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Investigating the glass ceiling phenomenon: An empirical study of glass

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DOI: 10.1108/SAJBS-04-2016-0028

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 South Asian Journal of Business Studies
Investigating the glass ceiling phenomenon: An empirical study of glass ceiling’s
effects on selection-promotion and female effectiveness
Sharjeel Saleem, Asia Rafiq, Saquib Yusaf,
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Sharjeel Saleem, Asia Rafiq, Saquib Yusaf, (2017) "Investigating the glass ceiling phenomenon:
An empirical study of glass ceiling’s effects on selection-promotion and female effectiveness",
South Asian Journal of Business Studies, Vol. 6 Issue: 3, pp.297-313, https://doi.org/10.1108/
SAJBS-04-2016-0028
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Glass ceiling
Investigating the glass phenomenon
ceiling phenomenon
An empirical study of glass ceiling’s
effects on selection-promotion and 297
female effectiveness Received 5 April 2016
Sharjeel Saleem and Asia Rafiq Revised 14 April 2017
23 July 2017
Department of Business Administration, 26 July 2017
Accepted 1 August 2017
Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan, and
Saquib Yusaf
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Department of Management Science,

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify hurdles in women’s rise up the organizational ladder
through the epistemic concept of the glass ceiling phenomenon. The secondary aim is to determine how the
glass ceiling effect results in women’s failure to secure equal representation in high-ranking executive positions
in comparison to males. The study intends to come up with empirical evidences to advance plausible
justifications and support for the organizations to manage their workforce with the sense of egalitarianism.
Design/methodology/approach – The questionnaire is administered to a sample of 210 respondents
including CEOs, directors, managers, assistants, accountants, doctors and teachers from public and private
sectors. The variables that influence the glass ceiling phenomenon are gender ( female) represented on
the board of directors (BODs), stereotypical behavior and training and development of females to measure the
glass ceiling effect. Further, this influence is examined regarding the selection and promotion of the females
as candidates, as well as female effectiveness at work. To verify the glass ceiling phenomenon, multiple linear
regression analyses with the ordinary least square method are used.
Findings – Drawing on the perspective of the social role theory, the authors identify plausible causes of the
glass ceiling phenomenon in the Asian context. The results show the presence of glass ceiling, particularly
characterizing its effects on the selection and promotion of the female candidates and their effectiveness.
The authors found that glass ceiling was negatively related to both female effectiveness and “selection and
promotion.” It was also identified that research variables such as lesser women’s representation on the BODs,
training and development and stereotypical attitude toward women promote glass ceiling.
Research limitations/implications – The larger sample and data collection from different cultures would
have assured more generalizability. The glass ceiling is affected by numerous variables; other factors can also
be explored.
Practical implications – Organizations must consider competitive females in their selection and promotion
decision making. Asian countries, especially developing countries such as Pakistan, need to develop policies to
encourage active participation of the female workforce in upper echelon. The equal employment policies will
reduce the dependency ratio of females, consequently driving the country’s economic growth.
Social implications – Societies need to change their stereotype attitudes toward women and encourage
them to use their potential to benefit societies by shattering glass ceilings that continue to place women at a
disadvantage. Developing a social culture that advances women empowerment will contribute to social and
infrastructure development in Asian countries.
Originality/value – This paper adds a thought-provoking attitude of organizations in South Asia, especially
in Pakistani societies that play a role in creating a glass ceiling, more so to shatter it even in 2016. This study
compels firms in Pakistan and other Asian regions to use unbiased practices by investigating the impact of
glass ceiling on female effectiveness that has not previously been conducted in the Asian context. To the best of
the authors’ knowledge, the study of glass ceiling in Pakistani context is first in the literature.
Keywords Glass ceiling, Dual responsibility, Female effectiveness, Stereotype attitudes South Asian Journal of Business
Studies
Paper type Research paper Vol. 6 No. 3, 2017
pp. 297-313
© Emerald Publishing Limited
2398-628X
This paper forms part of a special section on Gender, generation and leadership: insights from South Asia DOI 10.1108/SAJBS-04-2016-0028
 SAJBS 1. Introduction
6,3 In recent years, women’s participation in global workforce composition has increased
manifold (Kiaye and Singh, 2013); particularly in Asian countries, the trend is changing with
fair representation of women in the economic workforce. Women are no longer employed in
traditional occupations attributed to them like nursing and teaching, but their
representation in occupations associated with males, is rising (Kiaye and Singh, 2013).
298 This increasing proportion of women in workforce can be attributed to different factors.
First, with access to education and increasing enrollment at a higher education level, they
are able to make entry in different functional areas (Acker, 2009; Kiaye and Singh, 2013).
Second, governments are encouraging female entry in all occupational areas through policy
reforms and the quota system. Due to these factors, women are getting greater employment
opportunities at entry and mid-level positions (Kiaye and Singh, 2013).
Numerous studies have found misrepresentation of women at upper echelon (Acker, 2009;
Catalyst, 2014; Choi and Park, 2014; Glass and Cook, 2016; Hoobler et al., 2009; Kiaye and
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Singh, 2013; Sabharwal, 2013). This under-representation of women at the top position has
been termed as “Glass Ceiling” (Acker, 2009; Choi and Park, 2014; Glass and Cook, 2016;
Hoobler et al., 2009; Kiaye and Singh, 2013; Morrison, 1980; Sabharwal, 2013). The term was
coined by Ann Morrison in the 1980s. According to Morrison (1980), glass ceiling refers to
invisible barriers or blockages that create hurdles for women and other minorities from rising
to the top leadership positions. The term, glass ceiling, was later on popularized by the
journalists of the Wall Street Journal in 1986.
Evidence abounds not only that women lag behind men in getting top leadership
positions in organizations, but also that women’s hierarchical advancement has experienced
a general slowing trend (Catalyst, 2014; Ding and Chareonwong, 2013). In the USA, women
compose 46 percent of the workforce, yet hold only 4 percent of CEO positions and
16 percent of director seats among Fortune 500 firms; furthermore, women maintain only
