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CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Chapter 1…Introduction to Chemistry

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Chemistry is the study of the composition of
matter and the changes that matter undergoes. Chemistry affects all aspects of life and most natural
events.

Technology of Chemistry – the skills, processes, and equipment required to make useful products or to
perform useful tasks; it is anything from test tubes to computers.

Chemistry is everywhere around you. It involves chemicals as well as chemical reactions, chemical
technologies and their effects on the environment. Safe handling of chemicals at home and in the lab and
responsible disposal of non-toxic and toxic wastes are also important.

Pure chemistry refers to pure research - the consideration of the facts and theories of chemistry without
reference to their practical applications or utility. Applied chemistry means you are using scientific
knowledge of chemistry in order to solve a human problem. For example, pharmaceutical research is an
example of applied chemistry.

There are five traditional areas of study in chemistry:

1) Organic chemistry - study of all chemicals involving carbon, C.
2) Inorganic chemistry - study of all chemicals that do not involve carbon, ex. rocks. Inorganic
chemicals are found mainly in non-living things.
3) Biochemistry - the study of processes that take place in living things, ex. muscle contraction and
digestion.
4) Analytical chemistry - study that focuses on the composition of matter, ex. how much lead is in
drinking water.
5) Physical chemistry - the area of study that deals with the mechanism, the rate, and the energy
transfer that occurs when matter undergoes a change.

Chemistry can be useful in explaining the natural world, preparing people for career opportunities, and
producing informed citizens.

Chapter 2…Matter and Change

Matter

Pure Substances Mixtures

Elements , Compounds Heterogeneous, Homogeneous

Matter can be divided into pure substances and mixtures. Pure substances are uniform and have a
definite composition; every sample of a given substance has identical properties because every sample
has the same composition. They can be divided into elements and compounds. Elements are
composed entirely of one kind of atom. They cannot be broken down by chemical or physical means.
Compounds are composed of two or more kinds of atoms bonded in fixed ratios. They can be broken
down into elements by chemical means.

A mixture is a physical blend of two or more components. Based on the distribution of their components,
mixtures can be classified as heterogeneous or homogeneous. Heterogeneous mixtures do not have a
uniform composition and its components are visible. Homogeneous mixtures (also known as
solutions) have a uniform composition throughout. Many solutions are liquids but some are gases (ex.
air). Some solutions are solids (ex. stainless steel - a mixture of iron, chromium and nickel).
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PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Properties used to describe matter can be classified as extensive or intensive. An extensive property is
a property that depends on the amount of matter in a sample. The value of an extensive property varies
directly with the mass (when the size of the sample changes, extensive properties are affected).
Examples of extensive properties are mass, weight, volume, and length.

An intensive property is independent of the amount of mass; they depend on the type of matter only.
Examples of intensive properties are state, color, odor, luster, malleability, ductility, conductivity,
hardness, melting/freezing point, boiling point, density.

A physical property is a quality or condition of a substance that can be observed or measured with your
five senses. All of the examples listed under extensive and intensive properties above are considered
physical properties.

There are three common states of matter:

1. Solid – has a definite shape and volume because the particles are packed tightly together in an
orderly pattern. Solids will have the subscript (s).
2. Liquid – has a definite volume but takes the shape of its container because the particles are a little
further apart and able to move slightly. Liquids will have the subscript (l).
3. Gas – has no definite shape or volume. The particles of gas are much further apart than liquids.
Gases can be compressed into a smaller volume within a closed container and under pressure.
Gases will have the subscript (g). NOTE: A vapor describes the gaseous state of a substance that
is generally liquid or solid at room temperature (ex. water vapor).

