Master Class On Stratigraphy

Master Class on Stratigraphy
By Jacques LeBlanc, Geologist

Leblanc.Jacques@gmail.com
https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome
linkedin.com/in/jacques-leblanc-0270941bb
Rules of Engagement
 Mobile Phones MUST be switched to silent – if you receive a call that must be
answered – please leave the room and answer it outside
 This course is informal – please ask questions as we go along
 If a question is asked on a topic that will be discussed later on in another

section, the instructor may opt to delay answering that question until the
section is reached
 Feel free to get up and stretch as required
 We have a lot of material to cover. Please do not break longer than the
permitted time.
INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 2

Agenda & Timing
DAY 1 (Six Hours) DAY 2 (Six Hours)
- Safety Briefing - Safety Briefing
- Some General Definitions, Definition of Stratigraphy, Environments of - Sequence Stratigraphy
Deposition detected by studying stratigraphy, Laws and tools used in - Building a stratigraphic sequence, Exercises 7 & 8
Stratigraphy, Principles of Stratigraphy (1), Exercise 1, Principles of - Hierarchy of sequence stratigraphy, Exercise 9
Stratigraphy (2), Principles of Stratigraphy (3), Exercise 2, Principles of - Few breaks will be taken throughout
Stratigraphy (4), Exercises 3 & 4, Historical Basin Geology, Absolute Age
Dating, Exercise 5, Well Log Correlation, Exercise 6
- Few breaks will be taken throughout
Miao Keng cave (known as China's big shaft) Lower Ugab Valley, Namibia
Scotland
China
Pictures from “Geology Science” Group in LinkedIn

Some General Definitions
Eons are the longest periods of time within the history
of the Earth, which are now commonly divided into
two: the Precambrian and the Phanerozoic.
Eras are the three time divisions of the Phanerozoic:

the Palaeozoic, the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic.
Precambrian eras have also been defined, for example
dividing the Proterozoic into the Palaeoproterozoic, the
Mesoproterozoic and the Neoproterozoic.
Periods are the basic unit of geological time. The

Mesozoic Era, for example, is divided into three
periods, the Triassic, the Jurassic and the Cretaceous.
Epochs are the major divisions of Periods: some

have names, for example the Llandovery, Wenlock,
Ludlow and Pridoli in the Silurian, while others are
simply Early, Middle and Late divisions of the Period
(e.g. Early Cretaceous and Late Cretaceous).
The smallest commonly used divisions of geological

time are Ages or Stages. They are typically a few
million years in duration. For example, the Oligocene
Epoch is divided into the Rupelian and Chattian Ages.
Gradstein (2012)
http://www.stratigraphy.org
Formation:
• Rock body which is lithologically distinguishable from
underlying and overlying rock bodies.
• Basic unit of Lithostratigraphy.
• If at surface, they should be mappable at scale
1:25,000
• If in the subsurface, they should be traceable
• Thickness varies from several meters to several
kilometers
Type Localities: Also called type area, or type section, is

the locality where a particular rock type, stratigraphic unit,
fossil species or mineral is first identified. If the
stratigraphic unit in a locality is layered, it is called a
stratotype, whereas the standard of reference for
unlayered rocks is the type locality.
Reference Section
• The designated exposure of a named layered stratigraphic unit or of a stratigraphic boundary that serves as the standard of reference.
• A surface exposure of rock or a rock volume penetrated by a well in which lithologic characteristics of a particular rock unit are well
illustrated. The well in question is called “Reference Well”.
UNCONFORMITIES
Disconformity = hiatus + erosion

An unconformity in which the bedding planes above and below the break are essentially
parallel, indicating a significant interruption in the orderly sequence of sedimentary rocks,
generally by a considerable interval of erosion ..., and usually marked by a visible and
irregular or uneven erosion surface of appreciable relief.
Paraconformity = hiatus + erosion (no discernable erosion)

An obscure or uncertain unconformity in which no erosion surface is discernable ..., and in
which the beds above and below the break are parallel.
Angular unconformity = hiatus, erosion, and tilt

An unconformity between two groups of rocks whose bedding planes are not parallel or in
which the older, underlying rocks dip at a different angle (usually steeper) than the younger,
overlying strata.

Facies Change
The rock unit has changed character with distance so that it is unrecognizable in its new form.

Stratigraphic Pinchout
• Sometimes due to a lateral
change in the environment of
deposition a lens of permeable
sand/limestone is surrounded
by less permeable siltstones
and shales, forming a pinch out
trap.
• This commonly happens in

stream environments where
sand is deposited along the
stream channel which is
surrounded by a flood plain
characterized by finer grained
sediments.
• They also happen when faults
cut through several formations

MARINE EVAPORITES
The most common minerals that are generally considered to be the most representative of marine evaporites are
calcite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite, sylvite, carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite, and kainite. They are listed below by
order of precipitation out of a solution; i.e: in the reverse order of their solubility

Definition of Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is the branch of geology which deals with rock

layer correlation; it can be subdivided under:
• Lithostratigraphy (rocks and rock types / lithology);
• Biostratigraphy (fossils);
• Chronostratigraphy (Age)
It provides simple principles used to interpret geologic

events. The main principles are:
• Superposition & horizontality
• Cross-cutting relationships
• Inclusions
• Faunal succession
GeoExpro Magazine

Environments of Deposition detected by studying stratigraphy
Verreussel et al. 2018

Laws & Tools used in Stratigraphy
A quarry in SW Qatar (Miocene Dam Formation)
The tools used in Stratigraphy are Seismic data, Well Logs, cores and fossils (as well as outcrops, when available)

Principles of Stratigraphy (1)
1) Principle of superposition & Horizontality:
In an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each bed is

older than the one above and younger than the one below. If we
observed rock layers that are folded or inclined, or vertical, they
must have been moved into that position by crustal disturbances
sometime after their deposition. They cannot have been deposited
in a vertical position
youngest
oldest
youngest oldest
Exercise 1 - Principles of Stratigraphy (1)
Lithologic correlation (Left)

1) Mark unconformities
2) Correlate the lithology
3) Mark pinch outs
(see examples to the right)
Note: Assume the distance

between the 3 sections to the
left to be in kilometers
Correlate only using the lithology.

This exercise does not involve the
relative age of the formations.

Answer to Exercise 1 - Principles of Stratigraphy (1)
Lithologic correlation
• Unconformities
• Lithology
• Pinch outs

2) Principle of cross-cutting relationships:
When a fault or channel cut through rocks, we can assume that the fault or channel is younger than
the rocks affected.

Example from Qatar

- Do you see the fault?
- What type of fault is it?

Answer:
It is a Normal fault

Sabkha Sabkha
Sandbars
Mangroves living in the

mud
Channels
Mangrove
The Thakira lagoon (Qatar) with its intertidal channels (foreground) and sabkha (background)

Facies change: Boundaries at

sharp lithologic contacts and in
laterally gradational sequence

Channel cutting through a shale

(Lower Miocene Dam Formation, Qatar)

Channel cuts detected by seismic at depth of
1000 meters in ”Formation 3” over an anticline

3) Principle of Inclusions
If pieces of rock unit “A” are included in rock unit “B”, rock unit “A” must have formed before rock
unit “B”.
B A A A A A A A

40,000,000 years old layer
Chunks of rocks from the

40,000,000 years old layer
within Pleistocene rocks formed
by wind-blown sediments
(~100,000 years old)

Clasts in younger channel deposited sediments.