one in four (24 percent) senior management roles globally (Hoobler et al., 2016; Dezso and
Ross, 2012). Whereas the International Labor Organization (ILO) (2015) revealed in the
report that in the Asia Pacific region, 26 percent of the firms had no women on their boards
and 65 percent of firms had less than 30 percent females in senior positions. Similarly,
women only represent 1 percent of CEOs in Fortune Global 500 companies (Acker, 2009).
Since, “women account for 51 percent of the population and 46.5 percent of the labor
force”, one would think that women would be better represented in executive positions.
In fact, only 2 percent of females from the workforce occupy the top positions (Appelbaum
et al., 2003, p. 21) representing a male dominant workforce (Powell and Butterfield, 2015).
Now it has reached 8 percent, according to Beck and Davis (2005).
Pakistan is not exempted from this “glass ceiling trap”, but rather a major victim due to its
under developed culture and attitude toward women (Saher et al., 2014). Pakistan is ranked at
135 out of 136 countries in the gender equality index (Hausmann et al., 2012) and still remains
at the same position in 2017 with a score of 0.546 (Human Development Report, 2016).
According to Punjab Development Statistics (2013), women staff in Punjab increased by
2.5 percent from 2002 to 2012. However, this increase is in lower level staff. In Pakistan, women
participation in the field of editing was found to be only about 17 percent, while 42 percent of
female doctors are general practitioners and 28 percent are specialists. Male and female ratios
are 62 percent and 30 percent in dentistry, respectively (Bakht et al., 2017).
There are many factors associated with this misrepresentation at top leadership
positions; however, discrimination practices against women on a different pretext are
considered as a primary reason (Acker, 2009; Kiaye and Singh, 2013). Glass ceiling is not
only affecting the economic growth agenda, but also posing a threat to achieving gender
equity goals at all levels in the society and in organizations. Therefore, breaking the glass
ceiling effect is fundamental to ensuring fair or equal representation of women at all
 hierarchical levels (Acker, 2009) to adopt the philosophy of equal employment opportunity Glass ceiling
in true spirit. This glass ceiling effect is affecting the progress of economic agenda reforms phenomenon
through equal participation of women at all levels. It is more pivotal in the case of
developing countries to achieve maximum level of economic efficiency through full
utilization of human resource development potential. In this context, the focused problem is
to highlight the issues that restrain females from fair representation at upper management
corridors (Powell and Butterfield, 2015). 299
2. Literature review and hypotheses
Glass ceiling contains a negative meaning in itself, showing the negative impact that stifles
the careers of talented women. It does so by blocking them from promotion and other
opportunities, stopping them from handling higher responsibilities in the organizations
(Acker, 2009; Catalyst, 2014; Hoobler et al., 2009; Kiaye and Singh, 2013; Sabharwal, 2013)
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and restricting eligible women from being selected for decision-making positions due to
stereotypical attitudes of the organizations that only support males holding these senior
positions (Acker, 2009; Kiaye and Singh, 2013; Schein, 2007). Moreover, this negative effect
restricts women for filling high-ranking positions and throws them at a disadvantage as
potential candidates for career advancement (Acker, 2009; Nevill et al., 1990).
Sabharwal (2013) identifies several factors such as lack of access to quality education,
stereotyping attitude, cultural barriers, occupational sex segregation and other biases that
hinder females’ progression to the top management positions. Choi and Park (2014) classify
these barriers impeding women to attain leadership positions into human capital,
socio-psychological and systematic barriers. According to human capital model, women are
not considered at par with males in terms of education, experience and job related competencies
(Choi and Park, 2014), while the socio-psychological model explains the lack of women
representation to top positions from sex roles and gender stereotype attitudes (Choi and
Park, 2014). Systematic barriers are problems embedded in organizational systems that create
hurdles for women in attaining top leadership positions; some of these barriers include
networking and organizational support issues (Choi and Park, 2014; Hoobler et al., 2009).
Person-centered theory attributes insignificant representation of women on senior
management positions to their behavioral differences, in relation to socialization issues in
the Asian culture (Rigger and Galligan, 1980 cited in Kiaye and Singh, 2013). In Asian
countries, women face societal and cultural barriers in developing networking and
lobbying in male dominant societies. Networking and socialization activities are
considered as the most important qualities to achieving and maintaining senior
management positions. Contrary to the person-centered theory argument, situation/
organization perceptive theory postulates that organizations encourage and provide
opportunities to competent and capable employees irrespective of gender consideration;
therefore, women’s access to senior positions is dependent on their work performance
rather than behavioral attributes (Kiaye and Singh, 2013).
The central argument of glass ceiling in the Asian context revolves around the social
role theory. Drawing on cultural influence on leadership role, behavior and attributes
(Blunt and Jones, 1997; Dorfman et al., 2012; Dickson et al., 2012), it is argued that social role
perception of women in the Asian culture (that is characterized as masculine and power
distance culture) is creating hurdles for women to assume and even retain leadership
positions. According to the social role theory, women face stereotypic perceptions because of
their multiple social roles. In this context, the plausible cause of glass ceiling for women in
leadership positions comes from role incongruity. The role incongruity of women
in leadership positions produces prejudices that create hurdles for promotion and their
effectiveness at top management positions (Eagly and Schmidt, 2001). In Asian culture,
women are perceived as submissive and assume the role of family care taker, an
 SAJBS incongruent leadership style, such that if women conform to their gender role, it makes them
6,3 ineffective in meeting the requirement of the leadership role and vice versa (Eagly and
Schmidt, 2001). If women assert leadership traits, for instance dominance and authority, it is
reciprocated or perceived as negative. Similarly, due to their submissive, emotional and
supportive nature, which is considered as negative qualities for top management positions,
women face problems in occupying senior positions. Thus in gendered leadership literature,
300 social role perception is mentioned as a major obstacle in assuming top management
positions by women (Eagly and Schmidt, 2001; Kiaye and Singh, 2013). In summary, the
current research drawing on social role theory identifies causes of glass ceiling effect in
Asian culture.

