Vehicle Dynamics

Submitted To: P.Ghilman Haider

Submitted By: 18AU02

Table of Contents
1 Dynamic Testing......................................................................................................................................... 2
2 ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................ 2
3 Objective, Metrological Handling Evaluation of Motor Vehicles..................................................................2
4 Sensors and Sensor Systems.................................................................................................................... 3
In the following section the facilities of the Driveability Testing Alliance partners will be presented. The sensors
and sensor systems, the synchronous acquisition and......................................................................................3
4.1 Measurement Steering Wheel MSW...................................................................................................4
4.2 Pitch and Roll Angle Measurement System.........................................................................................4
4.3 Wheel Vector Sensor RV4................................................................................................................... 4
4.4 Slip Angle Sensor SFII........................................................................................................................ 5
5 Wheel Force Dynamometer P650...............................................................................................................5
6 Hub Carrier Accelerometer......................................................................................................................... 6
7 Seat Rail Accelerometer............................................................................................................................. 6
8 Strap-Down Gyro Measuring Device with GPS...........................................................................................6
9 Tire Temperature Measurement T³M.......................................................................................................... 8
10 Synchronous Data Acquisition................................................................................................................8
11 Examples of Objectively Measured Driving Maneu- vers........................................................................9
11.1 Braking from Straight-Line Vehicular Motion.......................................................................................9
11.2 Lane Change Test............................................................................................................................. 10
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 11
References................................................................................................................................................... 11
1 Dynamic Testing
To evaluate the dynamic handling properties of motor vehicles, today—in addition to subjective evaluation methods—objective
measurements are increasingly be- ing used. This report provides a condensed overview of the current state of measuring
technology for vehicle dynamics investigations.
In a generally understandable form the various sensors and sensor systems developed and operated by the partners of the
Driveability Testing Alliance (Corrsys- Datron, Dewetron, GeneSys, Kistler, TÜV SÜD Automo- tive) for data acquisition of the
measured parameters relevant to vehicle dynamics are presented. Another fo- cal area of the report is the current state which
has been achieved with regard to absolutely synchronous data filing of the measured signals (analog, digital, CAN, GPS,
video) and with regard to standardized analysis of the objective measurements recorded.
Standardized tests are described by means of two select examples. Following the description of the tests per- formed, the
required measuring equipment and the measured parameters derived thereof are defined. The time-related functional curves
are presented in meas- urement diagrams and the results interpreted in terms of vehicle dynamics properties.

2 Objective, Metrological Handling Evaluation of Motor

Vehicles

Even today, it is still common practice to rely on the sub- jective evaluation by experienced test engineers when it comes to
assessing the handling properties of motor vehicles. However, it is notable that over the past 20 years objective investigation
methods using measurable characteristics have been gaining consistently increasing importance. This can be attributed to the
fact that objec- tive assessments are better able to demonstrate even small steps in development progress than any
subjective evaluation could. Examples of this include proof of the effectiveness of tire modifications or the modification of
kinematics/elastokinematics of wheel location systems.
Therefore, the development engineer today needs highly conclusive and repeatable evaluation criteria.
With regard to the interaction between the operator, the vehicle and the environment, the objective to be pursued is a design
of the vehicle that provides optimum support for the driver’s skills. To achieve this, it is necessary to actually make handling
properties describable and to support these descriptions with measurements.

The objective vehicle tests, which are exactly described in ISO and DIN standards, are performed in closed or open loops.
Open-loop tests are preferred because they are not affected by the driver’s influence. The driver’s activity is reduced to the
scope of keeping operating elements like the steering wheel or brake pedal as con- sistent as possible.

To determine transversal dynamics properties, different steering angle inputs are made (e.g. step steering input or steady-
state circular test). The influence of accelera- tions or decelerations as well as the effect of external environmental influences
such as cross-winds are typi- cally investigated only in straight-line (steering angle equals zero) or steady-state circular tests
(constant steering angle, not equaling zero).
To evaluate handling properties in open-loop tests, the physically relevant parameters are analyzed as functions over time.
The variable parameters such as steering an- gle, accelerator or brake pedal travel are allocated to the motion parameters of
the vehicle. Either the time func- tions directly obtained or the characteristic values or characteristic functions derived thereof
using firmly agreed algorithms 1 provide the basis for the evalua- tion.
Figure 1: characteristic motion parameters to evaluate handling 1

In this context a distinction must be made between measured parameters recorded in the vehicle’s intrinsic coordinates
system and measured parameters in a lev- eled coordinates system. The coordinate system estab- lished by DIN 70000 must
be stringently adhered to re- garding the positive axial directions and positive rota- tional directions.