Differences in physical properties can be used to separate mixtures. The methods range for very
simple to very complex:
1. Mechanical - One of more components are picked out of the mixture manually or magnetically.
2. Settling - Let one of the compounds settle to the bottom. Centrifuging speeds the process up.
3. Floatation - Oils, detergents or other chemicals are added to the mixture and air is blown through.
4. Filtration - A solid in a liquid or gas is passed through a screen or filter.
5. Extracting - The mixture is mixed with a solvent that dissolves one or more, but not all, components.
6. Fractional distillation – A liquid mixture is boiled and one or more components are separated as
they vaporize from the mixture at different temperatures.
7. Crystallization – A dissolved solid is separated from a solution by cooling or concentrating the
solution to crystallize the solid.
8. Chromatography - A mixture is carried by a solvent through a stationary, porous medium such as
filter paper. Components of the mixture move at different rates in the medium.

A chemical property is the ability of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change. A chemical
property cannot be witnessed until the change is occurring. For example, sodium will react with water.

CHANGES IN MATTER

During a physical change some properties of the material change but the composition of the material
does not. Words such as boil, freeze, melt, condense, break, split, grind, crush, and cut are used to
describe physical changes. These changes may be reversible or not.

A chemical change (also known as a chemical reaction) produces matter with a different composition
that the original matter; in other words, something new is produced. For example, heating a substance up
enough can add enough energy to cause a chemical change to occur.
During a chemical reaction, the composition of matter always changes. This is represented using a
chemical equation using the following format: REACTANTS → PRODUCTS
The Law of Conservation of mass states that during any chemical reaction, the mass of the products is
always equal to the mass of the reactants.

There are four clues that a chemical change has occurred, but one must check for more than one of
these changes occurring simultaneously:
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1) There is a transfer of energy.

2) There is a change in color.
3) A gas is produced.
4) A precipitate forms (a solid with low solubility).

THE NAMING OF MATTER

Chemists use chemical symbols to represent elements. The chemical symbols were developed by J.J
Berzelius (1779-1848). Each element is represented by a one or two letter symbol. The first letter of the
symbol is always capitalized. When the second letter is used it is always lower case. The symbols may be
based on the French or Latin name of the symbol.

Chemists use chemical formulas to represent compounds. Chemical formulas indicate the atoms
present in the compound and how many of each are present by using a subscript (ex. K2S).

There is a governing body for the scientific communication called the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). It specifies the rules for chemical naming and symbols.

Chapter 6…The Periodic Table

ORGANIZING THE ELEMENTS

Chemists use the properties of elements to sort them into groups. J.W. Dobereiner (1829) published a
classification system where he grouped the elements into triads. (e.g., chlorine, bromine and iodine had
similar chemical properties).

Dmitri Mendeleev (1869) published a table of elements. The elements in his periodic table were
arranged into groups based on a set of repeating properties. Mendeleev arranged the elements in his
periodic table in order of increasing atomic mass. He found a few discrepancies with his periodic table
(i.e., lining up elements according to their atomic mass did not always agree with the trends of their
chemical properties - he assumed the atomic masses were incorrect! ex. Te – I)

In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. Mendeleev
did not know about the structure of atoms - he did not know that the number of protons in each element is
unique. When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition
of their physical and chemical properties. This is called the periodic law. Properties repeat from left to
right across each period.

The three classes of elements are

 Metals - 80% of elements; good conductors of heat and electric current; high sheen (luster); solid
at room temperature (except for Hg); ductile and malleable
 Nonmetals - most are gases at room temperature (except for Br). It is difficult to list general
properties because their properties vary so much.
 Metalloids - have properties similar to both metals and nonmetals.

In 1985, IUPAC proposed a new system for labeling groups in the periodic table. They number the groups
from left to right 1 through 18.

CLASSIFYING THE ELEMENTS

The periodic table displays the symbols and names of the elements, along with information about the
structure of their atoms (see figure 6.8 on page 161). Look at the Periodic Table on pages 162-163 – see
the Key box and color codes.

The alkali metals (Group 1), alkaline earth metals (Group 2), halogens (Group 17), and the nobel
gases (Group18) are common groups.