2.1 Gender of board of directors (BODs) and glass ceiling

Women in Leadership Foundation (2008) confirmed this bitter reality that working women
had to encounter a glass ceiling created by the employers when attempting to find a suitable
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job or career for themselves. They could not easily find or complete traineeship without
facing such discrimination from owners who were often the males. In contrast, Glass et al.
(2016) found that women get exposed to promotional opportunities if the organizations face
crises. This phenomenon in literature was termed as glass cliff by Ryan and Haslam (cited in
Sabharwal, 2013). These positions at the time of uncertainty and high risk pose challenges
to meet expected results and outcomes. In this time of crises, women get little support and
authority to get desired results. Women executives’ failure on these top positions results in
escalated turnover compared to their male counterpart (Glass et al., 2016).
Kanter (1977) identified many factors in his research contributing to the existence of a
glass ceiling. He stated that men always favored the candidates with analogous cultural
values and inclinations. The selection committee appointed those employees who were
similar to those already appointed. Another interesting factor identified by Hurst et al. (2016)
is that the nature of the hierarchical relationships between women in their workplace is also
a significant, but under-researched factor when considering the career development of
women. Post and Byron (2015) stated in their study that in organizations where women get
leadership positions in BODs and get access to power, those organizations perform better in
gender parity, fair representation of women and shareholder protections along with
observing high financial performance. Based on literature support, we postulate:
H1. A higher percentage of female members in BOD has a negative relationship with
glass ceiling.

2.2 Stereotypical behavior and glass ceiling

Kelly (1967) described stereotypical behavior in his attribution theory. He explained that
in-group members chalk up with specific attributes to a certain out group. There exist
bundle of reasons for such behavior. Such as Brown (1995) explains the causes of
stereotypic attitudes in a hierarchal order of importance as “religion, nationality, race,
gender and qualification” (Brown, 1995, p. 23).
As far as religion is concerned, the treatment of women varies from state to state having the
same religion. For example, in Islamic countries such as Turkey and in Saudi Arabia, women
are treated differently. Thus, we can say that even people having the same religion treat
women differently due to influence of cultural values. This is natural, that people belonging to
different beliefs behave differently. Such rigid sociocultural thoughts cause people to stick with
those thoughts and be stereotypical in their dealings (Post and Byron, 2015).
Pakistan is a male dominant society where women face stereotypic attitude at the
workplace. The same stereotypical and behavioral belief hinders women’s career
progression (Tajfel, 1982). Okafor et al. (2011) identified that women were not delegated
 the managerial positions due to: male chauvinistic behavior, racism in selection Glass ceiling
decision and promotion, male supremacy in the organization, under-representation of phenomenon
females in the organization’s administration and rare chances to be availed by the females
to move ahead in their professional career (Underdahl et al., 2014; ILO, 2015).
Such stereotypic beliefs are thought to be some of the major causes of employment
inequalities (Morrison and Von Glinow, 1990; Afza and Newaz, 2008). Therefore,
this stereotypical behavior is the result of such discriminations that positively correlate 301
with stereotypes. Despite discussing glass ceiling in the business context, educational
career is not free from this. Moreover, woman are even discouraged from being a first
author in academic journals in Asian countries and the ratio of women as first authors has
declined from 2004 to 2014 by 3.6 percent (Süßenbacher et al., 2017). This behavior forms
the expectations of the group members and as such, influences the performance
evaluations. In contrast to Western culture, women in Asian culture are more prone to
stereotypes, hence, are more likely to being excluded from the race of career progression
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(Choi and Park, 2014; Mun and Jung, 2017; Yousaf and Schmiede, 2017) and academic
authorship (Süßenbacher et al., 2017):
H2. Stereotypical behavior toward women has a positive relationship with glass ceiling.

