Applied Linguistics & TESOL Programs

Handout to postgraduate students in Applied Linguistics & TESOL courses at

USQ who may experience some difficulty writing an essay assignment

ESSAY WRITING

An essay is an extended piece of expository writing which presents an argument based

on current research. The argument is developed through a thesis statement and a
sequence of main points which are set out in the introduction. The thesis tells the reader
the position taken by the writer in response to a task or question about the discipline
content. It is often introduced into the essay with expressions like "This essay will
argue……." or "In this essay I argue………" (note that this is one of the rare instances
in which the first person is used in academic writing). A thesis statement must make an
assertion, so it is more than a description of what the essay will do.

The following statement is not a thesis statement because it does not assert anything:
"This essay will outline the major ways in which speech is a form of social identity."

In contrast this statement is a thesis statement because it states a position:

"This essay will argue that speech is the distinctive marker of group membership in
different speech communities."

The rest of the essay must then demonstrate that the literature on the topic, e.g., research
into speech and group membership, supports the assertion made in the introduction. That
is, the body of the essay must demonstrate the developing argument point by point. The
argument has to be structured so the reader can follow relationships between the
concepts in a logical sequence.

The final part of an expository text is the conclusion. It reiterates the thesis and reviews
the argument leaving a lasting impression of the writer's argument.

Example
Here is another example of a thesis statement: "This essay maintains that a language
teaching method is best understood in terms of the approach advocated, the curriculum
design developed as a result and techniques applied in the classroom."

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 Essay Structure

Here is a diagram of the typical structure of an essay:

General Background

Scope and limitations

INTRODUCTION
Outline main
points

thesis

1st main point to argue the

thesis in paragraph(s)

BODY 2nd main point in

paragraph(s)
Main points developed in
paragraphs
Further main points in
individual paragraphs

Last main point in

paragraph(s)

CONCLUSION Reiterate main points and

thesis and then close

Writing Introductions
The function of the introduction is three-fold: firstly it must provide the reader with an
incentive to read the whole essay, secondly it must give an orientation to the essay in the
form of a clear, purposeful and detailed map of its contents and thirdly, it must give a
statement of the writer's position, the thesis statement. In order to achieve this function,
introductions usually have several parts:

 The opening sentences draw the reader into the essay stating the importance of
providing the context of the topic or issue, often providing background. *

 If the essay is going to deal with only some aspects of the topic, the writer usually
explains the scope and limitations in the next sentences, showing a broad
understanding of the topic and the reasons for dealing with only part of it.

 The next two, three or more sentences set out the main points, which are used to
support the thesis statement. The thesis statement usually follows as the last sentence
of the introduction.

*If short definitions are required, they are written early in the introduction often after the
'background'. However, if substantial definitions are required, for example, as part of an
analysis of the topic, they should be allocated a distinct section of the essay and not
simply be listed in the introduction.

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Study the following two sample introductions:

Sample One:
Question: 'It is important not to overlook the social aspect of language,
because in many ways, speech is a form of social identity, and is used,
consciously and unconsciously to indicate membership of different groups of
different speech communities' (Yule, 1985). Discuss.

Introduction:
The social aspect of language has a major influence on people and the way they
speak.1 Although English is the majority language in Australia, the way people use
English reflects their social group membership within different speech
communities of Australian society.2 After a brief overview of terms used to
identify language groups namely, dialect and accent, lingua franca, pidgins,
creoles, the essay will examine the origin and development of different speech
communities.3 It will then analyse the micro social markers which indicate group
membership in small units within existing speech communities.4 The final section
will deal with language choices. 5 It will be argued that speech plays a major role
in establishing group membership and social identity.

 The phrases in bold are simply for explanation in this guide. It is not appropriate for you to use 'bold'
text in academic writing.

