COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Lecture Notes on Chem1: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Prepared by: Engr. Romel Leo B. Alojado, AMIChemE

MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

1.1. Introduction to Chemistry
1.2. Measurement
1.3. Structure of an Atom
1.4. Chemical Formulas

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

1.1.1. Chemistry is a branch of natural science that deals principally with the properties of substances, the
changes they undergo, and the natural laws that describe these changes. It mainly deals with situations in
which the nature of substance is changed by altering its composition. It is considered to be the “central
science”.

Products of chemistry are everywhere. Anything you can touch or smell or see contains one or more
chemicals. Many chemicals occur naturally but some are man-made.

Chemistry is one branch of science. Science is the process by which we learn about the natural universe by
observing, testing, and then generating models that explain our observations. Thus, chemistry is the study
of matter.

1.1.2. Matter is anything that has mass, volume, and can be observed at macroscopic levels. There are 2
types of change that matter undergoes. Physical change and chemical change.

Physical change can be simply described as the change where it does not change its chemical properties. It
results in a difference in display and it can be measured. Examples of which are texture, color, temperature,
shape, and change of state. Physical properties include but not limited to, luster, malleability, ductility, density,
viscosity, solubility, mass, and volume.
 Luster is a quality of an element defined as the way it reacts to light. Almost all of the metals, transition
metals, and metalloids are lustrous.
 Malleability is the quality of the metal which can be deformed under an amount of stress.
 Ductility is the ability of the metal to be hammered into thin wire.
 Density defined in a qualitative manner as the measure of the relative heaviness of objects with a
constant volume.
 Viscosity is defined to be the resistance to deformation of a particular chemical substance when a
force is applied to it.
 Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of a substance that will dissolve in a given amount of
solvent at a specified temperature.
 Mass is the amount of matter in an object. It measures the quantity of matter regardless of both its
location in the universe and the gravitational force applied to it.
 Volume is the amount of an object that could occupy.
Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, called chemical
synthesis or, alternatively, chemical decomposition into two or more different substances. These processes
are called chemical reactions and, in general, are not reversible except by further chemical reactions.
Examples of which are the breaking of the bonds of long chain hydrocarbon by the addition of heat and a
catalyst. Chemical properties include but not limited to combustion, corrosion, flammability, reactivity, and
fermentation.

 Combustion is the reaction between a fuel and an oxidizing agent that produces energy in the form of
heat and light.
 Corrosion is the degradation of metals due to an electrochemical process called redox.
 Flammability is the ability of the material to be burned at ambient temperatures.
 Reactivity is the release of energy of any substance which undergoes a chemical reaction either by itself
or when reacted with another substance. The most reactive element is Fluorine which will spontaneously
ignite a concrete block at room temperature.
 Fermentation is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or organic acids with the use of an
enzyme under anaerobic conditions. Breaking down of sugar with the aid of enzyme Saccharomyces
cerevisiae into ethanol is an example of fermentation.

1.1.3. Intensive/Intrinsic vs. Extensive/Extrinsic

Intrinsic properties (intensive) are those which are independent of the quantity of matter present whereas
Extrinsic properties (extensive) is dependent of the quantity of the matter present.

INTRINSIC EXTRINSIC
Color Mass
Taste Weight
Texture Volume
Density Length
Colligative Properties (boiling point, freezing
point, & melting point) Size
1.1.4. Phases of Matter

 Solid – have a definite shape, mass, and volume. It has a high density because the particles are
tightly packed together. The electrons of each atom are constantly in motion having a small vibration.
Particles in a solid have very low kinetic energy.
 Liquids – particles are loosely packed than solids and are able to flow around each other. It has
indefinite shape and follows the shape of its container. Most of liquids have lower density and incredibly
difficult to compress.
 Gases – molecules have a great space between then and have high kinetic energy. It has no definite
shape and volume. The gas will expand to fill its container if confined. Gases are compressible fluids.
 Plasma – the most common state of matter in the universe. Stars are essentially superheated balls
of plasma. Consists of highly charged particles with extremely high kinetic energy. The noble gases
(helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are often used to make glowing signs by using electricity
to ionize them to the plasma state.
 Bose-Einstein Condensate – created by scientists Eric Cornell and Carl Weiman in 1995 by cooling
a sample of rubidium to within a few degrees of absolute zero. At this extremely low temperature,
molecular motion comes very close to stopping. Since there is almost no kinetic energy being transferred
from one atom to another, the atoms begin to clump together. There are no longer thousands of separate
atoms, just one "super atom." A BEC is used to study quantum mechanics on a macroscopic level. Light
appears to slow down as it passes through a BEC, allowing scientists to study the particle/wave paradox.
A BEC also has many of the properties of a superfluid, or a fluid that flows without friction. BECs are also
used to simulate conditions that might exist in black holes.