Principles of Stratigraphy (1, 2, 3) – Igneous Rocks
https://geology.com/rocks/igneous-and-volcanic-structures/

“La Palma” Island in the Canary Islands “La Gomera” Island in the Canary Islands
Dikes come in all sizes and shape
Between the red rock and the

dikes, what is the sequence
of events?
“La Gomera” Island in the

Canary Islands
Exercise 2 - Principles of Stratigraphy (1, 2, 3)
Identify with letters the sequence of

events that lead to this stratigraphic
diagram
Clues:
1) Start with the letter “A” at the bottom
left
2) Insert letters to all subsequent
events

Answer to Exercise 2 - Principles of Stratigraphy (1, 2, 3)
1) A,B,C,D,E,F,G were first deposited horizontally
and parallel to each other’s (not seen on the
diagram)
2) A,B,C,D,E,F,G were tilted to their current angle
3) A,B,C,D,E,F,G were then faulted (H)
4) A,B,C,D,E,F,G were then eroded (I), creating an
angular unconformity
5) J was deposited over the unconformity
6) K & L were deposited
7) The intrusion “M” pierced through formations A
to L
8) L & M were eroded, thus creating disconformity
“N”
9) During the erosion process, large chunks of “M”
were freed from it (O)
10)“P” was deposited and covered all chunks “O”
11)“Q” was deposited
12)“R” pierced through all the layers and intrusions
which existed at least at time “Q”
13)Volcanic activities in the area created layer “S”
14)“T” was deposited
INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 15)An erosional surface is now affecting “T” 30
4) Principle of faunal succession, or Biostratigraphy

• Rocks formed during any particular interval of geologic
time can be recognized and distinguished by their fossil
content from rocks formed during other time intervals.
• It provides:
 A geologic time framework for the rock unit based on
the occurrence of Index Fossils (characterizing a
specific horizon)
 A paleoenvironment of the rock unit based on the
occurrence of Facies Fossils (restricted to a certain
living environment)

☆Mass Extinctions
Five major extinctions (Big five) Diversity or marine animal genera
1. End of Ordovician (~435 Ma) (number of genera) during Phanerozoic
2. End of Devonian (~355 Ma) time. Arrows point to the “Big Five”.
3. End of Permian (~250 Ma)
4. End of Triassic (~203 Ma)
5. End of Cretaceous (~65 Ma)
Classification of cats

Gastropods
Bivalves

Example with the Middle Eocene Dammam Formation of Qatar

There are three types of marine invertebrate organisms on the basis of habitat:
• Planktons are organisms that live suspended in the upper water column and
which have only a very weak or limited ability to direct their own movements.
They are good for biostratigraphic zonation and correlation because of their
widespread distribution. (Diatoms, Foraminifers, radiolarians, graptolites, larvae,
etc…)
• Benthos are bottom-dwelling organisms that live either on or below the ocean
floor. They are good for environmental interpretation because their remains are
commonly preserved in the same environment in which they lived. (Crinoids,
oysters, brachiopods, Starfish, echinoids, crabs, clams, worms, etc…)
• Nektons are organisms able to swim freely and thus move about largely
independently of waves or currents. They are less abundant in the fossil record
than planktonic and benthonic organisms and have less value in biostratigraphic
studies. (Cephalopods, fish, sharks, etc...)

As per an earlier slide, the

organisms living in the mud
where the mangroves grow
will differ from those living in
the sandbars and channels.
Microfossil assemblages used to determine specific environments in a coastal plain-estuary-shelf complex. Applying this
knowledge to well samples facilitates more accurate facies mapping and reservoir models
Microfossil assemblages used to determine

specific environments in an estuary
environment. Applying this knowledge to well
samples facilitates more accurate facies
mapping and reservoir models
Hayward, 2014

Useful time range of fossils in biostratigraphy

Different groups of organisms have Useful space range of fossils in biostratigraphy

been important producers of
carbonate sedimentary material
through the Phanerozoic; limestones
of different ages therefore tend to
have different biogenic components.

Stratigraphic distribution of diatoms
Diatoms: Pigmented unicellular algae whose

cell walls are silicified to form a shell or
frustule that consists of two valves. Both
benthonic and planktonic types are known. A
rock that is largely composed of diatom
frustules is called diatomite. They are
abundant today and they are known as far
back as the Cretaceous. Because of their
mineralogical instability, though, well
preserved diatoms become rarer with
increasing age of the host strata.

Stratigraphic zonation of the tropical late Cenozoic by means
of radiolarians
Radiolaria: animal-like protists who, like diatoms, secrete
siliceous skeletons. Unlike diatoms, though, radiolaria are
exclusively marine and planktonic, and their shells tend to be
better preserved. Radiolaria originated in Cambrian time and
they are still in existence today; though 90% of species are
extinct. They are biostratigraphically useful in Paleozoic strata,
even more so in Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata in which they are
better preserved.

Index Fossils
Biozones
Biocorrelation
Hypothetical sratigraphic section illustrating the large number of
fossil taxa that may be involved in correlation by assemblage zones.


Fossils in Thin-Sections
Scholle & Ulmer-Scholle (2003)



Exercise 3 - Principles of Stratigraphy (4) - BioStratigraphy
Biostratigraphic correlation
1) Mark unconformities
2) Correlate lithology & ages
3) Mark pinch outs
Note 1: Assume the distance

between the 2 sections to the left
to be in kilometers
Note 2: Refer to the

“Chronostratigraphy chart” to the
right
Correlate the lithology and ages.

This exercise deals with both the
lithology and the relative age of
the formations

Answer to Exercise 3 - Principles of Stratigraphy (4) - BioStratigraphy
Biostratigraphic correlation
• Unconformities
• Lithology & Ages
• Pinch outs

Exercise 4 - Principles of Stratigraphy (4) - BioStratigraphy
What is wrong with this correlation? What can we do to improve it? Hint: what are the
tools used in Stratigraphy?
A B C D
0m
Biozone 5 Biozone 5
Biozone 4
1000 m
Biozone 3 Biozone 4
Biozone 2
Biozone 3
Biozone 2
2000 m
Biozone 1
Biozone 3
Biozone 2
3000 m
Biozone 1
Partial answer to Exercise 4 - Principles of Stratigraphy (4) - BioStratigraphy
Draw an interpretation around “Well C” and complete the geological section
A B C D
0m
Biozone 5 Biozone 5
Biozone 4
1000 m
Biozone 3 Biozone 4
Biozone 3
Biozone 2
Biozone 2
2000 m
Biozone 1
Biozone 3
Above fault was defined using

seismic & biostratigraphy Biozone 2
3000 m
Biozone 1
Complete answer to Exercise 4 - Principles of Stratigraphy (4) - BioStratigraphy
A B C D
0m
Biozone 5
Biozone 5
Biozone 4
1000 m
Biozone 3 Biozone 4
Biozone 3
Biozone 2
Biozone 2
2000 m
Biozone 1
Biozone 3
Biozone 2
3000 m
Biozone 1
Historical Basin Geology
What is a Sedimentary Basin
The term ‘basin’ has different meanings depending on its location and containment.
Groundwater basin is for aquifers; drainage basin delineates a river system; oceanic
basin refers to the abyss; and sedimentary basin is a depression in the earth’s crust
filled with sediments. Sedimentary basins are on the scale of tens to hundreds of
kilometers in length and width, and thousands of meters in depth. As such they are
usually tectonic basins formed by plate tectonic processes. Basins may also be
described in terms of depositional environment (fluvial, eolian, deltaic, lacustrine,
continental, marine, reefal, abyssal) or sedimentary fill (clastic, carbonate, evaporate,
turbidite) or what economic resource they contain (petroleum, natural gas or coal).
Only a tectonic classification explains the origin and evolution of sedimentary basins
and their sediment fill. More details can be found in Sorkhabi (2019).

