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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Class 11 Notes Chapter 1

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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Class 11 Notes Chapter 1

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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Class 11 Notes Chapter 1

Science : The systematic and sequential study of anything is known as Science.


And Chemistry is the branch of science which deals with the composition of matter.
• Importance of Chemistry
Chemistry has a direct impact on our life and has wide range of applications in different fields.
These are given below:
(A) In Agriculture and Food:
(i) Fertilizers such as urea, calcium phosphate, sodium nitrate, ammonium phosphate etc.
(ii) It has helped to protect the crops from insects and harmful bacteria, by the use ‘ of certain
effective insecticides, fungicides and pesticides.
DDT and Gammaxene
(B) In Health and Sanitation:
(i) It has provided mankind with a large number of life-saving drugs. Today, dysentery and
pneumonia are curable due to discovery of sulpha drugs and penicillin life-saving drugs.
Cisplatin and taxol have been found to be very effective for cancer therapy and AZT
(Azidothymidine) is used for AIDS victims.
(ii) Disinfectants such as phenol are used to kill the micro-organisms present in drains, toilet,
floors etc.
(C) Saving the Environment:
The rapid industrialisation all over the world has resulted in lot of pollution.
Poisonous gases and chemicals are being constantly released in the atmosphere. They are
polluting environment at an alarming rate. Scientists are working day and night to develop
substitutes which may cause lower pollution. For example, CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), a
substitute of petrol, is very effective in checking pollution caused by automobiles.
(D) Application in Industry:
Chemistry has played an important role in developing many industrially ^ manufactured
fertilizers, alkalis, acids, salts, dyes, polymers, drugs, soaps,
detergents, metal alloys and other inorganic and organic chemicals including new materials
contribute in a big way to the national economy.

• Matter
Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter.
For example, book, pencil, water, air.
• Classification of Matter
There are two ways of classifying the matter:
(A) Physical classification (B) Chemical classification
(A) Physical Classification:
Matter can exist in three physical states:
1. Solids 2. Liquids 3. Gases 4. Plasma (ionized gases) 5. BEC
1. Solids: The particles are held very close to each other in an orderly fashion and there is not
much freedom of movement.
Characteristics of solids: Solids have definite volume and definite shape.
2. Liquids: In liquids, the particles are close to each other but can move around. Characteristics
of liquids: Liquids have definite volume but not definite shape.
3. Gases: In gases, the particles are far apart as compared to those present in solid or liquid
states. Their movement is easy and fast.
Characteristics of Gases: Gases have neither definite volume nor definite shape. They
completely occupy the container in which they are placed.
(B) Chemical Classification:
Based upon the composition, matter can be divided into two main types:
1. Pure Substances 2. Mixtures.
1. Pure substances: A pure substance may be defined as a single substance (or matter) which
cannot be separated by simple physical methods.
Pure substances can be further classified as (i) Elements (ii) Compounds
(i) Elements: An element consists of only one type of particles. These particles may be atoms
or molecules.
For example, sodium, copper, silver, hydrogen, oxygen etc..
(ii) Compounds: It may be defined as a pure substance containing two or more elements
combined together in a fixed proportion by weight and can be decomposed into these elements
by suitable chemical methods. Moreover, the properties of a compound are altogether different
from the constituting elements.
The compounds have been classified into two types. These are:
(i) Inorganic Compounds: These are compounds which are obtained from non-living sources
such as rocks and minerals. A few
examples are: Common salt, marble, gypsum, washing soda etc.
(ii) Organic Compounds are the compounds which are present in plants and animals. All the
organic compounds have been found to contain carbon as their essential constituent. For
example, carbohydrates, proteins, oils, fats etc.
2. Mixtures: The combination of two or more elements or compounds which are not chemically
combined together and may also be present in any proportion, is called mixture. A few
examples of mixtures are: milk, sea water, petrol, lime water, paint glass, cement, wood etc.
Types of mixtures: Mixtures are of two types:
(i) Homogeneous mixtures: A mixture is said to be homogeneous if it has a uniform
composition throughout and there are no visible boundaries of separation between the
constituents.
For example: A mixture of sugar solution in water has the same sugar water composition
throughout and all portions have the same sweetness.
(ii) Heterogeneous mixtures: A mixture is said to be heterogeneous if it does not have uniform
composition throughout and has visible boundaries of separation between the various
constituents. The different constituents of a heterogeneous mixture can be seen even with
naked eye.
For example: When iron filings and sulphur powder are mixed together, the mixture formed is
heterogeneous. It has greyish-yellow appearance and the two constituents, iron and sulphur,
can be easily identified with naked eye.
• Differences between Compounds and Mixtures
Compounds
1. In a compound, two or more elements are combined chemically.
2. In a compound, the elements are present in the fixed ratio by mass. This ratio cannot change.
3. CompoUnds are always homogeneous i.e., they havethe same composition throughout.
4 In a compound, constituents cannot be separated by physical methods
5. In a compound, the constituents lose their identities i.e., i compound does not show the
characteristics of the constituting elements.
Mixtures
1. In a mixture, or more elements or compounds are simply mixed and not combined chemically.
2. In a mixture the constituents are not present in fixed ratio. It can vary
3. Mixtures may be either homogeneous or heterogeneous in nature.
4. Constituents of mixtures can be separated by physical methods.
5, In a mixture, the constituents do not lose their identities i.e., a mixture shows the
characteristics of all the constituents .
We have discussed the physical and chemical classification of matter. A flow sheet
representation of the same is given below.