1.1.5. Phase Diagram

Phase diagram is a graphical representation of the physical states of a substance under different conditions
of temperature and pressure. A typical phase diagram has pressure on the y-axis and temperature on the x-
axis. As we cross the lines or curves on the phase diagram, a phase change occurs. In addition, two states
of the substance coexist in equilibrium on the lines or curves.
 1.1.6. Scientific Method
Scientific method provides a framework for processing and understanding how the world operates using
scientific inquiry.
Steps in the Scientific Method

Making Formulating Perform

Prediction
Observations Hypotheses Experiment

1.2. MEASUREMENT

Measurement is a collection of quantitative or numerical data that describes a property of an object or event it is
made by comparing a quantity with a standard unit.

1.2.1. Accuracy and Precision

Precision tells you how close two measurements are to one another, while accuracy tells you how close a
measurement is to the known value. A measurement can be precise while not being accurate, or accurate
but not precise.

1.2.2. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Qualitative observations are physical and chemical changes which are observed through your senses (sight,
smell, touch, taste, and hear) whereas Quantitative are those observations which is measurable and gives
you a number value.
1.2.3. Units
A unit is any standard used for making comparisons in measurements. The internationalization of science
and engineering led to the establishment of a standard system that provides the needed flexibility to handle a
wide array of observations.
1.2.3.1. SI units (Système International d’Unités)
SI units are modern form of metric system combined with a set of prefixes that designate powers of ten. SI
base units for seven base quantities are given below.

1.2.3.2. Greek prefixes

When we consider the size of an atom or a molecule which is 0.0000000001 m and the circumference of the
sun which is 4,366,813,000 m we can observe that it displays a very small or very large values and could
sometimes invites confusion for us. Therefore, in 1795 the original SI prefixes were adopted which are derived
in Greek and Latin numbers.
 1.2.3.3. Derived Quantities
Derived quantities are those that may be expressed in terms of base or derived quantities by means of the
mathematical symbols of multiplication and division only (no addition or subtraction or any other sign). It can’t
be measured directly but can be obtained by mere calculations. It is calculated from two or more
measurements.
Derived units are grouped in three sections:
(1) derived units that are derived from the base units only
(2) derived units that have been assigned special names and symbols
(3) derived units that are formed from derived units with special names and base units.
DERIVED QUANTITY NAME ABBREVIATION
Area Square Meter m2
Volume Cubic Meter m3
Mass Density Kilogram per Cubic Meter kg/m3
Specific Volume Cubic Meter per Kilogram m3/ kg
Celsius Temperature Degree Celsius °C

1.2.3.4. Temperature
Given data for Water
Temperature Scale Boiling Point Freezing Point
Celsius (°C) 100 0
Fahrenheit (°F) 212 32

P1 (100, 212)

P2 (0, 32)

Using Slope-Intercept form: Substituting m= 1.8; P2 (0, 32)

212 − 32 9
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑚= 32 = 1.8(0) + 𝑏 𝑦 = 1.8𝑥 + 32 ℉= ℃ + 32
100 − 0 5
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 9
𝑚= 𝑚 = 1.8 𝑏 = 32 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 32
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 5
 1.2.4. Significant Figures
Significant figures of a measured quantity are defined as all the digits known with certainty and the first
uncertain, or estimated, digit. It makes no sense to report any digits after the first uncertain one, so it is the
last digit reported in a measurement. Zeros are used when needed to place the significant figures in their
correct positions. Thus, zeros may or may not be significant figures. Significant figures apply in the real world,
as they allow us to quantify the accuracy of any type of measurement.
Rules:
 All non-zero digits are significant. (e.g.: 383, 4,564)
 Trailing zeros at the end of a number is not significant. It will be significant if placed after a decimal
point. (e.g.: 300, 3980)
 Trapped zeros between non-zero digits are significant. (e.g.: 100.004, 1057)
 Leading zeros are not significant. (e.g.: 0.00452)
 A decimal point at the end of a whole number indicated all values to the left of the decimal are
significant (e.g.: 100., 100.0)