PLATE TECTONICS

The Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin
Mainly Clastics
Mainly Carbonates

The Arabian Sedimentary Basin
Clastics Carbonates
Arabian Shield
Modified from Glennie K.W. (2005)

The Clastic deposits of the Arabian Sedimentary Basin

The geology of the Precambrian shields on

both sides of the Red Sea matches perfectly
(Selley et al., 2005)

Arabian Plate bounded by all major

plate boundary types.
(Stern et al., 2010)

Geologic map and cross-section

of the Arabian Peninsula

Arabia North America

Location of Arabia and North America over the Time Periods. The position of The potash/sylvite deposits buried more than a
Arabia over the ages explain why the Pre-Khuff formations are all clastic kilometre beneath central Canada were formed after
sediments and why the younger ones are all carbonates an inland sea evaporated during the Devonian
INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST
(400mya) 61
= Eastern Arabia

Salt Dome
Effect of salt diapirism at the surface

Normal fault
A graben near
Zanjan, Iran
https://structuralgeo.wordpress.com/2013/07/18/normal-
faults-graben-restoration/

Principal types of large salt structures

Anticline
Today
Miocene
20,000,000
years ago
Anticlines eroded horizontally at the surface

show oldest ages in the center line.
Eocene
45-50,000,000 Synclines eroded horizontally at the surface
years ago show youngest ages in the center line
(bedding ages are symmetrically older going
away from center)
Structural Domes & Basins
Structural Domes
are structures in
which the beds dip
away from a central
point
Structural Basins
are structures in
which the beds dip
toward a central
point

Small Basins in
Basins in the Lower Miocene in SW Qatar
the Lower
Miocene Dam
Formation in SW
Qatar (see scale
at bottom-left).
These are
probably due to
the dissolution /
collapse of the
gypsum layer in a
deeper formation

Absolute Age Dating
Absolute Age Dating
 Absolute ages of rock can be assigned to the geologic time scale on the basis of the chemical properties of atoms that make up
the minerals of a rock. Unlike relative dating, which relies on sequencing of rock layers (i.e. younger vs. older), absolute dating
can produce an actual age in years.
 The number of neutrons in a nucleus of an atom determines the isotope of the element, just like the number of protons
determines the identity of an element.
 Some isotopes are unstable and break down into other isotopes through a process called radioactive decay. Radioactive decay
is characterized by beta decay, where a neutron changes into a proton by giving off an electron, and alpha decay, when isotopes
give off 2 protons and 2 neutrons in the form of an alpha particle and changes into a new product. The original isotope is called
the parent and the new isotope product is called the daughter.
Note: Radioactive isotopes can be found in the rock record because radioactive isotopes are incorporated into the crystals of igneous rock as it cools.
Absolute Age Dating
What is a Half-Life?
• Each radioactive parent isotope decays to its daughter product at a specific and measurable rate. This measurement is
reported in half-lives. The half-life of an isotope is the time it takes for ½ of the parent atoms in the isotope to decay.
• The decay rate is a direct measurement of each isotope. One uses a detector to detect alpha, beta, and/or gamma
radiation over some period of time, taking into account the concentration of the isotope in the sample (depending on the
isotope it can be days or months). The half-life time is then extrapolated based on the measured decay rate.
• If an isotope has a half-life of 4000 years, then after 4000 years ½ of the parent isotope remains. After another 4000
years, ½ of ½ remains, or ¼ of the original amount of parent isotope. In another 4000 years (12,000 years total), ½
more of the remaining amount decays, so after 3 half-lives, there only remains 1/8 (½ of ½ of ½) of the original parent
isotope.
• If a scientist knows the half-life of the parent and measures the proportion of parent isotope to daughter isotope, he/she
can calculate the absolute age of the rock. This valuable method is called radiometric dating.
• Isotopes with very long half-lives are not suitable for dating rocks younger than
~1 million years because there are too few daughter atoms to be measured
accurately.
• Experimental error limits measurements to those rocks younger than about 12
half-lives of the isotope used.
DECAY
PARENT DAUGHTER
Note: Radioactive isotopes can be found in the rock record because radioactive isotopes are incorporated into the crystals of igneous rock as it cools.
Absolute Age Dating
There are two main types of Absolute Dating methods

• Carbon-14 (radiocarbon)
• Potassium-Argon

Absolute Age Dating
Radiocarbon (Carbon-14)
Dating
A small piece of  Radiocarbon dating is a common
the fossil is
method used to date anything that
burned and
converted to was once alive (including plants).
carbon dioxide  All living things take in carbon from
gas Stable C-12 the environment in the form of
Radiocarbon decays at a
Unstable C-14 carbon-12 and carbon-14. When an
known rate. Paleontologists
are able to determine the organism dies, carbon intake stops
age of a fossil by measuring
Fossil C-14 decays into N-14, and the carbon-14 begins to decay at
emitting an electron a known rate. Scientists can
the amount of C-14 it
contains
Electron determine how much C-14 remains in
Nitrogen
an organism by measuring radiation
Living organisms
absorb C-14 Living emitted by the C-14 isotopes.
(radiocarbon)  Carbon dating can be used on
during their A radiation counter
wood, plants, humans, and even old
lifetimes records the number of
electrons emitted
paper made out of papyrus.
 The half-life of C-14 is 5,730 years.
Because of this, it should not be used
with material older than ~70,000
years or 12 half-lives.
Absolute Age Dating
Potassium-Argon Dating
 Scientists determine the age of the rock surrounding the fossil to
determine the fossil’s age
 Used only for inorganic substances (rocks and minerals)
 The amount of argon is measured in the rock to determine its age.
 The potassium-argon dating method has been used to measure a
wide variety of ages. The potassium-argon age of some meteorites
is as old as 4,500,000,000 years, and volcanic rocks as young as
20,000 years old have been measured by this method.

Absolute Age Dating
Other commonly used methods
Some Materials
Parent Daughter Half-Life Effective Dating Range
That May Be Dated
238 206 zircon, uraninite, allanite, monazite,sphene,

U Pb 4.56 BY 10,000,000 years to Earth formation
apatite, epidote, thorite, Pitchblende
U Pb 704 MY 10,000,000 years to Earth formation
40 40 Micas (Muscovite, biotite), hornblende, K-
K Ar 1.251 BY 10,000,000 years to Earth formation
feldspar, volcanic rock, glauconite, conodonts
87 87 K-feldspar, K-mica, Biotite, clay minerals,
Rb Sr 48.8 BY 10,000,000 years to Earth formation
Metamorphics
Th Pb 1.39 BY 10,000,000 years to Earth formation
230 206
Th Pb 75 KY 0 to 900,000 years Ocean sediments
14 14 wood, fabric, paper, rope, seeds, bone,

C N 5,730 yr 0 to 70,000 years
pottery, shell
KY- thousand years. MY- million years. BY- billion years
Uranium-Lead decay series (U-Pb series)

 Unlike carbon-14 dating, uranium dating cannot be used to date formerly living things; however, it is the most commonly
used method in igneous rock dating because of the abundance of zircon minerals.
 Igneous rocks, or the magma from which it was formed, often intrudes overlying sedimentary rocks. By dating the
magma, one can get at least a minimum age for the sedimentary rock.

Absolute Age Dating
Type of rock Stratigraphic relationship Reliability of age data
Volcanic rock (lava flows and ash Interbedded with “Contemporaneous” Give actual ages of sedimentary rocks
falls) sedimentary rocks in close stratigraphic proximity above
and below volcanic layers
Plutonic igneous rocks • Intrude (cut across) sedimentary • Give minimum ages for the rocks
rocks they intrude
• Lie unconformably beneath • Give maximum ages for overlying
sedimentary rocks sedimentary rocks
Metamorphosed sedimentary rocks • Constitute the rocks whose ages are • Give minimum ages for
being determined metamorphosed sedimentary rock
• Lie unconformably beneath non- • Give maximum ages for the
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks overlying non-metamorphosed
sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks containing Give actual ages of sedimentary rocks
contemporary organic remains
(fossils, wood, etc.)
Sedimentary rocks containing Give minimum ages of sedimentary
authigenic minerals such as rocks
glauconite
Absolute Age Dating
255,000,000 my 145,000,000 my
65,000,000 my

Absolute Age Dating
Precambrian
(800,000,000my)
1,000 kms 1,000 kms

Absolute Age Dating
1 Precambrian
(800,000,000my)
1,000 kms 1,000 kms

Absolute Age Dating
2
1 Precambrian
(800,000,000my) 2
1,000 kms 1,000 kms

Absolute Age Dating
2
1 Precambrian 3
2
(800,000,000my)
1,000 kms 1,000 kms

Absolute Age Dating
3
4
4
2
1 Precambrian 3
2
(800,000,000my)
1,000 kms 1,000 kms