Figure 2: vehicle coordinates system

Measurements to capture actuating functions include, among other things, steering wheel angle and moment, brake pedal
travel and force or accelerator pedal travel.

The motion parameters resulting from actuation that are to be measured first are the tri-axial forces and moments at the
contact area between the road surface and the tires as well as wheel speed, wheel position in x, y and z direction and,
ultimately, the toe and camber angles of the individual four wheels. Furthermore, the motion pa- rameters of the vehicle’s
body (tri-axial angles, speeds and accelerations related to the vehicle’s center of grav- ity) or the course deviation from a
reference course are determined. Since the sensors cannot be located directly at the center of gravity coordinate
transformations are required.

3 Sensors and Sensor Systems

In the following section the facilities of the Driveability Testing Alliance partners will be presented. The
sensors and sensor systems, the synchronous acquisition and
 backup of measurements (rough data and calculated data) from different sources (analog, digital, CAN, GPS, video) and the
analysis using non-conforming routines demonstrate the entire spectrum of the expert know-how combined within the
Alliance.

3.1 Measurement Steering Wheel MSW

The acquisition of steering torque is performed using an integrated, DMS-applied measuring bar. The
steering angle and the steering angle speed derived thereof are obtained by means of a contact-free,
optical steering angle sensor. For the steering torque, two measurement ranges (+/- 10 Nm or +/- 50
Nm) are available; the steer- ing angle can also be selected in two variants at an an- gular dissolution
of +/- 0.5° (+/- 200° or +/- 1250 °). The steering angle speed can be captured up to +/- 1000°/s. The
measurement steering wheel can be easily fitted to the steering column through a center hole; the
assembly depth is relatively small.

Figure 3: measurement steering wheel MSW

3.2 Pitch and Roll Angle Measurement System

The measurement system is based on the distance measurement of three select vehicle body points vis-à- vis the road. The
pitch angle  is the angle between the vehicle’s longitudinal axis and its projection to the road, the
roll angle  is defined as the angle between the ve- hicle’s transversal axis and its projection to the
road.

The  and  angles can be calculated as arctan func- tions from the trigonometric distance
relationships. For the speed range of 0 – 250 kph, the measuring range for the pitch and roll angle
is +/- 40° at a resolution of +/- 0.1°.

The HF 500 C height level sensor operates according to the optical triangulation principle. A visible
red laser is projected onto the object and the reflected light is repre- sented on a CCD line.
If the direction of the beam and the distance between the CCD line and the light source are known,
the distance between the object and the CCD line can thus be calculated using a signal proces-
sor. The distance between the CCD line as well as the two beams from and to the object form a
triangle (trian- gulation).

Figure 4: height level sensor HF 500 C

3.3 Wheel Vector Sensor RV4

The wheel vector sensor is a 5-joint measurement arm with potentiometric angle
measurements at the joints. The wheel vector sensor enables a resolution of the wheel
position in x, y and z direction (+/- 150, +/- 150,
+/- 200 mm) with an accuracy of approx. +/- 1 mm. In addition, the wheel position is
determined by camber and toe angle measurements (+/- 10°, +/- 60° at an ac- curacy of
+/- 0.2°/ +/- 0.1°).
Possible uses for the wheel vector sensor, for example, include the determination of axle
load shifts while brak- ing, measurement of toe and camber angle changes dur- ing
dynamic vehicle maneuvers and evaluation of the self-steering effect of vehicles. To
include tire character- istics as well, the mounting bracket of a slip angle sensor can be
attached coaxially toward the center of the wheel.

Figure 5: wheel vector sensor RV4

3.4 Slip Angle Sensor SFII

As the slip angle, the angle between the speed vector at the tire contact patch and
wheel plane has been defined. The SFII is an optical sensor for non-contact
measure- ments used for the simultaneous acquisition of longitudi- nal and
transversal speeds at the wheel and the slip an- gle to be derived thereof. The sensor
is designed for a speed range of up to 250 kph. The angle range is +/- 40° at a
resolution of +/- 0.1°.