2.3 Training and development of females and glass ceiling

Training had been the key to success and climbing the ladder of promotion. Training
provided the opportunity to acquire the necessary skills to perform certain jobs (Abdullahi,
2006). According to the study of Gale (1994), although it was generally perceived that there
was no gender bias and discrimination in providing training for male and females in most
successful organizations, unfortunately, in reality it was not so. Reality brought a different
picture, especially in the male chauvinistic environment. Such programs were gender biased.
In a study by Amaratunga et al. (2007), it was found that women were mostly appointed at
staff level jobs such as human resource and communication. Men were populating the line
level jobs such as production. Due to the nature of the job, females were not provided
training as often as males.
Abdullahi (2006) stated that lack of tailored training opportunities, insufficient
previous experiences and education were some of the reasons those created problems for
women to occupy senior managerial posts. Dainty et al. (2000) proposed that women
confronted glass ceiling because of poor training opportunities and lack of mentorship.
Hence, women are less likely to be nominated for training, making them less competitive
and thus, create a lag in their careers:
H3. Training and development of females has a negative relationship with glass ceiling.

2.4 Relationship between glass ceiling and selection-promotion

In the contemporary business world, decision-making jobs carry “the male only image”
(Kolade and Kehinde, 2013). The matter of glass ceiling and the need for such studies
aroused because females were not rewarded and paid commensurate with their commitment
and determination in achieving the organizational goals. There was a significant correlation
between gender and the salary of the female-law professors in the USA (Fisher et al., 1993).
There were certain artificial barriers (glass ceiling) creating hindrances in their rank and
salary (Gupta et al., 2006; Dolado et al., 2005).
Powell and Butterfield (2015) focused on the glass ceiling as promotional decisions of the
top level management candidates in the US federal government. This study was backed by
multiple theories such as the rational theory and discrimination theory to provide the logic
of the research question. In the notion of the discrimination theory, personal characteristics
 SAJBS unrelated to their productivity were also valued on the labor market. It was described in this
6,3 research that there could be job-relevant and irrelevant factors affecting the promotional
decisions, along with the decider’s gender (Radford, 1990; Warren and Antoniades, 2016).
Dimovski et al. (2010) examined the glass ceiling effects in Singaporean and Malaysian
organizations. The findings showed that the culture of Malaysian organizations inhibits the
promotion of female managers and that they did not receive the development opportunities
302 necessary for career advancement or organizational support including networking,
mentoring and family-friendly initiatives. Similarly, Choi and Park (2014) found gender
disparity in leadership positions in Korean civil service. After this discussion, we formulate
the following hypothesis:
H4a. Glass ceiling has a negative relationship with selection and promotion of females.
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2.5 Relationship between glass ceiling and female effectiveness

In the modern studies, it is found that female executives perform equally as well as men and are
more committed and more cooperative than male executives who are stuck in the bureaucratic
and the stereotypical style of management (Heilman, 2001). Glass et al. (2016) found that women
were preferred to lead organizations in the times of crises due to their emotional nature and
commitment. However, women were less effective in top positions due to lack of necessary
support from male colleagues (Glass et al., 2016). Moreover, in male-dominant careers, they are
judged more severely for their mistakes than men (Olsen et al., 2010).
In the Asian culture, women are reluctant to develop networking with their male
counterparts, wherein networking is an instrumental factor when it comes to career
progression. Similarly, the interaction theory postulates that women limit their career success
by refraining from networking activities critical for assuming and sustaining top management
positions (Singh et al., 1998 cited in Kiaye and Singh, 2013). Furthermore, lack of interest or
cultural barriers to establish networks with influential people produces ineffectiveness of
women at top positions (Kiaye and Singh, 2013). Moreover, current research has made a
compelling case that gender discrimination and inequality is not overt, but has become
a more covert phenomenon (e.g. Hoobler et al., 2009; Ryan et al., 2011); therefore, epistemology
must enable us to capture this subtlety. In general, glass ceiling also affects female
effectiveness at the workplace:
H4b. Glass ceiling has a negative impact on female effectiveness (Figure 1).

3. Methodology
3.1 Population
All the organizations in public and private sectors in Pakistan typically (representing
South Asian culture) were the target population for this research. These organizations
are located in Punjab province of Pakistan; this is the most populated province of Pakistan,
nonetheless, most of the large organizations of Pakistan are located in this province.