Absolute Age Dating
3 5
4
4
2
1 Precambrian 3
2
(800,000,000my)
1,000 kms 1,000 kms

Absolute Age Dating
6
3 5
6
4
4
2
1 Precambrian 3
(800,000,000my) 2
1,000 kms 1,000 kms

Absolute Age Dating
6
7
3 5
6
4
4
2
1 Precambrian 3
(800,000,000my) 2
1,000 kms 1,000 kms

Absolute Age Dating
8
8
6
7
3 5
6
4
4
2
1 Precambrian 3
(800,000,000my) 2
1,000 kms 1,000 kms

Absolute Age Dating
9
7
8
8
6
7
3 5
6
4
4
2
1 Precambrian 3
(800,000,000my) 2
1,000 kms 1,000 kms

Exercise 5 - Absolute Age Dating
The four volcanic layers were dated using the 238U-206Pb Series method. The same was done on the
petrified tree trunks using the K-Ar method. Define the most likely ages of all sedimentary layers (use the
absolute ages coupled with the relative dating method).
13,000,000 my
9
7
8
40,000,000 my 8
6
7
3 5 6
4
4
2 100,000,000 my
1 Precambrian 3
(800,000,000my) 2
Volcanic layer 325,000,000 my Petrified tree trunks
1,000 kms 1,000 kms
Exercise 5 - Absolute Age Dating - Answer
13,000,000 my
9
7 22
22
8 31
40,000,000 my 8 31
6
55 7 40,000,000 my
3 5
70
6 55
4
85 100,000,000 my 4 85
2
1 100-325 Precambrian 3
2 100-325
325 (800,000,000my)
1,000 kms 1,000 kms

Well Log Correlation
Resolving subsurface stratigraphy is like solving a three-dimensional puzzle with many of the
pieces hidden from view. In many sedimentary basins with a long history of petroleum exploration,
one of the most reliable data types for understanding the subsurface is well log correlation
• Wireline logs sample a very small volume away from the rock in a well. Think of them as
individual trees in a forest;
• Be aware of well spacing;
• Be aware of the depositional environment and the basin setting. A marine limestone can
correlate across large distances, but a channel may not;
• Always start with a cross-section that covers the entire area;
• Use a datum. Maximum flooding surfaces are always a good choice;
• Always correlate the easier picks first;
• Over large areas, use the loop tie method to check correlations between individual cross-
section. You should always end up at the same location;
• Think about time lines, changes in accommodation, regressions and transgressions and the
likely response of rock intervals to such variables;
• Practice getting your eyes trained to recognize log patterns.

Principal uses of open hole wireline logs
SP = Spontaneous Potential
GR = Gamma Ray 90
Principal uses of Open & Cased hole wireline logs

Log Motifs
• Gamma ray log useful for log motif analysis (Parasequences)
• Porosity & Resistivity logs generally not reliable to study environment of
deposition (EOD)- impacted by deep burial diagenetic processes.
• Gamma ray profile may have multiple EOD’s
Possible EOD’s for Gamma Ray Profiles
A) Backshoal, Sandflat, Sandy Lagoon
B) Shoal, Shoal Margin, Foreshoal,
Shoreface, Subtidal Bars
C) Shoal, Beach, Carbonate Sand-Rich
Channels
D) Lagoon, Subtidal Lagoon, Muddy Tidal
Flat, Tidal Channel/Tidal Inlet
E) Tidal Flat, Lagoon, Backshoal

Log Properties
Basic log. A common combination of
logging measurements includes gamma
ray, resistivity, and neutron and density
porosity combined on one toolstring. The
gamma ray response (Track 1)
distinguishes the low gamma ray value
of sand from the high value of shale. The
next column, called the depth track,
indicates the location of the sonde in feet
(or meters) below a surface marker.
Within the sand formation, the resistivity
(Track 2) is high where hydrocarbons are
present and low where brines are
present. Both neutron porosity and bulk
density (Track 3) provide measures of
porosity, when properly scaled. Within a
hydrocarbon zone, a wide separation of
the two curves in the way shown here
indicates the presence of gas.
INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST Andersen (2011) 93

Log
Properties


(Nicholls 2009)

Layer cake
Jigsaw puzzle
Labyrinth


Mangroves living in the mud
Channels
The Thakira lagoon with its intertidal channels (foreground) and sabkha (background)

Layer Cake style: Shale

interbedded with Limestone
QNCC quarry South of
Umm Bab (Lower Miocene
Dam Formation), Qatar


Single Channel cutting through
the shale but also affecting the
limestone layers below and
above it. If this channel was in
the subsurface, it could be
trapping hydrocarbon.
QNCC quarry South of Umm
Bab, Qatar (Lower Miocene
Dam Formation)

Miocene Dam Formation, Qatar. Erosional features of a meandering channel (Point Bar) indicative of a broad
alluvial plain rather than a confined valley
Wright, 2015
Stratigraphic Cross-
Section flattened on the
Khatiyah Marker.
Time Stratigraphic Chart
and Isochore map of
combined Mishrif and
Ahmadi Fms

Not to scale Shales
Ammonite
bearing horizon
Simplified 3D diagram
illustrating a concept of
dolomitisation related
to faults and fractures
that constitute active
pathways for fluid
migration
Evaporites
Faults
Fluid flow migration
Exercise 6 - Well Log Correlation
Correlate and find the pinch-out.

Can you correlate it differently by inserting/showing a fault and fold?
Sand
Shale
Shale
Limestone
Limestone
Dolomite
Shale

Two pinchouts have been discovered; a stratigraphic pinchout and a pinchout due to facies change.
Lastly, where would the oil most likely accumulate / migrate to?


Sequence Stratigraphy
Sequence Stratigraphy provides the linkage of seismic, log, core,
fossil and outcrop data at local, regional and global scales
DEFINITION
Sequence stratigraphy attempts to subdivide sedimentary
successions (either at the local basinal scale or at the global scale)
into packages relating to changes in relative sea level. The
geometries of sequence stratigraphy predict what facies may be
expected up, down and laterally in the depositional system, so the
occurrence of reservoirs, source rocks and seals may be predicted
regionally from relatively sparse datasets. It can be applied to
seismic data, well and outcrop data. (Simmons, 2011). In order to
do this, one must study the
• Changes from a coarsening-upward trend to a fining-upward one used to interpret a
change from a
, and vice-versa; regressive trend to
• Changes from a shallowing-upward trend to a deepening- a transgressive
trend and vice
upward one, and vice-versa. versa.

Integrated Disciplines Main Controls

Integrated Data
- Sedimentology - Sea-level change
- Stratigraphy - Seismic - Subsidence, uplift
- Geophysics - Outcrop - Climate
- Geomorphology - Core - Sediment supply
- Isotope - Well-Log - Basin physiography
Geochemistry - Biostratigraphic - Environmental
- Structural Geology - Geochemical energy
- Basin Analysis - biota
The difference between sequence stratigraphy and Lithostratigraphy correlation is the following:
• A lithostratigraphic correlation would correlate conglomerate units 1 and 2, sandstone units 3, 4 and 5, and
mudstone units 6, 7 and 8.
• A sequence stratigraphic correlation would correlate time lines A-A’, B-B’ and C-C’.