Figure 6: slip angle sensor SFII

The measurement principle of the correlation-optical, non-contact speed sensor is

based on the structure of the road being projected on an optical grid and a photo
receiver located behind the grid. The brightness differ- ences in the road surface lead
to a frequency in the photo receiver which is proportional to the speed in the
measurement direction. Due to the lower speed and the additional polarity acquisition
the set-up of the transver- sal speed sensor is more complex.

4 Wheel Force Dynamometer P650

Piezoelectric force sensors offer the major advantage that the measurement
system is designed for high stiff- ness without reducing the high sensitivities of
the sen- sors. Such measurement systems are characterized by natural
frequencies in very high ranges (up to 1 kHz).

Figure 7: 6-component vehicle wheel measurement wheel at the rear

axle

The central element, “vehicle wheel,” is the connecting link between the vehicle and the road and its
integration in the wheel location system significantly influences the specific spring-damper properties of
this system. The wheel force dynamometer provides objective informa- tion, for instance, regarding the
current wheel load distri- bution and its variations as well as for the wheel ground contact [footprint] and
lateral force. In addition, it can be used as a reliable tool for basic investigations such as non-uniformity
measurements on the tire at high speeds.

Depending on the orientation of the polar crystal axes vis-à-vis the effective line of
the attacking force, engi- neers differentiate between the longitudinal effect, the
shear piezoelectric effect and the transversal effect.

Figure 8: set-up [configuration] of a three-component force sensor

When subjected to the impact of an external force the pairs of quartz plates,
commensurate with their sensitive axes, discharge force-proportionate loads. The
break- down of an attacking force into its orthogonal compo- nents is directly
achieved by the measurement element without any auxiliary mechanical constructions.
Piezo force sensors are characterized by many positive properties, such as no aging or fatigue, excellent
stability and high linearity as well as high levels of spring stiff- ness and resulting high natural frequency.
The Vehicle Onboard Electronics System 2000 performs the self-identification of the measurement wheel
compo- nents used, the digitalization of the measurements ob- tained prior to data transmission, the
telemetric trans- mission of measurements to the inside or outside of the wheel and features many
optimized detailed solutions. In addition, the rotor contains magnets which – using the Hall effect–
determine the exact wheel turning angle.

5 Hub Carrier Accelerometer

The “Piezostar” tri-axial accelerometer mounted to the hub carrier with a measurement
range from +/- 50 g measures the impulse-like accelerations at the hub car- rier
introduced into the wheel location system by un-sprung masses at the wheel when
driving over uneven road surfaces with bumps or potholes for example.

Figure 9: hub carrier accelerometer

The sensor used has a high piezoelectric sensitivity, which is an important prerequisite for
miniaturizing the sensor. Due to the crystal material, which exhibits high stiffness, the
resonances of the seismic element in- crease and the sensor is thus suitable for large
usable frequency ranges.

6 Seat Rail Accelerometer

The tri-axial capacitative “K-Beam” accelerometer has integrated
electronics providing the acceleration parame- ters as analog
signal output in x, y and z direction.The sensor fitted to the seat
rail measures in all 3 axes in a range from +/- 10 g. The seat
rail as the measure- ment location is representative for
evaluating comfort in the vehicle’s interior compartment.

Figure 10: seat rail

accelerometer

7 Strap-Down Gyro Measuring Device with GPS

To detect the exact position of a body on the Earth’s sur- face, the so
called inertial measurement technology (INS) has been in use for a long
time.

Figure 11: inertial navigation system (INS)

The INS comprises three gyroscope channels to meas- ure
rotational speed and three acceleration channels to measure
linear acceleration. The accelerometers are also used to keep the system analytically leveled in steady
state, accounting for the orientation of the Earth’s gravity vector. The gyros are used to calculate the an-
gles in three dimensions at any instant
under motion.
The main properties include, for example, high band- width (100…1000 Hz), low data latency, translation
and rotation data and relative position (body-fixed, leveled). The main disadvantage of any INS is the
fact that the internal calculated motion states like position and veloc- ity show an inaccuracy, the so
called drift, which in- creases over time.
To overcome this problem in modern inertial measure- ment systems, particularly for vehicle dynamics
testing, GPS is used to make instantaneous corrections of the drift errors.The GPS measurement can
be improved through the differential approach (DGPS), engaging a local GPS base station. This results
in position accuracies in the global coordinate frame down to the centimeter.
Additionally, precise speed and time measurements are derived from the GPS signals.

