treating the vehicle/track system in its entirety, treatments are proposed that
impinge upon track and vehicle design as well as upon the wheel/rail interface
where corrugation appears.
Rail Joints
Rail joints are widely used to connect two rails together and ensure the trains
passing through safety in orbit. According to the position of the sleeper, rail
joints can be classified into three types: supported joints, suspended joints and
bridge joints.
Creep in Rail
Creep in rail is defined as the longitudinal movement of the rails in the track in
the direction of motion of locomotives. Creep is common to all railways and its
value varies from almost nothing to about 6 inches or 16cm`
Buckling of Track
A rail track is liable to get distorted, particularly in hot weather when the
compressive forces in the track exceed the lateral or longitudinal resistance of the
track. The buckling of the track is a matter of grave concern as it may lead to
derailments and even serious accidents.
1 Causes
A track can buckle due to the following reasons.
(a) Inadequate resistance to track due to deficiencies in the ballast
(b) Ineffective or missing fastenings

(c) Laying, destressing, maintaining, or raising the track outside the specified
rail temperature range, especially is hot weather
(d) Failure to lubricate the SEJs in time
(e) Excessive creep, jammed joints, sunken portions in a welded track
2 Symptoms
Buckling in a track becomes noticeable when the track displays the following
symptoms.
(a) Presence of kinks in the track
(b) Absence of gaps in the SWR portion of the track in the morning hours of hot
days.
(c) Expansion/contraction at SEJ is 20 mm more than the theoretical range

given in the LWR manual
(d) High percentage of hollow sleepers
3 Precautions
Buckling can be avoided by taking the following precautions.
(a) Proper expansion gaps as specified in the manual should be provided in the
SWR portion of the track.
(b) As buckling is likely to occur between the 11th and 17th hour of the day,
rosters of key men should be so adjusted that there is proper patrolling of the
LWR portions of the track when the temperature exceeds tm + 20 o C.
(c) No work of track maintenance including packing, laying, aligning, major/

minor realignment of tracks, screening of ballast should be done outside the
specified temperature.
(d) Wherever the track structure is weak and vulnerable to buckling, immediate
action should be taken to strengthen by the provision of extra shoulder
ballast, increase in sleeper density, provision of adequate anticreep
fastenings, replacement and tightening of missing and loose fastenings, etc.
4 Actions
As soon as a tendency towards buckling is detected in the track, traffic should be

suspended and the track should be fully protected. The track should be stabilized
by heaping the ballast on the shoulders up to the top of the web of the rail. When
buckling takes place, traffic on the affected track should be suspended and
remedial work should be carried out in the following stages under the personal
supervision of a PWI.
a) The temperature of the rail is brought down as far as possible by pouring

water on the rails.
b) Emergency or permanent repairs and destressing should be carried as
specified in the LWR manual.
c) In the case of fish-plated or SWR tracks, a gentle reverse curve may be
provided in the rear of the buckled track to ease out the stress. The buckled
rail should then be cut at two places that are more than 4 m apart. The track
should then be slewed to correct the alignment and rails of the required
lengths should be cut and inserted to close the gaps.
Coning of Wheels in Railway

Coning of Wheels, the tread of the wheels of a railway vehicle is not made flat,
but sloped like a cone in order to enable the vehicle to move smoothly on curves
as well as on straight tracks.
Asphalt
Asphalt, also known as bitumen, is a sticky, black, highly viscous liquid or semi-
solid form of petroleum. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined
product, and is classed as a pitch. Before the 20th century, the term asphaltum
was also used.
Tar
Tar bitumens are increasingly being used as a binder in road works. They consist
of a standard product of about 70% bitumen and 25-30% tar. Tar bitumens are
classifiable as the pyrolysis products of organic materials and are applied hot.
Asphalt and bitumen are petroleum products, whereas tar is a dark coloured
product collected from destructive distillation of organic substances like coal,
wood or bituminous rocks.
Crab Angle
The difference between course and heading is called the crab angle, or side-
slip angle. On an airplane, wind often pushes the airplane sideways, so that the
direction it is pointed is different from the direction it is actually moving. An
airplane is "crabbing" if this is happening.
Side Slope
Side slope is defined as the slope of the cut or fill expressed as the ratio of
horizontal distance to vertical distance.
b

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Cross Section of Roads

Are vehicle configurations designed to transport property, where the

Components of Railway Track

A track can buckle due to the following reasons.

(a) Inadequate resistance to track due to deficiencies in the ballast

(b) Ineffective or missing fastenings

(d) Failure to lubricate the SEJs in time

(e) Excessive creep, jammed joints, sunken portions in a welded track

(a) Presence of kinks in the track

(c) Expansion/contraction at SEJ is 20 mm more than the theoretical range

(d) High percentage of hollow sleepers

Buckling can be avoided by taking the following precautions.

(c) No work of track maintenance including packing, laying, aligning, major/

As soon as a tendency towards buckling is detected in the track, traffic should be

a) The temperature of the rail is brought down as far as possible by pouring

Coning of Wheels in Railway

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