All clastics are transported while carbonates are
produced and accumulate "in situ".
Transgression Regression
Relative to the sea
Transgression: When sea level rises. The facies
shift landward. The stratigraphic column exhibits a
"fining up" sequence as the grain sizes decreases as
you move up the column.
Regression: When sea level falls. Facies shift

seaward, and the stratigraphic column exhibits a
"coarsening up" sequence.
Aggradation: A static sea level results in a thick
sequence of the same rock type.
Relative to the land
Progradation: The seaward movement of a
shoreline
Retrogradation: The landward movement of a
shoreline
Retrogradation Progradation
Fining/deepe Coarsening/S
ning upward hallowing
sequence upward
sequence
CONFIDENTIAL
113
A) Chronostratigraphic
B) Lithostratigraphic
Correlations of the same

sand observations in three
wells.
The chronostratigraphic
correlation invokes an
additional hierarchical level
in the stratigraphy
Correlating wrong can

impact:
• estimates of reserves
• development plans
• enhanced recovery


CAUSES OF
SEA-LEVEL CHANGES
The erosional effects of

the daily tides
High Tide Because the Earth rotates

High Tide
through two tidal “bulges”
every lunar day, coastal areas
experience two high and two
low tides every 24 hours and Low Tide
Low Tide 50 minutes. High tides occur
12 hours and 25 minutes apart
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/145237/mapping-the-land-between-the-tides

There are a number of possible

causes of sea-level change
related to tectonic and climatic
factors; the approximate
magnitudes of change and the
rates at which it will occur are
indicated in each case.
(Nicholls 2009)
Milankovitch cycles: the eccentricity of

the Earth’s orbit of the Sun, changes on
the obliquity of the axis of rotation of the
Earth and the precession of the axis of
rotation may result in global climatic
cycles on the scale of tens of thousands
of years.
(Nicholls 2009)

The consequences of the causes
Relative sea-level change (the change in water depth at a point) may be

due to uplift or subsidence of the crust, increase or decrease in the
amount of water, or addition of sediment to the sea floor. It is often not
possible to determine which mechanism is responsible if there is
information from only one place.
(Nicholls 2009)
If sea level rises faster than sediment is supplied the coastline shifts landward: this is known
as transgression and the pattern in the sediments is retrogradational
(Nicholls 2009)

If sediment is supplied to a coast where there is no (or relatively slow) sea-level rise the
coastline moves seaward: this is regression and the sediment pattern is progradational
(Nicholls 2009)

Sea-level fall results in a forced regression and the sediment pattern is retogradational, and
may include erosion surfaces.
(Nicholls 2009)

A situation where the coastline stays in the same position for long periods of time is relatively unusual and requires a
balance between relative sea-level rise and sediment supply producing a pattern of aggradation in the sediments.
(Nicholls 2009)

The eight possible patterns

of sedimentation that can
result from different relative
amounts of sediment supply
and relative sea-level
change. The responses to
Aggradation
the different combinations
are expressed in terms of
vertical sedimentary
successions or as
No Regression geometries expressed in
Transgression terms of shoreline
Deposition
Incision
trajectories.
Deposition
(Nicholls 2009)

The stacking patterns of

parasequences to form parasequence
sets are characteristic of different
systems tracts.
(Nicholls 2009)

A) A cross-section from the continental shelf through the

continental slope and rise down to the abyssal plain.
B) Depth-related divisions of the marine realm: (a) broad divisions are defined by water depth; (b) the shelf is
described in terms of the depth to which different processes interact with the sea floor, and the actual depths
vary according to the characteristics of the shelf.
C) The distribution of pelagic sediment in the oceans is strongly influenced by the effects of depth-related pressure on the solubility of
carbonate minerals. Below the calcite compensation depth particles of the mineral dissolve resulting in concentrations of silica, which is less
(Nicholls 2009)
soluble, and clay minerals.
(Retrogradation) (Progradation)

Systems Tract: Intervals of relatively stable Shifts in shoreline position create distinct vertical
contemporaneous depositional systems, separated by stacking patterns of facies (retrogradation /
surfaces representing significant reorganizations of transgression versus progradation / regression)
sediment dispersal patterns.

Sequence Boundary (SB): Falling Stage Systems Tract Transgressive Systems Tract
• A surface; (FSST): (TST):
• Forms either during a lowering of base level or • Progradational parasequence set; • Retrogradational parasequence set;
during a significant slowing of base level rise; • Forms during same time frame as the SB • Deposited during interval when the
• Erosional landward of the shoreline and non- and represents a forced regression;
depositional to conformable basinward; rate of base level rise is greater than
• Can often be recognized as proximal the rate of deposition;
• Recognized either by truncation of underlying deposits abruptly overlying significantly
strata or by abrupt juxtaposition of more • Recognized by position between the
more distal deposits;
proximal facies over more distal facies. TST below and MFS above;
• Possibly identified by offlapping the
Transgressive Surface (TS): • Tends to be absent in more basinal
sequence boundary;
• A surface; • Can be physically detached from the rest sections, thin in coastal regions, and
• Forms as the rate of base level rise begins to of the sequence; thickest in fluvial-dominated proximal
out pace the rate of deposition; • Poor preservation potential; regions.
• Represents sediment starvation; • Often not identified or combined with Highstand Systems Tract
• Can often be recognized by more distal facies LST.
abruptly overlying more proximal facies;
(HST):
Lowstand Systems Tract • Aggradational (at base) to
• Can be erosional due to wave reworking.
(LST): progradational (toward top)
Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS): • Aggradational parasequence set; parasequence sets;
• A surface (may be more of a graded interval); • In proximal portion, often overlies an • Forms as the rate of base level rise
• Represents the turnaround from coastal erosional contact that represents slows, representing a normal
transgression to regression; sediment bypass; regression;
• Recognized by transition from more distal • Forms during the initial rise of base level,
deposits below to more proximal deposits • Can produce a thick wedge of
as sediment begins to accumulate in the sediment that progrades over any of
above. earlier bypass channel;
the other systems tracts;
• Recognized as more proximal deposits
• Capped by the next sequence
over more distal deposits;
• Onlaps the sequence boundary. boundary (SB).
A higher frequency sea-level fluctuation curve
superimposed on the curve in Fig. “A” of
previous slide produces a pattern of short-term
rises and falls in sea level within the general
trends of transgression and regression. These
short-term fluctuations result in creation of
small amounts of accommodation being
created, even during the falling stage.
(Nicholls 2009)

Regional architecture of depositional systems, systems tracts, and stratigraphic surfaces
Catuneanu (2006)

Sequence
stratigraphic
elements
HST
MFS
TST
SB
HST SB
LST

Sequence components in order of deposition (Bottom to Top)

Sequence begins when sea level relative to the basin begins to fall.
a) The first deposits, sand-rich fans, are laid down while sea level is
falling to its lowest point (A).
b) As sea level bottoms out and begins to rise (B), sands and shale
are deposited in fans on the continental slope. Submarine
channels with levees may meander across the fan. Slumps are
common.
c) The continuing rise in sea level (C) allows wedges of sediment to
build into the basin, with sands near the shore, siltstones and
shale basinward.
d) A rapid rise in sea level (D) moves sandiest sediments landward
as beaches and sandbars.
e) Sea level then rises at a lower rate (E), allowing sediments to
build basinward again. Sandy sediments are usually restricted to
the nearshore margin.
Neal et al. (1993)
Components of sequences,
their log responses, and
predicted and observed
seismic reflection patterns.
Note that Seismic sequence

stratigraphy has been shown
to work in a variety of
settings, in some better than
others. In the example that
follow, attention is on an
environment where it has
proved successful; sand and
shale deposition on
continental margins.
Neal et al. (1993)
Typical sequences showing
all the components of
previous pages. Inputs are:
• Initial basin shape,
• Sedimentation rate, and
• Relative sea level.
Geologic timelines are

numbered from 5 to 35,
oldest to youngest. The
sequence begins at 5.
Expected log responses are

plotted at ten locations. The
left curve is SP or gamma-
ray, the right curve is
Neal et al. (1993)
resistivity.
For information on Turbidite deposits and Sequence Stratigraphy, read:
http://homepage.ufp.pt/biblioteca/TurbiditeDeposits/Pages/Page12.htm

A B C D E A B C D E

Interpretation of
gamma-ray logs
in terms of
parasequences
and systems
tracts.
(Nicholls 2009)
Dun Briste from Downpatrick Head, Ireland
INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST “Geology Science” Group in LinkedIn 137
Seismic line with sequence
components interpreted in color, SP
0 kms 1.6
log and fossil abundance curves.
This seismic section has nine

sequences
Sequence components shown are not

necessarily from the same sequence,
which is why “D” appears
stratigraphically above “E”.
Sequence Stratigraphy cannot
always be confidently applied with
Seismic
When sedimentation rate is moderate
to high, layers within a sequence are
tens to hundreds of metres thick,
comfortably within the resolving power
of a typical seismic wave. But when
sedimentation rate is low, several
sequences might fit within a seismic
Neal et al. (1993)
wavelength.