Figure 12: Automotive Dynamic Motion Analyzer with DGPS

Consequently, the combination of differential GPS and INS leads to a highly accurate measurement device
which describes all dynamic movements of the vehicle. The data fusion is done using an extended
Kalman filter in the navigation computer of the DGPS/INS system. As a result, typical jumps or outages
known from purely GPS-based measurements are perfectly suppressed.
The gyro system enables measurements of the tri-axial vehicle movements. It is suitable for determining
angle speeds, the dynamic course and position angles as well as of the float angle and obtains the precise
accelera- tion, speed and position data. The INS/DGPS System ADMA (Automotive Dynamic Motion
Analyser) devel- oped by GeneSys, a specialist in inertial systems, was customized to meet the specific
requirements of vehicle dynamics testing.

8 Tire Temperature Measurement T³M

The temperature inside the tire structure is one of the most reliable, measurable
indicators to evaluate tire load and stress. Other important influencing factors
include, for example, tire inflation pressure, driving speed, wheel load and
ambient/environmental conditions (vehicle, road). In this context, not only the
current absolute read- ing of the temperature inside the tire but also the history of
this characteristic parameter is significant because it provides information about the service life of the tire.
Figure 13: tire temperature sensors in the tire tread and shoulder

A special method, the “TÜV Tire Temperature Method T³M,” has been developed to measure the
temperature in the tire structure. The tire temperature is measured in the tread and/or the tire shoulder
using Pt-100 resis- tance sensors. Specific objectives of this method are:
 Optimization of the tire in operation
 Thermal analysis and tuning of tire and thus vehicle performance
The thermoelectric voltages for the range from - 30°C…+179°C are amplified in the measurement wheel,
digitalized and telemetrically transmitted to the stator and passed on to data acquisition as a LAN
protocol.

9 Synchronous Data Acquisition

Synchronicity of the measured data is of particular im-
portance for vehicle dynamics tests. Up to now, the data
obtained by different sensors and sensor systems could
only be correlated with each other with major error toler-
ances, which also involved a considerable investment of
time

Figure 14: central measurement data acquisition unit

Figure 15: sync-clock technology

New technology is used for the data acquisition

unit by Dewetron in which a high-precision quartz-stabilized sys- tem cycle with 80 MHz and a slope
accuracy of 2 ns is generated. With this system cycle all measurements are synchronized and provided
with a real-time stamp. All incoming data and their time-related information are filed in the database
(DEWESOFT). In addition, the internal system cycle can be coherently (in-phase) coupled with an
 external cycle signal in order to make absolutely syn- chronous measurements using the pps signal of a
GPS satellite, for example, which is already being used in other applications.

With Dewetron’s technology, analogous and digital in- formation is read out in the same cycle. The
synchroni- zation with the system cycle also applies to the CAN- BUS systems, LAN and other
asynchronous interfaces and BUS systems. In the case of the ADMA measure- ment platform the data is
additionally stamped with the absolute time information of the GPS satellite. The in- dustrial video
cameras used have an external cycle input with which each individual image is accurately timed, thus
achieving exact synchronicity here as well.
The technology presented enables previously required editing times to be reduced by up to 70%; at the
same time, the quality of the results obtained can be improved by a factor of 5 – 10. This was only
achievable through intensive collaboration between the Driveability Testing Alliance partners. The vehicle
dynamics measurement engineer now enjoys the advantage of compatibility among the measurement
devices, from hardware (plugs, cabling, signal levels, etc), the integration of the various data protocols all
the way to the capability of synchroniz- ing them with each other.

