11/12

DRRR
Quarter 1 – Module 8
Disaster Risk
DRRR– Grade 11/12
Quarter 1 – Module 8: Disaster Risk

Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work of the
Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office
wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such
agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.

Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in this book are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every
effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from their
respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors do not represent nor claim ownership
over them.

Regional Director: Gilbert T. Sadsad

Assistant Regional Director: Jessie L. Amin

Development Team of the Module

Writer: Bea T. Cruz

Editors: Jose Roy S. Aguilar

Ma. Claudette C. Borrega
Jezrahel T. Omadto

Reviewers: Jezrahel T. Omadto

Language Editors: Anabel B. Tendenilla

Imee S. Gabion
Hazel Grace T. Vargas

Cover Page Artist: Prince Lee A. Burce

Layout Artist: Bea T. Cruz

Differentiate among hazards, exposure,
and vulnerabilities and explain the
relationship of the three to disaster
risk.
DRR11/12-Id-13
 Supplementary Learning Module for Senior High School Learners

LESSON
DISASTER RISK

Recognizing that no two persons are alike guides us in relating with different
kinds of people. In the same manner, no two disasters are alike; some are
similar but possess differences. Appreciating their differences in terms of
their nature and magnitude of triggering hazards, exposed elements
at risk, and vulnerabilities will help us deal with potential disasters.
The risks associated with disasters can be estimated and can be
expressed either quantitatively or in relative terms. This provides a way
of comparing past and future disasters.
Risk is a forward- looking concept, so disaster risk can be understood
as the likelihood (or probability) of loss of life, injury or destruction and
damage from a disaster in a given period (adapted from UNISDR, 2015a).
In this module, you will learn about the different factors considered in
determining disaster risk.

YOUR TARGET!

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

 differentiate between hazards, exposed elements and their

vulnerabilities;
 give examples of hazard, exposed elements and their vulnerabilities from
historical events within the Philippines;
 suggest mitigation, adaptation and preparedness strategies for managing
disaster risk based on experiences from previous disasters whenever possible.

1
 TRY THIS!

Directions: Read the questions carefully and identify what is asked. Encircle the letter
of the correct answer.
1. A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing
widespread human, material, economic, or environmental losses, which exceed
the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources
is called ________.
A. Disaster C. Hazard
B. Exposure D. Vulnerability
2. A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may
cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental
damage.
A. Disaster C. Hazard
B. Exposure D. Vulnerability
3. Which term refers to people and property.
A. Disaster C. Hazard
B. Exposure D. Vulnerability
4. This refers to factors, such as physical, social, economic, and environmental,
that increase the susceptibility to the impact of a hazard.
A. Disaster C. Hazard
B. Exposure D. Vulnerability
5. What happens when the probable destructive agent, the hazard, hits a
vulnerable populated area?
A. Disaster C. Hazard
B. Exposure D. Vulnerability

2
 DO THIS!

Direction: Identify the following words as to what type of disaster risk element they
belong.

strong winds floods Students

farming homes Landslides
wooden elements of structures storm surges Buildings
government employees poor families stubborn people
light structures lacks information on hazard ash fall

HAZARD EXPOSURE VULNERABILITY

Explain how hazard, exposure, and vulnerability are related to disaster risk.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

3
 KEEP THIS IN MIND!

Disasters are sometimes considered external

shocks, but disaster risk results from the complex interaction
between development processes that generate conditions of
exposure, vulnerability and hazard. Disaster risk is therefore
considered as the combination of the seriousness and
frequency of a hazard, the numbers of people and assets
exposed to the hazard, and their vulnerability to damage
(UNISDR, 2015a).

Figure 1. A man stands surrounded by the devastation wrought by Typhoon Haiyan in the city of Tacloban. Retrieved from
https://www.preventionweb.net/v2/assets/img/risk/RISK.jpg

According to the terminology of UNDRR (2015), disaster risk is defined as “the

potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed or damaged assets which could occur to a
system, society or a community in a specific period of time, determined as the
consequence or result of the interaction of hazard, exposure, and vulnerability”.

4
 As urban centers continue to
grow, more and more people go into a
world wherein they are now exposed to
dangerous areas along the path of
hazardous events. Given this fact, the
extent of disaster is expected to
increase. Figure 2 shows how disasters
develop. Thus, we say that the risk of
losing lives or causing injury to people
and of losing or damaging property due
to a hazard increases as the level of
exposure and vulnerability increases. It
refers to the expected value of deaths, Figure 2. Disaster risk is a function of hazard, exposure, and
vulnerability.
injuries, and property losses that may be
Conceptual Framework for Disaster Risk Assessment [adapted from 21].
caused by a hazard. Disaster risk is ResearchGate. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mariana_De_Brito/publication/317527127/fig
expressed as a function or the result of ure/fig2/AS:669690816892930@1536678141074/Conceptual-framework-for-
disaster-risk-assessment-adapted-from-21.png
hazard, exposure, and vulnerability
(Disaster Risk = function [Hazard, Exposure, Vulnerability]). It does not only show the
expectation or the chance of the disaster happening, but also gives us the idea on how
severe the impact would be not only to people but to all the elements exposed.
Vulnerability, in this context, refers to factors, such as physical, social, economic, and
environmental, that increases the impact of the disaster.
As the disaster risk model implies, the magnitude of the disaster depends on:
1. The severity of the natural event
2. The quantity of exposure of the elements at risk which includes lives and
properties, and
3. Vulnerability level or quality of exposure.
Thus, the model can be expressed as:
DISASTER RISK = Hazard x Exposure x Vulnerability
According to this formula, if there is no hazard, then there is no risk. This also
applies when there is no exposed elements or vulnerabilities present. A simple
scenario is during a pandemic, even if there is a virus (the hazard), if the people will
stay at home (zero exposure) and remain healthy (zero vulnerability), there is no
chance of acquiring that virus (no disaster risk).