1.2.5. Rules of Rounding

Normal rounding rules suggest that if a number is 4 or below, it should be rounded down to the lower number,
whereas if it is 5 or higher, it should be rounded up. However, note that 5 is right in the middle and causes a
problem when using these conventional rounding rules.
If you have a large dataset of numbers that you need to round, using this rounding rule will lead to bias in your
dataset (i.e. 4/9th of the time you will be rounding down, and 5/9th of the time you will be rounding up). In a
large dataset, this bias is unacceptable.
In Scientific Rounding, we typically use a rule called ‘Rounding to the Even.’ In this rounding system the rules
are the same for 4 and below, you round down to the lower number, and for 6 and above you round up to the
higher number. However, if the number you are rounding is 5, then you round to the even number. This helps
to alleviate the sample bias that can occur when rounding large datasets.
Example:
1. Suppose you wish to round 62.5347 to four significant figures. Look at the fifth digit. It is a 4, a number
less than 5. Therefore, you will simply drop every digit after the fourth, and the original number rounds off
to 62.53.
2. Round 726.835 to five significant figures. To do this, you must look at the sixth digit. It is a 5, so now you
must look at the fifth digit also. That is a 3, which is an odd number, so you round the original number up
to 726.84.
3. Round 24.8514 to three significant figures. Look at the fourth digit. It is a 5, so now you must also look at
the third digit. It is 8, an even number, so you simply drop the 5 and the figures that follow it. The original
number becomes 24.8.

1.2.6. Addition/Subtraction Rule:

 Find the number with the least number of decimals and keep track of the number of decimal places.
 Perform the addition/subtraction operation.
 Round the final answer to the least number of decimals found in the first step.
 Example:
A beaker weighs 50.27 grams; 2.5 grams of calcium carbonate then is added. What would be the total mass
of the filled beaker using the correct rules?

 Identify the number with the fewest decimal place: (2.5; tenths place)
 Perform the addition:

 Round your answer to the fewest decimal place:

1.2.7. Multiplication/Division Rule:

 Count the number of significant figures in each number.

 Perform the multiplication/division operation.
 Round your final answer to the lowest number of significant figures.
Example:
You are working with 13.76 milliliters of water mixed with 2.53 g of NaCl. What would be the density of the
brine solution?
 Identify the number of significant figures in each measured value:

13.76 mL of water= 4 sig. fig.

2.53 g of NaCl= 3 sig. fig.
Thus, final answer should have 3 sig. fig.

 Perform the math operation:

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

2.53 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝜌=
13.76 𝑚𝐿 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 Round the final answer to the correct number of significant figure:

𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟒
𝒎𝑳

1.2.8. Scientific Notation

Scientific notation allows us to express very large and very small numbers using powers of 10. Chemistry
will always involve very large and very small numbers and writing these in its long form would be problematic
and be prone for mistakes.
Archimedes was the Greek philosopher and mathematician who supposedly made the first attempt to use
scientific notation numbers. He used them in estimating the number of sand grains to fill the universe in 3 rd
century BC. The number he estimated corresponded to 1×1063 grains.
How to write in Scientific notation:
 Locate the coefficient which is a non-zero digit. [e.g.:59000000000]
 Count the number of positions from the first non-zero digit and the last digit up to the digit preceding
the first digit which will be the new location of the decimal point. [e.g.: 5.9; no. of positions: 10]
 Multiply it by 10 and raise it to some power (number of positions). [e.g.: 5.9x1010]