10Examples of Objectively Measured Driving

Maneu- vers
10.1 Braking from Straight-Line Vehicular Motion

Braking from straight-line vehicular motion provides in- formation on the deceleration capability of a
vehicle as well as the vehicle stability achievable during this state. The crucial aspect in this context is a
design of the brak- ing system that is suitable for the particular vehicle in order to achieve the shortest
possible braking distances, which receive significant attention during vehicle tests, while assuring good
levels of comfort (responsiveness, actuating force, etc.) as well. In addition, the road’s skid resistance/grip
properties must be observed, which should be as consistent as possible across the entire braking
distance. Particularly with ABS developments, vehicle stability is evaluated with different skid resis-
tance/grip properties of the driving lanes on the vehicle sides (µ Split) or changes in the road’s skid
resistance/grip in transverse direction to the direction of travel (µ Sprung). The general objective when
designing the braking sys- tem is to achieve optimum utilization of adhesion de- pending on the respective
skid resistance/grip texture of the road.

The primary measurement parameters for the braking maneuver from straight-line vehicular motion are:

 Brake pressures at various points of the braking sys- tem

 Brake pedal force
 Braking distance
 Driving speed
 Longitudinal deceleration
 Pitch angle (to evaluate the anti-dive effect achieved by the design)

The driving maneuver is performed on an even road from a starting speed of 100 kph with varying
constant brake decelerations with deactivated ABS (2 m/s²,
1 m/s² and 6 m/s²).

The following parameters are used to evaluate vehicle

stability:
 Steering wheel angle
  Yaw speed
 Yaw acceleration
 Lateral speed or float angle
 Lateral acceleration
 Deviation from course
 Wheel forces in x, y and z direction

Figure 16: longitudinal forces acting on the vehicle wheels FL, FR, RL, RR

As the diagram clearly shows, the braking forces are split between the front and rear axles at a ratio of
approx 3:1. In this example, the force variations on all four wheels are the result of a controlled ABS
braking event, with the amplitudes at the front axles being much higher due to the prevailing brake force
level.

The parameters not represented in the diagrams were measured in the following ranges:

Yaw speed -1 … + 1 °/s

Steering wheel angle -5 … +3°
Lateral speed -0.3 … +0.6 m/s
Float angle approx. 0° Longitudinal deceleration approx. 10 m/s²

These values show that even in case of high longitudinal deceleration the vehicle stays its course at a
high level of stability.
10.2 Lane Change Test

The lane change test is a closed-loop test in which the vehicle operator has to drive through a
standardized cone-lined lane in as short a time as possible without hitting the individual cones. The tests
are conducted with and without ESP (electronic stability program). The pri- mary parameters for the lane
change test are:

 Driving speed, vehicle longitudinal and lateral speed

 Steering wheel turning angle and steering wheel torque
 Wheel forces Fx, Fy, Fz and wheel moments Mx, My, Mz and wheel speed FL, RL, FR, RR
 Toe and camber angle, wheel motion in x, y and z di- rection
 Vehicle float angle (leveled and related to road sur- face)
 Slip angle on vehicle wheel FL, RL, FR and RR
 Pitch, roll and yaw angle (leveled and vehicle-related)
 Longitudinal, lateral and yaw acceleration (leveled and vehicle-
related)

Figure 17: double lane change test according to ISO 3888-2

Upon leaving the entry lane the steering wheel angle is in

phase with the lateral wheel forces at the front axle, with the
lateral acceleration and the vehicle float angle. When entering
the lane-change track the float angle re- sponse early with
steering turn-in while the other pa- rameters respond with a time
delay due to the inertial masses of the vehicle system.
It is notable that the front outside cornering wheel, which is thus subjected to a heavier load,
subsequently – due to the higher force level - responds later to the direc- tional change than the relieved
wheel. The lateral accel- eration and the float angle with regard to amount and direction respond pretty
accurately to the steering angle changes.
In total, it can be said that the yaw speed and lateral ac- celeration curves provide information on the
transversal dynamics properties of the vehicle.

Summary

The inception of the Driveability Testing Alliance in 2007 has since achieved a guaranteed compatibility
of all DTA products at the hard- and software level. From simple to highly complex system
measurements, the entire sensor
– signal processing – signal analysis and methodology development process chain can be
accomplished. This means that, for the first time, a complete vehicle dynam- ics measurement and
evaluation system has been en- abled and made available. Particular attention was paid to ensuring that
the DTA hard- and software components are self-explanatory and easy to operate.