Gender of
the BOD
Selection-Promotion

Training and Glass Ceiling

Development

Figure 1. Stereotype Female Effectiveness

Research model Attitude toward
Women
 Public sector organizations had more than 5,000 employees, while all private sector Glass ceiling
organizations were Public limited companies. Both public and private sector organizations phenomenon
were employing males in majority. In recent years, in both public and private sector
organizations, women, as well as the minority ratio in workforce increased. There are two
main reasons behind increasing the number of women and minorities in the workforce.
First, the government has seriously taken EEO initiatives through implementation of quota
for women in every sphere of workplace activities. Second, due to urbanization, the female 303
population now has more opportunities to get higher education and take up employment
opportunities compared to prevailing cultural values in rural areas. In order to check the
existence of the glass ceiling, the organizations from various economically crucial industries
such as health, education, banking, textile and communication were selected.

3.2 Participants/sampling
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The only firms investigated were those where males and females both work together.
The questionnaires were distributed among 125 males and 125 females in these organizations.
A total of 210 questionnaires were completed and returned and the response rate was
84 percent. Because of some of the respondents unwillingness, time constraints and other
factors, we were able to receive 94 (49 from the public sector and 45 from the private sector)
filled questionnaires from females and 116 (43 from the public sector and 73 from the private
sector) filled questionnaires from male respondents. Among these respondents,
106 (49 females and 43 males) were from the public sector while another 104 (45 females and
73 males) belonged to the private sector.

3.3 Procedure
Employees at the senior/managerial level were targeted for the study. In our pilot study, we
ensured the English language proficiency of the employees was optimal. No challenges were
faced during this process, as all the managers were educated and their official language was
also English; thus, there was no need to translate the questionnaire in Urdu.
Preliminary interactions were made with the employees of all the selected organizations
by phone, which tracked further references with the corporate heads of all the organizations
that facilitated the sample selection. Personal telephonic communications were made
with the whole sample on an individual basis for primary understanding. Upon their
inclination to participate, they were notified that the information received would remain
strictly confidential and would solely be used for research purposes.

3.4 Measures
The questionnaires were in English and had two sections. In the first section, information
regarding demographic data such as gender, age, status, years of experience and status of
their organization as profit or non-profit were received. In the second part, respondents were
asked to record their responses on Likert scales against research variables.
3.4.1 Gender of the BOD. To measure this variable, we used the “8-item” scale developed
by Esen and Collison (2005) used in the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM)
survey report. Gender of the BOD was measured by selecting the categories of male and
female as a percentage. Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.625.
3.4.2 Training and development of females. This variable was measured using the
“8-item scale” developed by Esen and Collison (2005). The responses were measured
on a five-point Likert scale (strongly disagree ¼ 1, disagree ¼ 2, neutral ¼ 3, agree ¼ 4,
strongly agree ¼ 5). Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.855. A sample question out of the
above mentioned scales is as follows: “Training and Development programs exist for all
high-potential managers including women in this organization.”
 SAJBS 3.4.3 Stereotyping toward women. This variable was assessed using 6 out of 25 items
6,3 scale developed by Spence et al. (1973). The scale was slightly modified according to the
needs of the research and the most relevant number of items were included, keeping in view
the length of the questionnaire based on expert opinion. The responses were categorized
using the five-point Likert scale (strongly disagree ¼ 1 to strongly agree ¼ 5). Cronbach’s α
for this scale was 0.763. The representative item is as follows: “It is insulting to women to
304 have the ‘obey’ clause remain in the marriage service.”
3.4.4 Glass ceiling. This variable was measured using the 11-item scale developed by
South African National Editors’ Forum survey report on SANEF (2007) Audit of Women
and Men in Newsrooms. The responses were measured on a 5-point Likert scale. Cronbach’s
α for this scale was 0.850. The sample question out of the above mentioned scales is as
follows: “Targets have been set for equal representation of the genders in management in
this organization.”
3.4.5 Selection and promotion of females. To measure this variable, we used a ten-item
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scale developed by Still (1997) used in a report prepared for the Human Rights and Equal
Opportunity Commission. The responses were measured on a five-point Likert scale.
Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.763. The sample question out of the above mentioned
scales is as follows: “This organization includes diversity considerations in selection
decision and promotion criteria.”
3.4.6 Female effectiveness. The seven-item scale developed by Schostak et al. (2010)
was used to measure female effectiveness. Used in a report on the effectiveness of
continuing professional development in 2010, the scale was slightly modified according to
the needs of the research and the most relevant number of items were included, keeping in
view the length of the questionnaire. The responses were measured on a five-point
Likert scale. Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.827. The sample question out of the above
mentioned scales is as follows: “Women do not have the emotional stamina of men to handle
positions of authority.”

3.5 Data analysis

There were three outcomes to be measured. The first outcome was the impact of all the
predictors on the glass ceiling. Further, the impact of glass ceiling was seen on selection and
promotion, as well as on female effectiveness. Multiple linear regression was used with
OLS estimation using SPSS 21. Regression was run in three steps. First, the glass ceiling
was investigated by the predictors. Second, selection and promotion were checked and
found to be affected by the glass ceiling. In the final step, female effectiveness was studied.