• Properties of Matter and Their Measurements


Physical Properties: Those properties which can be measured or observed without changing the
identity or the composition of the substance.
e.g melting point, boiling point etc.

Chemical Properties: It requires a chemical change to occur. The examples of chemical


properties are characteristic reactions of different substances. These include acidity, basicity,
combustibility etc.
• Units of Measurement
Fundamental Units: The quantities mass, length and time are called fundamental quantities
and their units are known as fundamental units.
There are seven basic units of measurement for the quantities: length, mass, time, temperature,
amount of substance, electric current and luminous intensity.
Si-System: This system of measurement is the most common system employed throughout the
world.
It has given units of all the seven basic quantities listed above.
• Mass and Weight
Mass: Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it.
The mass of a substance is constant.
The mass of a substance can be determined accurately in the laboratory by using an analytical
balance. SI unit of mass is kilogram.

Weight: It is the force exerted by gravity on an object. Weight of substance may vary from one
place to another due to change in gravity.

Temperature: There are three scales in which temperature can be measured. These are known
as Celsius scale (°C), Fahrenheit scale (°F) and Kelvin scale (K).

-> Thermometres with Celsius scale are calibrated from 0°C to 100°C.
-> Thermometres with Fahrenheit scale are calibrated from 32°F to 212°F.
-> Kelvin’scale of temperature is S.I. scale and is very common these days.Temperature on this
scale is shown by the sign K.
The temperature on two scales are related to each other by the relationship

Density: Density of a substance is its amount of mass per unit volume. So, SI unit of density can
be obtained as follows:

.
• Uncertainty in Measurements
All scientific measurements involve certain degree of error or uncertainty. The errors which arise
depend upon two factors.
(i) Skill and accuracy of the worker (ii) Limitations of measuring instruments.

• Scientific Notation
It is an exponential notation in which any number can be represented in the form N x 10n where
n is an exponent having positive or negative values and N can vary between 1 to 10. Thus,
232.508 can be written as 2.32508 x 102 in scientific notation.
Now let us see how calculations are carried out with numbers expressed in scientific notation.
(i) Calculation involving multiplication and division

(ii) Calculation involving addition and subtraction: For these two operations, the first numbers
are written in such a way that they have the same exponent. After that, the coefficients are
added or subtracted as the case may be. For example,
• Significant Figures
Significant figures are meaningful digits which are known with certainty. There are certain rules
for determining the number of significant figures. These are stated below:
1. All non-zero digits are significant. For example, in 285 cm, there are three significant figures
and in 0.25 mL, there are two significant figures.
2. Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit are not significant. Such zeros indicates the position of
decimal point.
For example, 0.03 has one significant figure and 0.0052 has two significant figures.
3. Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus, 2.005 has four significant figures.
4. Zeros at the end or right of a number are significant provided they are on the right side of the
decimal point. For example, 0.200 g has three significant figures.
5. Counting numbers of objects. For example, 2 balls or 20 eggs have infinite significant figures
as these are exact numbers and can be represented by writing infinite number of zeros after
placing a decimal.
i.e., 2 = 2.000000
or 20 = 20.000000
• Addition and Subtraction of Significant Figures
In addition or subtraction of the numbers having different precisions, the final result should be
reported to the same number of decimal places as in the term having the least number of
decimal places.
For example, let us carry out the addition of three numbers 3.52, 2.3 and 6.24, having different
precisions or different number of decimal places.

The final result has two decimal places but the answer has to be reported only up to one
decimal place, i.e., the answer would be 12.0.
Subtraction of numbers can be done in the same way as the addition.
The final result has four decimal places. But it has to be reported only up to two decimal places,
i.e., the answer would be 11.36.
• Multiplication and Division of Significant Figures
In the multiplication or division, the final result should be reported upto the same number of
significant figures as present in the least precise number.
Multiplication of Numbers: 2.2120 x 0.011 = 0.024332
According to the rule the final result = 0.024
Division of Numbers: 4.2211÷3.76 = 1.12263
The correct answer = 1.12
• Dimensional Analysis
Often while calculating, there is a need to convert units from one system to other. The method
used to accomplish this is called factor label method or unit factor method or dimensional
analysis.
• Laws of Chemical Combinations
The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the following five basic laws.
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions
(iv) Law of Gaseous Volume (Gay Lussac’s Law)
(v) Avogadro’s Law
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
The law was established by a French chemist, A. Lavoisier. The law states:
In all physical and chemical changes, the total mass of the reactants is equal to that of the
products.
In other words, matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
The following experiments illustrate the truth of this law.
(a) When matter undergoes a physical change.