(Dolson et al. 2018)

Emery & Myers (2009)

~3000m
Depositional sequences as defined from seismic records. Black lines = Seismic sequence boundaries
To put things in perspective:

• Half of an amplitude
measures 70 feet at 35
htz.
• It represents a large
portion of the altitude of
the mountains exposed in
UAE
• What is seen in the

previous slide represents
a huge depositional
sequence
The Permian Khuff Formation in Oman

Outcrop of
parasequences at
Woodside Canyon
in Utah, overlain
with seismic
wiggles.
GeoExpro, Vol. 14, No. 3 - 2017
http://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2017/0
7/learning-on-the-rocks

Ex: Atlantic & Pacific rim

Shelf/Slope/Basin
Ramp Ex: Arabian Gulf
Embry (2008)
1) MRS = Maximum regressive surface = the basinward conformable portion of the transgressive surface;
2) SOS = Slope onlap surface = Prominent, unconformable surface which is developed in slope environments and is
characterized, by the onlap of strata onto the surface;
3) SR-U = Shoreline ravinement = landward portion of the transgressive surface;
4) SU = Subaerial unconformity = An erosive surface or weathering zone overlain by nonmarine/brackish marine
strata, and the demonstration that it represents a significant gap in the stratigraphic record. Any type of strata can lie
below.

1) MFS = Maximum flooding surface = The surface of
sequence stratigraphy marking the change from
retrogradational sedimentation below to progradational
above.
2) MRS = Maximum regressive surface = the
basinward conformable portion of the transgressive
surface;
3) RSME = Regressive surface of marine erosion = a
sharp, scoured surface having offshore marine strata that
coarsen upwards below the surface and coarsening and
shallowing-upward shoreface strata above the surface;
4) SOS = Slope onlap surface = Prominent,
unconformable surface which is developed in slope
environments and is characterized, by the onlap of strata
onto the surface;
5) SR-D = Diastemic Shoreline Ravinement = Diastem
is a stratigraphic surface representing an insignificant gap
in the stratigraphic record.
6) SR-U = Shoreline ravinement = landward portion of
the transgressive surface;
Embry (2008) 7) SU = Subaerial unconformity = An erosive surface or
Shelf / Slope / weathering zone overlain by nonmarine/brackish marine
Basin setting strata, and the demonstration that it represents a
significant gap in the stratigraphic record. Any type of
INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST strata can lie below. 145
sequence stratigraphy that marks the change from
Embry (2008)
sedimentation above.
surface;
Shelf / Slope / 3) RSME = Regressive surface of marine erosion = a
Basin setting sharp, scoured surface having offshore marine strata that
onto the surface;
is a stratigraphic surface which represents an insignificant
The boundaries of a depositional sequence (SU, SR-U, SOS, gap in the stratigraphic record.
MRS) are shown in red on this sequence model characterized by a 6) SR-U = Shoreline ravinement = landward portion of
shelf / slope / basin setting. The internal maximum flooding surface the transgressive surface;
allows such a sequence to be subdivided into a transgressive 7) SU = Subaerial unconformity = An erosive surface or
systems tract (TST) and a regressive systems tract (RST). weathering zone overlain by nonmarine/brackish marine
strata, and the demonstration that it represents a
significant gap in the stratigraphic record. Any type of
2) MRS = Maximum regressive surface = the basinward
conformable portion of the transgressive surface;
3) RSME = Regressive surface of marine erosion = a sharp,
scoured surface having offshore marine strata that coarsen
upwards below the surface and coarsening and shallowing-
upward shoreface strata above the surface;
4) SOS = Slope onlap surface = Prominent, unconformable
surface which is developed in slope environments and is
characterized, by the onlap of strata onto the surface;
5) SR-D = Diastemic Shoreline Ravinement = Diastem is, in
contrast to an unconformity, a stratigraphic surface which
represents an insignificant gap in the stratigraphic record.
6) SR-U = Shoreline ravinement = landward portion of the
transgressive surface;
7) SU = Subaerial unconformity = An erosive surface or
Embry (2008) weathering zone overlain by nonmarine/brackish marine strata,
and the demonstration that it represents a significant gap in the
Ramp setting: Carbonate platform which has a very low
stratigraphic record. Any type of strata can lie below.
gradient depositional slope from a shallow-water shoreline
or lagoon to a basin floor
surface;
3) RSME = Regressive surface of marine erosion = a
sharp, scoured surface having offshore marine strata that
onto the surface;
Ramp setting is a stratigraphic surface which represents an insignificant
Embry (2008)
gap in the stratigraphic record.
The boundaries of a depositional sequence (SU, SR-U, MRS) are shown in red 6) SR-U = Shoreline ravinement = landward portion of
on this sequence model characterized by a ramp setting with a fast initial base the transgressive surface;
level rise rate. The occurrence of the low diachroneity (i.e.: that developed over
a short time interval) maximum flooding surface (MFS) allows the sequence to
7) SU = Subaerial unconformity = An erosive surface or
be subdivided into two systems tracts – a transgressive systems tract (TST) weathering zone overlain by nonmarine/brackish marine
and a regressive systems tract (RST). Note that all nonmarine strata strata, and the demonstration that it represents a
between the SU and the MFS are placed in the TST. significant gap in the stratigraphic record. Any type of
sequence
Genetic stratigraphic
Parasequence
Embry (2008)
A schematic section of a transgressive- A schematic cross-section showing the correlation of three

regressive succession that is not interrupted by transgressive-regressive successions. Herein, the maximum
any unconformities. Two sequence stratigraphic regressive surface (MRS) which has very low diachroneity and is
surfaces, maximum regressive surface (MRS) a sequence stratigraphic surface, is the defining bounding
and maximum flooding surface (MFS) as well surface for a parasequence. A unit bound by maximum flooding
as a lithostratigraphic surface, flooding surface surfaces (MFS) is a genetic stratigraphic sequence (GSC).
(FS), can be delineated in such a succession.
Building a stratigraphic sequence
Based on understanding relationships between the production

of space (accommodation) and filling that space with sediment
It is a platform over which sediments can

accumulate. It forms the base of a sedimentary
deposit, and represents the boundary between
depositional events

It limits the depth to which erosion can occur

landward of the shoreline and the elevation to
which sediments can accumulate basinward
Highstand
(Base Level 1)

When the base level drops, the zone of erosion extends basinward, down the previous
depositional slope and the sediments are reworked basinward and downward due to a
lost of accommodation space. New deposits offlap previous deposits as a
downstepping set of progradational pulses (progradational parasequence set).

Formed as base level

fell. Falling stage
systems tract (FSST)

Add erosion to give a more realistic picture of the preserved deposit. Notice that
Progradational Pulse 1 has been completely eroded and Pulse 2 is mostly gone

Began to form when base level was at its lowest point. Lowstand systems tract (LST)
When base-level begins to rise again, the erosional surface ceases its basinward extension and the
sediments begin to accumulate vertically as new accommodation space is produced. The new
deposits onlap the most basinward portion of the erosional surface as a set of vertically-stacked
progradational pulses (aggradational parasequence set)

Formed during the first significant landward shift in the shoreline.