4. Results
Table I shows that 94 female (44.8 percent) and 116 male (55.2 percent) respondents provided
their views by filling in the questionnaires. Out of the 210 respondents, 95 respondents
(45 percent) were in the age range of 21-30 years, 72 respondents (34 percent) belonged to the
31-40 age group, 37 respondents (18 percent) fell in the class of the 41-50 age group and
the remaining six respondents (3 percent) were in the age range of 51 years and above.
Similarly, education and other aspects are presented in the table.
Table II displays correlation among the antecedents and glass ceiling; and between glass
ceiling and “selection and promotion”, as well as female effectiveness. The stereotypical
attitude toward women has a statistically significant positive correlation with the glass ceiling
supporting literature, showing that the stereotypical behavior of management toward women
creates more career barriers for them. Diagonal values describe that Cronbach’s α for these
variables are 0.62-0.70 which is a good impact. Except gender, all the variables were
significantly correlated with glass ceiling. Stereotypical behavior toward women was
 Demographics Frequency %
Glass ceiling
phenomenon
Gender
Females 94 44.8
Males 116 55.2
Age (years)
21-30 95 45 305
31-40 72 34
41-50 37 18
51 and above 6 03
Experience (years)
Less than 10 years 150 71
10-20 53 25
21 and above 7 3.00
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Sector
Public sector 106 50.5
Private sector 104 49.5
Orientation
Profit oriented 138 65.7
Non-profit oriented 72 34.3
Qualification
MPhil. or PhD 32 15.2
Masters 100 47.6
Graduate 78 37.2
Designation
Upper level management 15 7.00
Middle level management 108 51.4 Table I.
Lower level management 87 41.6 Demographics

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Gender (% of females in BOD) 15.67 9.77 (0.625)

2. Training and development 3.68 0.61 −0.068* (0.855)
3. Stereotype attitude towards women 3.77 0.64 −0.012 0.182** (0.763)
Table II.
4. Glass ceiling 2.37 0.62 −0.036 −0.639** −0.616** (0.850) Descriptive statisticsa
5. Selection and promotion 3.51 0.51 0.015 0.619** 0.614** −0.701** (0.763) (mean, standard
6. Female effectiveness 3.22 0.57 0.050 0.251** 0.204** 0.155* −0.217** (0.827) deviation and
Notes: Values at diagonals in parenthesis show Cronbach’s α. *p o0.05; **p o 0.01 correlation)

negatively related with glass ceiling (r ¼ −0.616, po0.01) and supported H2. Training and
development of females was negatively related with glass ceiling (r ¼ −0.639, po0.01)
supporting H3. The glass ceiling has a negative correlation with selection and promotion of
females (r ¼ −0.701, po0.01), hence, supports H4a. Similarly, glass ceiling negatively affects
the female effectiveness (r ¼ −0.217, po0.01) and provides statistical support to H4b.

4.1 Regression analysis

Table III represents regression results for the first outcome (glass ceiling) predicted
by the predictors (gender of BOD, training and development of females and
 SAJBS Variables Estimatesa
6,3
Predictor
Gender (% of females in BOD) −0.102** (0.06)
Training and development of females −0.300** (0.07)
Stereotype attitude toward women −0.083 (0.34)
Overall R 0.755
306 Overall R2 0.569
Table III. Overall model F 53.68**
Regression: Notes: aEntries are standardized coefficients, and values in parentheses are standard errors. *p o0.05;
glass ceiling **p o 0.01

stereotype attitude toward women). The regression results show that all the antecedents
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play a significant role in describing the occurrence of glass ceiling. All the predictors were
statistically significant at p o 0.01. The estimated parameters indicated that the gender of
BODs ( β ¼ −0.102, p o 0.01) and training and development of females ( β ¼ −0.300,
p o 0.01) were negatively related to the glass ceiling. Furthermore, stereotypical attitude
toward women ( β ¼ −0.083, NS) was not significantly related to the glass ceiling. The
results, hence, supported H1 and H3, while H2 was not supported. The overall model was
significant (F ¼ 53.68, p o 0.01) with R2 value 56.9 percent, providing considerable
explanation to variation in the glass ceiling effect.
Table IV shows the regression results for the effects of glass ceiling on selection and
promotion. Glass ceiling increases the biasness ( β ¼ −0.680, p o0.01) in such decisions,
especially for women and create barriers in the development and progression of their
careers. Hence, H4a was also supported.
Table V provides the regression results for effects of glass ceiling on female effectiveness
( β ¼ −0.219, p o0.01). As females face the invisible career barriers (glass ceiling) they
get demotivated and experience low morale, leading to decrease in their effectiveness.
These results support our H4b.