It is found that there is no change in weight though a physical change has taken place.
(b) When matter undergoes a chemical change.
For example, decomposition of mercuric oxide.

During the above decomposition reaction, matter is neither gained nor lost.
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
According to this law:
A pure chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined together in a fixed
proportion by weight.
For example, Carbon dioxide may be formed in a number of ways i.e.,

(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions


If two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the weight of one of the elements
which combines with a fixed weight of the other in these compounds, bears simple whole
number ratio by weight.
For example,

(iv) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes


The law states that, under similar conditions of temperature and pressure, whenever gases
combine, they do so in volumes which bear simple whole number ratio with each other and also
with the gaseous products. The law may be illustrated by the following examples.
(a) Combination between hydrogen and chlorine:

(b) Combination between nitrogen and hydrogen: The two gases lead to the formation of
ammonia gas under suitable conditions. The chemical equation is
(v) Avogadro’s Law: Avogadro proposed that, equal volumes of gases at the same
temperature and pressure should contain equal number of molecules.
For example,
If we consider the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to produce water, we see that two volumes
of hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen to give two volumes of water without leaving
any unreacted oxygen.

• Atomic Mass
The atomic mass of an element is the number of times an atom of that element is heavier than
an atom of carbon taken as 12. It may be noted that the atomic masses as obtained above are
the relative atomic masses and not the actual masses of the atoms.
One atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to l/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope. It is
also known as unified mass.
Average Atomic Mass
Most of the elements exist as isotopes which are different atoms of the same element with
different mass numbers and the same atomic number. Therefore, the atomic mass of an
element must be its average atomic mass and it may be defined as the average relative mass of
an atom of an element as compared to the mass of carbon atoms (C-12) taken as 12w.
Molecular Mass
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule. It is
obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of each element by number of its atoms and adding
them together.
For example,
Molecular mass of methane (CH4)
= 12.011 u + 4 (1.008 u)
= 16.043 u
• Mole Concept
It is found that one gram atom of any element contains the same number of atoms and one
gram molecule of any substance contains the same number of molecules. This number has
been experimentally determined and found to be equal to 6.022137 x 1023 The value is
generally called Avogadro’s number or Avogadro’s constant.
It is usually represented by NA:
Avogadro’s Number, NA = 6.022 × 1023
• Percentage Composition
One can check the purity of a given sample by analysing this data. Let us understand by taking
the example of water (H20). Since water contains hydrogen and oxygen, the percentage
composition of both these elements can be calculated as follows:

• Empirical Formula
The formula of the compound which gives the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of
yarious elements present in one molecule of the compound.
For example, the formula of hydrogen peroxide is H202. In order to express its empirical formula,
we have to take out a common factor 2. The simplest whole number ratio of the atoms is 1:1
and the empirical formula is HO. Similarly, the formula of glucose is C6H1206. In order to get the
simplest whole number of the atoms,
Common factor = 6
The ratio is = 1 : 2 : 1 The empirical formula of glucose = CH20
• Molecular Formula
The formula of a compound which gives the actual ratio of the atoms of various elements
present in one molecule of the compound.
For example, molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide = H202and Glucose = C6H1206
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula
Where n is the common factor and also called multiplying factor. The value of n may be 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6 etc.
In case n is 1, Molecular formula of a compound = Empirical formula of the compound.
• Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations
The word ‘stoichiometry’ is derived from two Greek words—Stoicheion (meaning element) and
metron (meaning measure). Stoichiometry, thus deals with the calculation of masses
(sometimes volume also) of the reactants and the products involved in a chemical reaction. Let
us consider the combustion of methane. A balanced equation for this reaction is as given below:
Limiting Reactant/Reagent
Sometimes, in alchemical equation, the reactants present are not the amount as required
according to the balanced equation. The amount of products formed then depends upon the
reactant which has reacted completely. This reactant which reacts completely in the reaction is
called the limiting reactant or limiting reagent. The reactant which is not consumed completely in
the reaction is called excess reactant.
Reactions in Solutions
When the reactions are carried out in solutions, the amount of substance present in its given
volume can be expressed in any of the following ways:
1. Mass percent or weight percent (w/w%)
2. Mole fraction
3. Molarity
4. Molality
1. Mass percent: It is obtained by using the following relation:

2. Mole fraction: It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total number
of moles of the solution. For a solution containing n2 moles of the solute dissolved in n1 moles
of the solvent,

3. Molarity: It is defined as the number of moles of solute in 1 litre of the solution.

4. Molality: It is defined as the number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent. It is


denoted by m.

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