Notice how sentence 1 attracts the readers' attention and draws them in to read some
background to the essay topic. The scope and limitations are identified in sentence 2.
Sentences 3-5 beginning 'After a brief overview'…and ending with 'language choices',
outline the main points which will support the thesis statement. The final sentence is the
essay's thesis beginning „It will be argued..‟

Sample Two:
There is flexibility in the way a writer constructs and writes an introduction. You will
notice that the following example has included background to the topic, the scope and
limitations of the essay, and an outline of the main points in the sequence in which they
will be written in the body of the essay. In this introduction, the thesis appears earlier in
the introduction, at sentence 4.

It is an introduction to a 2000-2500 word essay on the topic: Introducing Second

Language Studies in Elementary School.

Introduction
The question of whether to introduce second language learning at elementary
school level or at a later stage in the education system has long been a
controversial issue among researchers and educators.1 There are a number of
factors that require investigation when examining the age at which second
language study should begin.2 Some of those issues relate to bilingualism and
cognitive development, to the type of program offered and to the school setting. 3 I
argue that the early introduction of a second language program by partial
immersion assists the promotion of second language proficiency quickly and has
no detrimental effect on first language maintenance or students‟ academic
development in other subjects.4 After a discussion on the nature of the controversy
of bilingual education and cognitive development, the essay presents research
evidence providing support for the benefits of a bilingual education on cognitive
development, in terms of linguistic skills and general intellectual abilities.5 This
synthesis is followed by a description of the St Lambert immersion program,
introduced at kindergarten level.6 Then the essay examines advantages of

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 commencing English language study early, such as through the Katoh Gakuen,
Shizuoka immersion program.7 The last section acknowledges the outcomes of
higher linguistic proficiency and of motivation levels achieved through early
immersion programs.8 Finally, the essay maintains that early immersion
programs enable children to develop second language proficiency while
developing their cognitive abilities.9

 Note again, the phrases in bold are simply for explanation in this guide. It is not appropriate for you to
use 'bold' text in academic writing.

Notice how sentence 1 attracts the readers' attention and draws them in to read some
background to the essay topic. The scope appears in sentence 2 and limitations in
sentence 3. Sentence 4 provides the thesis of the essay with the words 'I argue that…'
Sentences 5-9 beginning 'After a discussion….' and ending with 'cognitive abilities',
outline the main points which will support the thesis statement.

Writing Main Points in Paragraphs

Successful essays depend on building up the overall structure, through paragraphs which
have a clearly defined main point. The main points of the essay are the main points of
the outline given in the introduction. The body of an essay is developed in the form of a
series of paragraphs which all contribute to establishing the writer's purpose. Each
paragraph exposes the writer's argument or investigation and acts as the basic unit or
building block of the extended piece of writing.

Each paragraph itself gains coherence from the series of sentences it contains. In
academic expository writing, the paragraph develops one main idea. The idea is first
stated briefly using concepts from the course. It is then explained and elaborated, by
drawing on the research literature. Finally, where appropriate, support is provided
through the use of data, and/or quotation and illustrated with an example.

Paragraphs in formal university work are characterised by moving from a general

concept to more specific detail.

A common structure for expository paragraphs academic writing is shown here:

MAIN POINT

Express the main idea of the paragraph as a generalisation often in the

form of a topic sentence.

EXPLANATION, ELABORATION

Explain the meaning of main idea and elaborate with content,

characteristically becoming more specific.

SUPPORT, ILLUSTRATION

Support the main idea with data or a quotation and illustrate with an
example.