Variables Estimatesa

Predictor
Glass ceiling −0.680** (0.42)
Overall R 0.680
Overall R2 0.462
Table IV. Overall model F 178.594**
Regression: selection- Notes: aEntries are standardized coefficients and values in parentheses are standard errors. *p o0.05;
promotion **p o 0.01

Variables Estimatesa

Predictor
Glass ceiling −0.219** (0.063)
Overall R 0.219
Overall R2 0.048
Table V. Overall model F 10.520**
Regression: female Notes: aEntries are standardized coefficients, and values in parentheses are standard errors. *p o0.05;
effectiveness **p o 0.01
 5. Discussion Glass ceiling
This is because in a masculine culture, people are stereotypical; that is why they are not phenomenon
positive toward women. There were also debates over leadership capabilities of women,
particularly in male dominant professions (Eagly and Schmidt, 2001). In this context,
women face problems in rising to leadership positions due to several factors theorized in
literature (Eagly and Schmidt, 2001). Another important context that creates hurdles
in assuming leadership positions or influencing capabilities of women leadership relates to 307
cultural connotations of leadership styles (see Dickson et al., 2012; Eagly and Schmidt, 2001).
The researchers argue over differences and similarities in gendered leadership discussions
(Eagly and Schmidt, 2001). These stereotypes and inequalities in organizational settings are
an important concern in the debate of women leadership capabilities (Højgaard, 2002).
Consistent with our findings, Afza and Newaz (2008) also identified that masculine culture,
gender harassment and management perception promote glass ceiling. This is also
consistent with Warren and Antoniades (2016) that many professional bodies have a worse
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gender balance at the governance level than many of their member firms.
Miller and Wheeler (1992) also reported similar results, stating that females reported less
satisfaction in getting jobs and promotional opportunities than males. It is also clear that when
we increase the representation of females in BOD, it can significantly help to reduce the glass
ceiling effects. This is because equal employment opportunities will be observed and female
candidates will get the chance to be promoted on a merit basis just as men do. It also depends
upon the nature of the hierarchical relationship between women (Sandall et al., 2016).
These results are also consistent with Cannings and Montmarquette (1991) and Cox and
Harquail (1991). On the other hand, it is not usually observed in the organizations in
South Asia, especially in Pakistan. Females get very few promotions to be members of BODs.
These results suggest that with the passage of time, this situation will get better.
The organizational cultures and structures are becoming the change adoption and to be
competitive, these are welcoming competent females to their organizations (Chin, 2016).
Training and development are statistically significant in hindering the existence of a
glass ceiling. This also reduces the chances of glass ceiling by preparing females to be
promoted for having the right skills. The results indicate that females are more likely to
be selected and promoted when they are fully trained and equipped with desired and
required skills.
We hypothesized that with the more stereotypical attitude toward women, the glass
ceiling is created. Females are less likely to be promoted and selected in those organizations
where females are treated with stereotype attitudes. The firms that adopt such practices are
less competent due to a glass ceiling and stereotypical style. Kanter (1977) and Pettigrew
and Martin (1987) also produced similar results after observing the glass ceiling at different
managerial levels. Female employees get few chances to be selected and promoted compared
to their male counterparts in South Asia, primarily because they do not belong to a
dominated group of the workforce (men’s club) (Gunawardana, 2017). Wright et al. (1995)
and Dezso and Ross (2012) have also confirmed somewhat consistent results. They stated
that after using affirmative action and not being stereotypical toward women, firms
experienced more return on investment and gained more profit than before. ILO (2015)
report and GEM index also provide evidence for the presence of glass ceiling in South Asian
countries. South Asian countries are ranked low in terms of greater gender inequality in GDI
and GEM index. This indicates the cultural differences and social system approach in the
different countries. Our results, however, did not support this hypothesis, possibly due to a
rather small sample size and a limited number of participant organizations.
Kanter (1977) also found that executive seeking organizations prefer socially similar
candidates. The organizations prefer men because they feel more comfortable working with
males. Dual responsibility is also the key feature of this culture that stops the management
 SAJBS from investing capital in building careers for females. Our results are also consistent with
6,3 Demirbag et al. (2012). He proved the hypothesis that females tend to exit their jobs due to
the discrimination and dual role effect.
Such work/family conflicts block career advancement for females due to the lack of
cooperation from their spouses. As a result, work and psychological stress become
inevitable and open a door for downward mobility for women. Hutchings et al. (2013) also
308 found that women remain under-represented amongst expatriate managers and have
sought to explain barriers to women’s international career opportunities. There may be less
support for women from family and social culture to excel in the careers (Purcell et al., 2010).
These are the critical variables influencing their promotions and selections. Stereotypical
attitudes toward modern women highly demotivate them from being efficient in their work
and perform accordingly.
Women might not be lucky enough to get selected and promoted due to their dual role
in society. Organizational and cultural barriers were considered as root causes of this
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discrimination (Mayssa et al., 2015). Cultural norms, values, assumptions and stereotypes
that are deeply rooted in patriarchal and religious traditions, arguably, constitute the most
fundamental barrier to utilization of female talent (Yukongdi and Benson, 2005).
Gender barriers and problems identified in our research are also evidenced in different
degrees, shapes and forms in other parts of the globe, but are particularly
under-researched in the context of management of talent in the South Asia region.
For instance, Gunawardana (2017, p. 1) in relation to Sri Lanka, found that “there are
9 percent of females present on the director board, 16 percent females in corporate
management and 13 percent females in the management team. Overall, the research
highlighted that 13 percent of female participants are actively in managerial positions.”
Many researchers declare that women will undoubtedly falter in their careers due to the
likely future-responsibility of bearing and raising children (Sandberg, 2013;
Rapoport, 2002; Statistics New Zealand 2015; Skelly and Johnson, 2011), as well as
other family commitments, socially conservative behaviors and stereotypical attitudes of
male colleagues (Gunawardana, 2017).