1.2.9. Conversion
A conversion factor is a ratio or fraction which represents the relationship between two different units. A
conversion factor is ALWAYS equal to 1. Here are some examples of conversion factors:
1.3. STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
The history of the atom begins around 450 B.C. with a Greek philosopher named Democritus. Democritus wondered
what would happen if you cut a piece of matter, such as an apple, into smaller and smaller pieces. He thought that a
point would be reached where matter could not be cut into still smaller pieces. He called these "uncuttable" pieces
atomos. This is where the modern term atom comes from.
Democritus was an important philosopher. However, he was less influential than the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who
lived about 100 years after Democritus. Aristotle rejected Democritus’s idea of atoms. In fact, Aristotle thought the idea
of atoms was ridiculous. Unfortunately, Aristotle’s ideas were accepted for more than 2000 years. During that time,
Democritus’s ideas were more or less forgotten.
1.3.1. Timeline of the Atom

1.3.1.1. Dalton’s Atomic Theory

All substances are made of atoms. Atoms are the smallest particles of matter. They cannot be divided
into smaller particles. They also cannot be created or destroyed.
All atoms of the same element are alike and have the same mass. Atoms of different elements are
different and have different masses.
Atoms join together to form compounds. A given compound always consists of the same kinds of
atoms in the same ratio.
1.3.1.2. The electron - discovered in 1897 by a British physicist named J. J. Thomson in his Cathode Ray
Tube experiment.
1.3.1.3. Plum- pudding experiment- After the discovery of atom, J. J. Thomson proposed a plum pudding
model of the atom in 1904. The model tried to explain two properties of atoms: that electrons are negatively
charged particles and that atoms have no net electric charge. Robert Millikan then discovered the magnitude
of the elementary charge of the electron in his Oil Drop Experiment.
1.3.1.4. The Nucleus - May. 1911, Ernest Rutherford discovered the atomic nucleus from his gold foil
experiment. He concluded that some of the charge particles of an atom is concentrated in a small central area.
Leading him to his discovery that the nucleus contains positively charged particles, naming it protons.
1.3.1.5. Planetary Model of the Atom – In the same year, disapproving Thomson’s plum pudding model,
Rutherford said that positive charged particles are not spread out everywhere in the atom instead it is only
concentrated in the tiny nucleus except for the electrons which are moving randomly through it. He compared
his model to planets orbiting a star that is, electrons move around the nucleus in random orbits.
1.3.1.6. Bohr’s Atomic Model – In 1913, Bohr proposed his quantized shell model of the atom improving
Rutherford’s model because of its instability because according to classical mechanics and electromagnetic
theory, any charged particle moving on a curved path emits electromagnetic radiation; thus, the electrons
would lose energy and spiral into the nucleus. Thus, Bohr modified this model by requiring that the electrons
move in orbits of fixed size and energy.
1.3.1.7. The Neutron – Rutherford predicted the existence of neutrons in the nucleus but he failed to find
them. James Chadwick, his student and a physicist, went on to discover a new uncharged particle, which he
called the neutron in 1932. The neutron discovery had paved the way for the atomic bomb.

1.3.2. Electric Charge

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter. There are 2 kinds of charges, Positive charge (+) and
Negative charge (-). Opposite charge polarity is attractive while same charge polarity is repulsive. The
magnitude of electric charge (q) is the same for protons and electrons: The charge of a proton or electron is
the smallest amount that occurs in nature, it is called the quantum of charge and is given as:
qproton = +1.602 x 10-19 Coulombs
qelectron = -1.602 x 10-19 Coulombs

1.3.3. Electric Force and Strong Force

The significance of electric charge is that it forms the basis for electric force. Any particle with electric charge
will exert a force on any other particle with charge. And there are two rules describing the electric force:

(1) Opposite charges attract; like charges repel.

(2) The force gets weaker as the two charges get farther apart.

The strong force is a force which attracts protons to protons, neutrons to neutrons, and protons and neutrons
to each other. The force has a very short range, and this is the reason the nucleus of an atom turns out to be
so small.
1.3.4. Atomic Number and Mass Number

1.3.4.1. Atomic number – identifies the element and is

equivalent to the number of protons in a particular atom.
1.3.4.2. Mass Number – the combined total number of protons
and neutrons.
1.3.4.3. Atomic Mass – defined as the average mass of an
atom of a particular element.
1.3.4.4. Atomic mass unit (amu) – atoms are so small and
light thus, this unit is used in reporting conveniently the masses
of individual atoms.