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Study the next two sample paragraphs:

Sample paragraph one:

There are several benefits of bilingualism on cognitive development.1 Bilinguals

are familiar with two language systems so they have access to a wider range of
situations and experiences through language than the monolingual does. 2 They are
likely to develop higher order linguistic skills and to be aware of the nature of
language, even as young learners.3 The overall system of language use is more
complex in bilinguals (Cook, 1997) and they can approach sentence structure
analytically.4 As children they have a sensitivity to the semantic relationship
between words, finding similarity in the meaning of words hat and cap rather than
relying on phonetic similarities with words such as cap and can. (Ianco-Warrel,
1972).5 Their level of social sensitivity in communicative situations is also
advanced and they are able to perceive the needs of others and to act accordingly,
providing assistance as needed (Genesee, Tucker & Lambert, 1975).6 The more a
child moves towards becoming a balanced bilingual, the greater the cognitive
advances (Arnberg, 1981).7 One cognitive skill appears to enhance the next.8

Notice in sample paragraph one, sentence1 states the main point; sentences 2-3 explain
the meaning of the idea and elaborate details. The next sentence 4 provides support from
a quotable source and the remaining sentences offer examples and in this case further
research examples.

Sample paragraph two:

Starting language studies at an early stage of learning is an advantage. 1 An

early start, at kindergarten level, means that the learner will have a longer
period of time in school life to engage with the second language.2 When the
input is measured and directed at the student's level of comprehension,
second language proficiency is expected to develop. 3 Ellis (1997) maintains
that by allowing younger students ample time, as is done in the acquisition
of their first language, they are likely to progress at a more individual pace
4
than if second language learning were to begin later in school. Aural/oral
language skills are allowed to develop first in a natural way before
corresponding skills in reading, writing and other literary skills are
5
introduced.

Notice how in sample paragraph two, sentence 1 states the main point, sentences 2-3
explain and amplify the point. The final sentence supports the point by providing data
from a quotable source 4. Sentence 5 illustrates with an example.

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Writing Conclusions

The final part of an essay is the conclusion. It restates the thesis position and reminds
the reader of the main points which provide the most important support for the
argument, then brings the essay to a close.

Sample conclusion

Second language proficiency is enhanced by the early introduction of a

second language program when young children can learn at a natural
pace.1 Partial immersion assists the quick promotion of the second
language.2 Research confirms progress in learning the second language
without damaging the learners' academic development in other subject
disciplines.3 Linguistic skills are likely to be more complex and general
intellectual abilities accelerated in the partial immersion programs.4 The
St Lambert and Katoh Gakuen programs demonstrate the cognitive
development which can be effected through kindergarten level partial
immersion.5 Their sensitivity to language itself as well as
communication in the foreign language are enhanced while they are in a
motivating learning environment without the pressures of anxiety and
self-consciousness which come with older students.6

Notice that sentence 1 restates the argument. Sentences 2-5 draw the readers' attention to
the most important main points made in support of the argument, and the final sentence 6
brings the essay to a close.

CRITICAL ESSAYS

You may be asked to 'critically' analyse a statement or an article. Such a question requires
you to develop an argument, one in support and one on the contrary. Develop your thesis
and be prepared to show two sides to the argument. Work through your argument step-by-
step carefully sequencing evidence of support and of an opposing view.

HEADED ESSAYS

It is sometimes optional to put headings for groups of paragraphs which fulfil the essay
task. Some writers choose to use headings as it is common in journal articles to signal the
next section of the essay. However, try to move away from the use of headings in shorter
pieces of academic writing as it may give the impression that you are not able to connect
ideas within the appropriate academic discourse.

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ON-LINE SITES

You might find the following sites helpful in your studies on writing

http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/llsu/resources/pg_materials.html

http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/

REFERENCING

Unless otherwise stated the assignments you are expected to write are academic essays in
which expository writing is the genre.

Most of the reading you do in the university culture is based on research and other writers'
ideas on the topic you are asked to read and write about. You are expected to cite relevant
sources of information on the subject you are writing about, mostly from academic books
and journals and from other publications to substantiate a point you are making. The fact
that you use other people's ideas extensively does not mean that your work is not your
own. What makes your response to a task unique is firstly the particular ideas you select
from the literature to use in your answer, and secondly, how you put those together in
response to the question.

If you do not provide references to the source of the ideas you have used then you are
presenting someone else's work as if it is your own. This is called plagiarism and is
regarded by university academics as a form of cheating.