Transgressive systems tract (TST)
When base-level rises rapidly, the deposition shifts landward as new

accommodation space is produced more rapidly than it can be filled,
forming a strong onlap pattern over the erosional surface and sediment
starvation basinward, resulting in a retrogradational set of progradational
pulses (retrogradational parasequence set). Important: Sediments
always move basinward, even when the shoreline is retreating.

Formed when base level was approaching and at its highest point. Highstand systems tract (HST)
When base-level rise slows and finally stalls, the deposition is able to keep pace with, then overwhelm space
production, transitioning from onlap to toplap, as depositional patterns change from aggradational to
progradational sets of progradational pulses (Aggradational to progradational parasequence sets)

Exercise 7 - Building a stratigraphic sequence
red
blue
green
1) What are the blue, green and red lines? Choices are..
Sequence Boundary (SB),
Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS),
Transgressive Surface (TS)

Exercise 7 (Answer, Part 1) - Building a stratigraphic sequence
Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS)
Sequence Boundary (SB)
2) Place the following on the above sketch

FSST - Falling stage systems tract
LST - Lowstand systems tract
TST - Transgressive systems tract
HST - Highstand systems tract

Exercise 7 (Answer, Part 2) - Building a stratigraphic sequence
Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS)

TST HST
LST
Sequence Boundary (SB) FSST
1) What are the blue, green and red lines? Choices 2) Place the following on the above sketch
are.. FSST - Falling stage systems tract
Sequence Boundary (SB), LST - Lowstand systems tract
Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS), TST - Transgressive systems tract
Transgressive Surface (TS) HST - Highstand systems tract

Progradational parasequence set: A parasequence set in
which successively younger parasequences are deposited
Regression farther basinward; overall the rate of deposition is greater than
the rate of accommodation.
Marine flooding surface: A surface that separates younger
from older strata, across which there is evidence of an abrupt
increase in water depth.
Transgression
Flooding
Surfaces
Parasequence Set
Increasing water depth

Stratigraphic cross-section.
The datum is a prominent MRS
near the top. The cross-section
is dip oriented and extends for
over 100 km. Large-magnitude
MRSs and MFSs have been
correlated and they all dip
basinward, approximating the
original sea floor dip.
Sandstone units found in the
eastern two wells “shale-out”
basinward beneath the MRSs.
Embry (2008)

Traverse of
composite
logs in the
Lower Khuff
Member
(Oman).
Datum placed
at base Khuff
Marker
Limestone
(Al-Husseini ,
2004)

Exercise 8 - Building a stratigraphic sequence
A) Is the land to the right or to the left?
B) Correlate this lithology using Chronostratigraphy principles
Sandstone (Shoreline)
Shale (offshore)
Limestone (farther offshore)
Chalk (farthest offshore)

Exercise 8 (Answer, Part A) - Building a stratigraphic sequence
C) Define the Maximum flooding surfaces and Sequence boundaries - you do
this by first defining the direction of grain size; coarsening /fining upward Land is to the right
Shale (offshore)

- The Maximum Flooding Surface will be at the points with the finest grain size
- The Sequence Boundaries will be at the points with the coarsest grain size
Shale (offshore)
Since MFS & SB are “Surfaces”, draw their surfaces all through this diagram
SB
MFS
SB
MFS
SB
MFS
Shale (offshore)
SB
Exercise 8 (Answer, Part B) - Building a stratigraphic sequence
Defining the Sequence boundaries and Maximum flooding surfaces
Sequence boundaries
Maximum flooding surfaces
MFS
SB
MFS Parasequence
SB
MFS
Shale (offshore)
Hierarchy of sequence stratigraphy
HIERARCHY
A hierarchy of boundaries is established on the basis of the interpreted relative
magnitude of the boundaries. In a given basin, the largest magnitude boundaries (i.e.,
the sequence boundaries generated by the largest interpreted base level changes) are
assigned to the 1st order category in the hierarchy and the smallest magnitude
boundaries recognized (i.e., those generated by the smallest interpreted base level
changes) would be assigned to the highest order established (e.g., 4 or 5). Notably 1st,
2nd, and 3rd order boundaries can usually be correlated throughout most or all of a
basin and are the main ones recognized on seismic sections.
1st Order: The largest magnitude boundaries in a basin. Marks a significant change in
tectonic (faulting, folding, tilting) and sedimentary regime and are associated with large
amounts of erosion and significant deepening (see next slide). The unconformity and
shoreline facies usually penetrate far into the basin.
2nd Order: The amount of base-level change is distinctly less as evidenced by less
erosion and basinward penetration of the unconformities. Also the magnitude of
tectonic regime change is significantly less.
3rd Order: Exhibits no tectonic regime change but do have a noticeable change in
sedimentary regime across them. The amount of erosion and basin penetration of the
unconformable portions of 3rd order boundaries, as well as the subsequent deepening
during the following transgression, are less than that for 1st and 2nd order boundaries.
4th, 5th Order: Sequence boundaries which exhibit no change in tectonic or
depositional regime, are associated with little erosion and subsequent drowning, and
the unconformity and shoreline facies do not extend past the basin margin, would be
high-order, low-magnitude boundaries. Parasequence boundaries would
constitute the highest order, lowest magnitude boundaries in the hierarchy and
they reflect little to no base level change. Correlation of these high-order boundaries
Embry (2008) is usually limited to local areas with widespread correlation being possible only if
INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST control points are close and numerous. 169
Denmark (GeoExpro Magazine)

Hierarchy of stratal units , typical thickness, lateral extent, time of formation and tools used for study. Well log
curves like gamma profiles can resolve beds that are 25 cm or thicker. Highlighted red box shows hierarchy of
stratigraphic elements used to construct a 3rd order stratigraphic framework for a geologic model (Kirt Campion
- modified from Van Wagoner et al, 1990)

Exercise 9 - Hierarchy of sequence stratigraphy
Cored Accommodation Space
Increasing Decreasing
You are given a core Well
description and the
accommodation space
(sea level fluctuation).
Define the main two
cycles?
This reservoir is comprised of arid
85ft
proximal carbonate lithologies
deposited along a ramp dipping in
a northeasterly direction. Patterns
of depositional cyclicity are
consolidated into high frequency
sequences which preserve
sediments deposited in supratidal,
intertidal and subtidal back-shoal
and fore-shore setting. The 85ft
thick reservoir interval is
partitioned into upper and lower
packages based on
sedimentological organization
interpreted to represent third order
transgressive and regressive
sequence stratigraphic cycles.

Well Increasing Decreasing
Which System Tracts are the 2 main

cycles? The options are:
FSST - Falling stage systems tract
LST - Lowstand systems tract
TST - Transgressive systems tract
HST - Highstand systems tract
85ft
Well Increasing Decreasing
Highstand System Tract

Of the two main cycles,
define the direction of
grain size; i.e fining
upward or coarsening
upward?
85ft
Transgressive System Tract

Order
3rd Well Increasing Decreasing

Which other cycles (high
frequency sequences, or
flooding surfaces) do
you see? How many? Marine Regression
Progradational deposits
Coarsening upward
Marine Transgression
Retrogradational deposits
85ft
Fining upward

Order
3rd Well Increasing Decreasing

1) Where is the Flood Surface (HFSB)
Sequence Boundary
2) Of the twelve high Marine Regression

frequency sequences, Coarsening upward
define the direction of Marine Transgression

85ft
grain size; i.e fining Fining upward
upward or coarsening
upward.
Flood Surface

Order
3rd 4th Sequence Boundary Well Increasing Decreasing

Using the graphic and Flood Surface (HFSB)
legend below, show the

inferred environment of 4th Order
High Frequency
deposition of all 12 high Sequence
frequency sequences Marine Regression

Coarsening upward
Marine Transgression
85ft
Fining upward
Proximal
Distal
Upper/Lower Sabkha
Muddy Peritidal
Grainy Peritidal
Beach Barrier
Upper Shoreface
Lower Shoreface
Flood Surface
Inner Ramp