1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1.6605 𝑥 10−24 𝑔

1.3.5. Isotopes – atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutron.

1.3.5.1. Mass Spectrometer – proves the existence of isotopes. It converts the individual molecules
to ions so that they can be moved about and manipulated by external electric and magnetic
fields. The three essential functions of a mass spectrometer, and the associated components,
are: ion source, mass analyzer, and detector.
1.4. Quantum Mechanical Model of an atom
A major problem with Bohr's model was that it treated electrons as particles that existed in precisely-defined orbits.
Based on de Broglie's idea that particles could exhibit wavelike behavior, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger
theorized that the behavior of electrons within atoms could be explained by treating them mathematically as matter
waves. This model, which is the basis of the modern understanding of the atom, is known as the quantum
mechanical or wave mechanical model.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, states that it is impossible to know for a given electron both its position and its
energy. Since knowing the energy of an electron is necessary for predicting the chemical reactivity of an atom,
chemists generally accept that we can only approximate the location of the electron.
The value of the wave function ψ, psi, at a given point in space x, y, z is proportional to the amplitude of the
electron matter wave at that point. However, many wave functions are complex functions containing i=sqrt{-1}, and
the amplitude of the matter wave has no real physical significance.
Luckily, the square of the wave function, ψ2, is a little more useful. This is because the square of a wave function
is proportional to the probability of finding an electron in a particular volume of space within an atom. The function
ψ2 is often called the probability density.
The probability density for an electron can be visualized in a number of different ways. For example, ψ2 can be
represented by a graph in which varying intensity of color is used to show the relative probabilities of finding an
electron in a given region in space. The greater the probability of finding an electron in a particular volume, the
higher the density of the color in that region. The image below shows the probability distributions for the spherical
1s, 2s, and 3s orbitals.
Notice that the 2s and 3s orbitals
contain nodes—regions in which
an electron has a 0% probability of
being found. The existence of
nodes is analogous to the standing
waves. The alternating colors in
the 2s and 3s orbitals represent
regions of the orbital with different
phases, which is an important
consideration in chemical bonding.
SHAPES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS
The distance from the nucleus is the main factor affecting an electron's probability distribution. However, for other
types of orbitals such as p, d, and f orbitals, the electron's angular position relative to the nucleus also becomes a
factor in the probability density. This leads to more interesting orbital shapes, such as the ones in the following
image.

The s orbitals are spherical, p orbitals are shaped like dumbbells that are oriented along one of the axes x, y, z. The
d orbitals can be described as having a clover shape with four possible orientations—with the exception of the d
orbital that almost looks like a p orbital with a donut going around the middle.
ELECTRON SPIN
In 1922, German physicists Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach hypothesized that electrons behaved as tiny bar magnets,
each with a north and south pole. To test this theory, they fired a beam of silver atoms between the poles of a permanent
magnet with a stronger north pole than south pole.
According to classical physics, the orientation of a dipole in an external magnetic field should determine the direction
in which the beam gets deflected. Since a bar magnet can have a range of orientations relative to the external magnetic
field, they expected to see atoms being deflected by different amounts to give a spread-out distribution. Instead, Stern
and Gerlach observed the atoms were split cleanly between the north and south poles.
These experimental results revealed that unlike regular bar magnets, electrons could only exhibit two possible
orientations: either with the magnetic field or against it. This phenomenon, in which electrons can exist in only one of
two possible magnetic states, could not be explained using classical physics. Scientists refer to this property of
electrons as electron spin: any given electron is either spin-up or spin-down. We sometimes represent electron spin by
drawing electrons as arrows pointing up.
One consequence of electron spin is that a maximum of two electrons can occupy any given orbital, and the two
electrons occupying the same orbital must have opposite spin. This is also called the Pauli exclusion principle. [Read
the quantum mechanical model of the atom in Chemistry for engineering students by Brown and Holme.]
1.5. The Periodic Table of Elements

https://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/education/students/highschool/chemistryclubs/infographics/m
astering-periodic-trends-infographic.pdf