The reasons are important for quoting other writers or citing references
1. to acknowledge the published source of the ideas in your work;
2. to conform to academic convention;
3. to give credibility to your own work;
4. to enable the reader to follow up details of interest, e.g., the research undertaken.

When you incorporate ideas that originate in your reading without using the exact words
of the authors, this is called indirect quoting. You must acknowledge the writer, for
example (Brown, 1997) inside the paragraph, close to the reference you have made.

When you reproduce in your paragraphs the exact words or imported images from
publications you have read, these are called direct quotes. They are marked using,
usually, double inverted commas thus “…..” and acknowledged, for example, (Brown,
1997, p. 223). If the quote is more than 35 words long, it is put into the text as a
paragraph with every line indented. In this case there is no need to use the inverted
commas, but the source and page number(s) must still be cited. (See the example below
in the box.)

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 …Indeed, Geraghty goes further and claims that

the language this band of well-intentioned amateur language

planners [Hunt and Hazelwood] thus forged was far from native, it
even verged on the pidgin in some respects, yet the Bible was
written in it, and, wholly or partially, most Fijian literature since.
(Geraghty, 1989, p. 385)

(Taken from Mangubhai and Mugler (2003). Note the use of square
brackets within a quote to show that the words in brackets were not
originally written by Geraghty, but have been added by Mangubhai
and Mugler.

Numerical data often found in research results are also direct quotes. They are
acknowledged by an in-text reference noting the page number as required in all references
for direct quotes.

As a guide to paragraph writing with references, the same diagram of paragraph structure
is used as previously.

The main point relates directly to the position you are taking in response to the
assignment task. It should be written in your words and should not need to be referenced
because it should be your idea. Avoid beginning a paragraph with a direct quote. When
students do this they often lose the thread of the argument they are trying to build up.
When you do explain, analyse or elaborate the main idea, you will probably need to
paraphrase material you have found in books and journals. Paraphrase is the
communication skill of using other people's ideas but writing them in your own words. If
you paraphrase, you must provide a reference; it is an indirect quote.

When you illustrate your main point with data or examples taken from the literature you
will also need to give a reference, a direct quote, because you are using both someone
else's ideas and words. Direct quotes are best used to provide support for the main point
of your paragraph.

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Read the following paragraph and note 1 the use of paraphrase to explain and elaborate the
main point and 2 the use of a direct quote to support the point.

One might reasonably expect that length of time on task equates with
performance. In terms of second language learning, the length of time spent
studying the second language should indicate language proficiency. There is
mixed evidence available. Young children appear to acquire social and
communicative language skills more effectively than older children (Krashen,
Long & Scarcella, 1979) 1 but they are disadvantaged by the limitations of their
cognitive skills and experience in terms of the rate of acquisition (Collier,
1987). Exposure is a necessary but not a sufficient predictor of second language
proficiency. Young children need continued support of their first language in
school settings, as Collier (1987, p. 4) notes:

It may be, then, that when young children are asked to learn a second language
for use at school before their first language has sufficiently matured to serve as
a source of transferable skills, the learning task is very burdensome and
requires more time than older children need- children whose first language
skills are available for transfer. 2

There is no optimal age for all aspects of second language learning. Each stage
of human development appears to have advantages and disadvantages for the
process (Stern, 1987). This observation applies in comparisons between
children and adults and between younger children and older children. Apart
from the area of pronunciation, there is no complete evidence to support claims
that young children have superiority in second language acquisition.

Referencing Systems

APA (American Psychological Association), Harvard and Oxford referencing systems are
commonly used at university. In the Applied Linguistics courses use APA consistently for
in-text referencing and for presenting the reference list at the end of the essay. Use
alphabetical order for listing authors and those works you have cited in the essay.

The USQ library on-line access provides a thorough guide to the APA referencing system. You
can find an up-to-date guide to APA through the library homepage and at:
http://www.usq.edu.au/library/help/referencing/apa.htm

Another useful site for referencing is located here:

http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets.shtml

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