Exercise 9 (Final Answer) - Hierarchy of sequence stratigraphy
Order
3rd 4th Sequence Boundary Well Increasing Decreasing

Flood Surface (HFSB)
4th Order
High Frequency
Sequence
85ft
Upper/Lower Sabkha
Muddy Peritidal
Grainy Peritidal
Beach Barrier
Upper Shoreface
Lower Shoreface
Flood Surface
Inner Ramp

Thank You
The Cambrian in Morocco

REFERENCES
• Absolute Dating: https://slideplayer.com/slide/10755027/
• Al-Husseini Moujahed (2004). Carboniferous, Permian and Early Triassic Arabian Stratigraphy. 221 pages
• Al-Saad H., Sadooni F.N. (2016). Stratigraphy and Petroleum systems of the Palaeozoic (Pre-Khuff)
succession, Qatar. Journal of Petroleum Geology,Vol. 39(4), October 2016, pp 357-374.
• Andersen Mark A. (2011). Introduction to wireline logging. Oilfield Review (Schlumberger),V23, No. 1
• Campion Kirt (2011). Strategies for Well Log Correlation within a Sequence Stratigraphic Framework: Is
the Gain Worth the Pain? In: Recovery – 2011 CSPG CSEG CWLS Convention
• Catuneanu Octavian (2006). Principles of sequence Stratigraphy
• Catuneanu O.,V. Abreu, J.P. Bhattacharya, M.D. Blum, R.W. Dalrymple, P.G. Eriksson, C.R. Fielding, W.L.
Fisher, W.E. Galloway, M.R. Gibling, K.A. Giles, J.M. Holbrook, R. Jordan, C.G.St.C. Kendall, B. Macurda, O.J.
Martinsen, A.D. Miall, J.E. Neal, D. Nummedal, L. Pomar, H.W. Posamentier, B.R. Pratt, J.F. Sarg, K.W. Shanley,
R.J. Steel, A. Strasser, M.E. Tucker, C. Winker (2009). Towards the standardization of sequence stratigraphy.
Earth-Science Reviews 92, 1–33
• Dolson John, He Zhiyong, Horn Brian W. (2018). Advances and Perspectives on Stratigraphic Trap
Exploration-Making the Subtle Trap Obvious. Search and Discovery Article #60054
• Embry Ashton (2008). Practical Sequence Stratigraphy. Reservoir Issue
http://www.nhm2.uio.no/stratlex/EmbrySequenceStratigraphy.pdf
• Emery Dominic, Myers Keith (2009). Sequence Stratigraphy. Published by Blackwell Science Ltd. 295 pages
REFERENCES
• Glennie K.W. (2005). The Desert of Southeast Arabia. GeoArabia, Gulf PetroLink. 216 pages
• Hayward Bruce W (2014). "Monospecific" and near-monospecific benthic foraminiferal faunas, New
Zealand. Journal of Foraminiferal Research, v. 44, no. 3, p. 300–315.
• Kendall (2003). Carbonate Sequence. http://www.sepmstrata.org/page.aspx?&pageid=35&3 (and all its
links)
• Gradstein F.M. (2012). The Geologic Time Scale
• LeBlanc Jacques (2015). “A Historical account of the Stratigraphy of Qatar (1816 to 2015)” 1220 pages.
Freely downloadable from https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome
• Normal faults: https://structuralgeo.wordpress.com/2013/07/18/normal-faults-graben-restoration/
• Neal Jack, Risch David,Vail Peter (January 1993). Sequence Stratigraphy: A global Theory for local success.
In: Seismics. https://www.slb.com/~/media/Files/resources/oilfield_review/ors93/0193/p51_62.pdf
• Nichols Gary (2009). Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (2nd Edition). 432 pages.
• Scholle Peter A., Ulmer-Scholle Dana S. (2003). A Color Guide to the Petrography of Carbonate Rocks:
Grains, Textures, Porosity, Diagenesis. AAPG Memoir 77. 487 pages
• Selley Richard C., Cocks L. Robin M., Plimer Ian R. (2005). Encyclopedia of Geology. 633 pages.
• Simmons Mike (Oct 2011). The Ups and Downs of Eustatic Sea Level Change: Review and Applications.
GEO ExPro

REFERENCES
• Sharland Peter R., Raymond Archer, David M. Casey, Roger B. Davies, Stephen H. Hall, Alan P. Heward,
Andrew D. Horbury, and Michael D. Simmons (2001). Arabian Plate Sequence Stratigraphy. 372 pages.
• Sorkhabi Rasoul (2019). Geological Basin Classification. GeoExPro,Vol. 16, No. 2.
https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2019/05/geological-basin-classification
• Stern Robert J., Johnson Peter (2010). Continental lithosphere of the Arabian Plate: A geologic, petrologic,
and geophysical synthesis. Earth-Science Reviews 101 (2010) 29–67.
http://geology.uprm.edu/Classes/GEOL6992/SS-1.pdf
• Sugden Walter; Standring A.J. (1975). Stratigraphic lexicon: Qatar Peninsula. In: ASIE,Volume III, Fascicule 10
b 3. Union Internationale des sciences geologiques.
• UGA Stratigraphy Lab. An Online Guide to Sequence Stratigraphy (University of Georgia)
https://strata.uga.edu/sequence/index.html
• Unknown author (2012). Biostratigraphy and allied disciplines, and stratigraphic time-scales. 82 pages.
Chapter from an unknown book https://www.cambridge.org/core
• Van Wagoner JC, Mitchum RM, Campion KM, Rahmania VD. 1990. Siliciclastic Sequence Stratigraphy in Well
Logs, Cores, and Outcrops: Concepts for High-Resolution Correlation of Time and Facies. Am. Assoc.
Petrol. Geol. Methods in Exploration Series, No. 7, 55 pp.

REFERENCES
• Verreussel R. M. C. H., R. Bouroullec, D. K. Munsterman, K. Dybkjær, C. R. Geel, A. J. P. Houben, P. N.
Johannessen and S. J. Kerstholt-Boegehold (2018). Stepwise basin evolution of the Middle Jurassic–Early
Cretaceous rift phase in the Central Graben area of Denmark, Germany and The Netherlands. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications, 469, 305-340, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP469.23
• Wright, C. Edward (2015). Expression of the Zagros Orogenic Event in Qatar. IPTC-18463-MS.

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What is the agenda and timing for the two day course?

What is the agenda and timing for the two day course?

What are some of the definitions discussed in the course?

What are some of the definitions discussed in the course?

Master Class on Stratigraphy

By Jacques LeBlanc, Geologist

 If a question is asked on a topic that will be discussed later on in another

 Feel free to get up and stretch as required

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 2

Pictures from “Geology Science” Group in LinkedIn

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 3

Eras are the three time divisions of the Phanerozoic:

Periods are the basic unit of geological time. The

Epochs are the major divisions of Periods: some

The smallest commonly used divisions of geological

Type Localities: Also called type area, or type section, is

Disconformity = hiatus + erosion

Paraconformity = hiatus + erosion (no discernable erosion)

Angular unconformity = hiatus, erosion, and tilt

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 6

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 7

• This commonly happens in

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 8

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 9

Stratigraphy is the branch of geology which deals with rock

It provides simple principles used to interpret geologic

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 10

Verreussel et al. 2018

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 11

A quarry in SW Qatar (Miocene Dam Formation)

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 12

1) Principle of superposition & Horizontality:

In an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each bed is

Lithologic correlation (Left)

Note: Assume the distance

Correlate only using the lithology.

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 14

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 15

2) Principle of cross-cutting relationships:

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 16

Example from Qatar

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 17

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 18

Mangroves living in the

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 19

Facies change: Boundaries at

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 20

Channel cutting through a shale

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 21

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 22

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 23

40,000,000 years old layer

Chunks of rocks from the

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 24

Clasts in younger channel deposited sediments.

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 25

INSTRUCTOR: JACQUES LEBLANC, GEOLOGIST 26

Between the red rock and the

“La Gomera” Island in the