6. Managerial implications
The findings of the research suggest that organizations must consider competitive females in
their selection and promotion decision-making. They need to change their stereotype attitude
toward women in order to benefit from their abilities and competencies. Contemporary
organizations need to follow the modern trend of hiring and promoting a diverse workforce to
staying globally competitive and getting cost advantage from their efficient and effective
workforce. Undoubtedly, women face a challenge in rising to leadership positions in Asian
culture due to societal role’s perceptions as argued in the social role theory. It is also a
challenge for women to sustain and assert influence once they occupy top management
positions. In order to dispel negative perception of capabilities of women leadership and
contrary to Asian culture’s perspective, they can follow the western effective leadership
viewpoint that emphasizes on values such as trust, openness and willingness to admit
mistakes, delegation and teamwork (Blunt and Jones, 1997). Similarly, women at the top
should embrace uncertainties and assume risk to exert and prove their leadership qualities.
Additionally, the organizations in Asian countries, especially developing countries such
as Pakistan should develop a gender-harassment-free culture, and females may be able to
get opportunities in their career advancement. They need to play the part of informal
networks, which will create a brand image for the organization and become change setters
in the world market.
This is an optimistic scene for women, wherein they are increasing in number and
growing to represent a huge population propelling career growth and advancement by
 leaving the glass ceiling behind. They must continue to acquire high qualification and Glass ceiling
training to develop professionally. Organizations should also support them in career phenomenon
progression plans by giving them fair opportunities in training and development programs
to enhance their organizational commitment. Moreover, women may be offered flex time and
telecommuting facilities considering their role in nurturing children (Kiaye and Singh, 2013).
In this regard, state-owned telecom organization has introduced new policy to facilitate
working women by giving them the option to work from home once per week. 309
The government should develop public policies in order to boost women’s talent.
As the female population continues to increase more than males, there is a dire need of
government intervention to discourage glass ceiling through employee acts and female
representation in selection boards as suggested by the results of this study. This will surely
help the Pakistani economy to grow and establish industries run by females, as well as
decrease unemployment.
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7. Limitations of the study

This study, despite having useful findings, suffers with several limitations. Any research
that is conducted in restricted geographical boundaries may have certain limitations that
render generalizing the findings across the borders or even within the regions of the same
country, difficult. First, it could be interesting to study a cross-cultural sample in order to
check and compare glass ceiling in the different regions of the globe. Second, the limitation
also pertains to collection of the data from the service sector. A sample from the
manufacturing sector and comparisons between the two sectors will be useful in drawing
insight from one another.

8. Suggestions for future research

Future research may be benefited by exploring career perceptions of both genders, reasons
for such perceptions, as well as the factors influencing these perceptions. Further research
can explore the glass ceiling phenomenon related to minorities as well. Selection and
promotion criteria and the personal attributes of males and females can also be studied for
in-depth analysis. Meta-analysis can be useful for future research to investigate the
degree of the presence of glass ceiling even in the twenty-first century of quadratic nature.
The impact of policies and special laws, as well as their implementations can also
be cross-validated in future research to resist the glass ceiling.

9. Conclusion
It is evident that the glass ceiling has been a global phenomenon. Pakistan is not exempted
from it; rather it is especially plagued by a glass ceiling, which has today engulfed both
private and public sectors. Now, organizations and female managers are becoming more
aware of the glass ceiling phenomenon and its effects in their selection and promotion
process, as well as its influence regarding their professional careers. Our attitudes toward
women are still orthodoxy and stereotypical. A male-dominated culture and networks in
Pakistan do not look forward to the competent women to test their abilities. However, results
invite us to revisit our selection and promotion policies, as it is found that with the
percentage increase of women in BODs, glass ceiling may lose its strength and brilliant and
competent talents can come forward. The study mentions that due to the social culture of
South Asia, as in Pakistan, it makes work-family conflict one of the most important factors
contributing to glass ceiling with its wake, and produces evidence against women as less
dedicated and unsuitable for time and attention-seeking positions. Women in the tie of
work-family balance sacrifice a lot; even they sometimes prefer downward mobility as it
relates to their career ladder.
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Further reading
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characteristics among female managers”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 60, pp. 340-344.

Corresponding author
Asia Rafiq can be contacted at: ayesh_111@hotmail.com

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