1.6. Chemical Formulas

A chemical formula is an expression that shows the elements in a compound and the relative proportions of those
elements. Example, water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in a 2:1 ratio. The chemical formula for water is H 2O.
Sulfuric acid is composed of the elements hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. The chemical formula for sulfuric acid is
H2SO4.
1.6.1. Molecular Formula
A molecular formula is a chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the kinds and numbers of
atoms present in a molecule of the compound.
1.6.2. Empirical Formula
An empirical formula is a formula that shows the elements in a compound in their lowest whole-number ratio.
Glucose is an important simple sugar that cells use as their primary source of energy. Its molecular formula
is C6H12O6. Since each of the subscripts is divisible by 6, the empirical formula for glucose is CH2O. When
chemists analyze an unknown compound, often the first step is to determine its empirical formula.
Sample Problem:
1. Penicillin, the first of a now large number of antibiotics (antibacterial agents), was discovered
accidentally by the Scottish bacteriologist Alexander Fleming in 1928, but he was never able to isolate
it as a pure compound. This and similar antibiotics have saved millions of lives that might have been
lost to infections. Penicillin F has the formula C14H20N2SO4. Compute the mass percent of each element.
(Answer: C= 53.827%, H= 6.453%, N= 8.968%, S= 10.27%, O= 20.486%)
2. A white powder is analyzed and found to contain 43.64% phosphorus and 56.36% oxygen by mass.
The compound has a molar mass of 283.88 g. What are the compound’s empirical and molecular
formulas? (Answer: P2O5, P4O10)
3. Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, tea, chocolate, and some medications, contains 49.48% carbon,
5.15% hydrogen, 28.87% nitrogen, and 16.49% oxygen by mass and has a molar mass of 194.2 g.
Determine the molecular formula of caffeine. (Answer: C8H10N4O2)

1.6.3. Atomic Elements

Elements exist with individual atoms as their basic unit. It is assumed that there is only one atom in a formula
if there is no numerical subscript on the right side of an element’s symbol.
1.6.4. Molecular Elements
A molecule is the smallest part of a substance that has the physical and chemical properties of that
substance. In some respects, a molecule is similar to an atom. A molecule, however, is composed of more
than one atom. Molecular formula is a formal representation of what and how many atoms are there in a
molecule.
1.6.5. Ionic Compounds
Compounds involving metal binding with either a non-metal or a semi-metal. The compound NaCl was
formed from sodium and chlorine (a metal and a non-metal). Therefore, it is called ionic. The basic unit of
ionic compounds is the formula unit.
1.6.6. Molecular Compounds
Compounds that are composed of only non-metals or semi-metals with non-metals will display covalent
bonding and will be classified as molecular compounds. Nitrogen monoxide (NO) will be a covalently bound
molecule (two non-metals) and silicon dioxide (SiO2) will also be a covalently bound molecule (a semi-metal
and a non-metal). The basic unit of molecular compounds is the molecule.
Example:
1. Write the chemical formula for the following compounds
a. Aluminum Oxide d. Lead (IV) Oxide
b. Carbon Tetrachloride e. Aluminum Nitride
c. Calcium Nitrate
1.6.7. Nomenclature

1.6.7.1. Naming Ionic Compounds

Rule 1. The cation is written first in the name; the anion is written second in the name.
Rule 2. The anions in binary compounds are named by using the root name of the element,
followed by the suffix ide.
Rule 3. When the formula unit contains two or more of the same polyatomic ion, that ion is
written in parentheses with the subscript written outside the parentheses.
Parentheses and subscript is only used when more than one of polyatomic ion is
present in the formula.
Rule 4. If the cation is a metal ion with a fixed charge, the name of the cation is the same
as the (neutral) element from which it is derived (e.g., Na+ = "sodium"). If the cation
is a metal ion with a variable charge, the charge on the cation is indicated using a
Roman numeral, in parentheses, immediately following the name of the cation
(e.g., Fe3+ = "iron(III)").
Rule 5. If the anion is a monatomic ion, the anion is named by adding the suffix -ide to the
root of the element name (e.g., I- = "iodide"). Greek prefixes are not used to indicate
number of atoms or polyatomic ions in ionic compounds.
Examples:

 NiCl2 is nickel(II) chloride  CaBr2 is calcium bromide

 K2S is potassium sulfide  ZnO is zinc(II) oxide

1.6.7.2. Naming Covalent Molecular Compounds

Rule 1. Name the non-metal furthest to the left on the periodic table by its elemental name.
Rule 2. Name the other non-metal by its elemental name and an -ide ending.
Rule 3. Use the Greek prefixes to indicate the number of that element in the molecule.
Rule 5. If mono is the first prefix, it is understood and not written
Examples:

 N2O4 is called dinitrogen monoxide 1 mono 6 hexa

 CO2 is called carbon dioxide 2 di 7 hepta
 CO is called carbon monoxide 3 tri 8 octa
 N2O is called dinitrogen monoxide 4 tetra 9 nona
 CCl4 is called carbon tetrachloride 5 penta 10 deca
Greek Prefixes
 1.6.7.3. Naming Acids
Rule 1. For simple covalent compounds that contain hydrogen, prefix hydro- is added to
the name of the compound and then replacing the suffix -ide with –ic then the word
acid is added.
Rule 2. For compounds containing polyatomic ions, the suffix of the polyatomic ion is
replaced by either –ate with –ic or –ite with –ous then the acid word is added.
Examples:
 HF is Hydrofluoric acid
 H2S is Hydrosulfuric acid
 CH3COOH is Acetic Acid
 HMnO4 is Permanganic Acid
 HClO3 is Chloric Acid

1.6.8. Chemical Equations

-designed to represent the transformation of one or more chemical species into new substances.
 Synthesis Reaction: A + B  AB
 Decomposition Reaction: AB  A + B
 Substitution/Single Replacement Reaction: A + BC  AC + B
 Metathesis/Double Replacement Reaction: AB + CD  AD + CB
Practice Test: Ethanol can be used as a fuel source in an alcohol lamp. The formula for ethanol
is C2H5OH. Write the balanced equation for the combustion of ethanol.
1.6.9. Balancing Chemical Equations
A balanced chemical equation has equal numbers of atoms for each element in product side and
reactant side which is involved in the reaction. This is to satisfy and to be consistent with the law of
conservation of matter.
Example:
 CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O
 C2H6 + O2  H2O + CO2
 N2 + H2  NH3
1.6.10. Aqueous Reactions
 Precipitation Reaction- Precipitation reactions produce an insoluble product- the precipitate. They
contain two aqueous reactants, one aqueous product, and one solid product.
 Acid-Base Reaction- When acids and bases react, a neutralization reaction occurs. In this
reaction, the acid donates an H+ ion. This joins with the hydroxide ion from the base to form water,
while the anion from the acid and the cation from the base join to form an ionic compound.
o Arrhenius definition
 An acid produces H+ ions in water.
 A base produces OH- ions in water.
o Brønsted-Lowry definition
 An acid donates a H+.
 A base accepts a H+.
 A. STRONG ACIDS
o HCl- hydrochloric acid
o HBr- hydrobromic acid
o HI- hydroiodic acid
o HNO3- nitric acid
o HClO4- perchloric acid
o HClO3- chloric acid
o H2SO4- sulfuric acid
B. WEAK ACIDS
o HF- hydrofluoric acid
o HC2H3O2- acetic acid
o HC7H5O2- benzoic acid
 Oxidation-Reduction Reaction- An oxidation-reduction reaction, which is also known as a redox
reaction, takes place between a metal and a non-metal. Oxidation is the process by which a
chemical loses electrons and becomes more positive. Reduction is the opposite process and
occurs when a chemical gains electrons and becomes more negative.
a. Molecular Equation- shows the complete formula of each compound involved, both intact and
dissociated compounds are shown. To designate an aqueous solution an (aq) is attached to the
compounds.
HNO3 (aq) + NH3 (g)  NH4NO3 (aq)
b. Total Ionic Equation- used to emphasize dissociated compounds. It actually shows what is actually
present in the reacting mixture.
H+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + NH3 (g)  NH4+(aq) + NO3- (aq)
H3O+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + NH3 (g)  NH4+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + H2O (l)
c. Net Ionic Equation- an equation which cancels out all the spectator ion in the equation. Net charge on
each side of the equation should be equal to 0.
H+(aq) + NH3 (g)  NH4+(aq)
H3O+(aq) + NH3 (g)  NH4+(aq) + H2O (l)