5
 TRY THIS!

Direction: Complete the table by supplying words or phrases each given event.
(Note: You can use the data in your own locality to complete the table.)

VULNERABILITY/
AREA EXPOSED
DISASTER HAZARD POTENTIAL
AFFECTED ELEMENTS
EFFECTS

Earthquake

Typhoon

6
 LOOK AT THIS!
TABLE 1. Different Types of Disasters, its affected area, hazard, exposed elements
and vulnerability/potential effects.
VULNERABILITY/
AREA EXPOSED
DISASTER HAZARD POTENTIAL
AFFECTED ELEMENTS
EFFECTS
Luzon Baguio Earthquake- Roads (e.g. • Steep cuts made into
Earthquake Induced Kennon Road, slopes, as part of road
Landslides Marcos Highway) construction, are prone
Access to Baguio to slope failure or mass
City wasting during an
earthquake, resulting in
scattered pieces of
waste or remains that
can block roads
resulting in loss of
access that can hamper
rescue operations and
relief goods.
Yolanda Tacloban Strong winds People, Homes, • Light structures and
Storm Surge and Contents roofs of structures are
susceptible to damage
when subjected to loads
induced by strong
winds.
• People are prone to
injury when exposed to
flying remains or
fragments scattered by
strong winds.
• People are prone to
drowning or injury when
carried away by
unstable flood waters.
• Structures or the
individuals’ elements
(eg walls and doors) are
prone to damage when
exposed to flowing
waters.
• Wooden elements of
structures and contents
are prone to damage
due to prolonged
soaking. Certain
contents are also prone
to damage to mold and
mildew due to excessive
moisture.

7
Pinatubo Angeles City Tephra (Ash) Structures • Roof systems are prone
Eruption Fall to collapse due to
weight of ash
accumulating on roofs.
Ondoy Metro Manila Flash Flooding People, Homes, • People are prone to
Contents drowning in flash floods
due to limited
evacuation time.
• Survivors of floods are
prone to physical and
functional damage.
• Persons with chronic
illness as well as
physical and
psychological
disabilities have
significantly greater
difficulty in evacuating
compared to able
persons making them
more vulnerable to
injury or death during a
flood.
• Structures or specific
elements are
susceptible to damage
when exposed to
hydrodynamic or
buoyancy forces during
a flood.
• Structure and its
contents are susceptible
to damage due to
prolonged exposure to
water.

TABLE 2. Some Disaster Occurrences in the Philippines

DISASTER AREA AFFECTED
1990 Luzon Extensive loss of life, damage to infrastructure and critical facilities. Extensive
Earthquake environmental impact due to numerous earthquakes induced landslides.
Typhoon Yolanda Extensive loss of life, damage to infrastructure and important facilities.
Extensive environmental impact due to large amount of debris generated.
Death, injury and economic losses resulted in mental collapse to survivors.

Mt. Pinatubo Extensive environmental impact due to large amount of volcanic debris
deposited. Extensive damage to infrastructure within surrounding areas.
Typhoon Ondoy Area affected by flood was a highly developed and highly populated area.

8
TABLE 3. Disaster Coping Mechanisms
DISASTER HOW TO COPE
Injury due to falling Difficult to avoid if earthquake occurs while traveling in a mountainous area.
debris resulting from Best option would be to stop the car, get out and find an area far from steep
earthquake induced slopes.
landslides

Flood risk due to Research if your area is prone to storm surges and potential height of water
storm surges rise. Prepare an evacuation plan and emergency kit which you can easily take
should a flood occur.
Collapse of Check if you live near a potentially active volcano. When constructing a house,
structures due to consult a licensed civil engineer or architect and discuss how volcanic hazards
tephra fall can be taken into consideration into the design of the house. Explore the
possibility of including risk from volcanic eruption in home insurance.
Familiarize yourself with the volcano alert information. Have an evacuation
plan for a volcanic eruption. Prepare an evacuation kit.
Hazard of flash Research if you live in a potentially flood prone area and determine how high
flooding the flood waters can rise. Prepare an evacuation plan and emergency kit
which you can easily take should a flood occur.

APPLY WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED!

Directions: Select a disaster that you are familiar with. Explain the background of the
event and answer the following questions.
I. Identify the specific hazard(s) involved in the disaster.
II. Enumerate the exposed elements affected by the hazard.
III. Explain why the exposed elements were vulnerable to the hazard.
IV. Recommend strategies that could have been taken to minimize the
possibility of a similar disaster occurring in the future.

Example: Guinsaugon Landslide (2006) In Southern Leyte

Guinsaugon Landslide. Retrieved from https://static.rappler.com/images/guinsaugon-2006-afp.jpg

9
 A rockslide-debris avalanche occurred at 10:26 am on 17 February 2006 in Southern
Leyte, Philippines (Lagmay et al., 2006). This large-scale landslide devastated the village of
Guinsaugon, with a population of 1,857 (NDCC, 2006). Twenty survivors were rescued from
the front edge of the debris field within hours of the disaster, but the majority of the village’s
population was believed to have been buried by the avalanche.

The landslide has a planform area of 3,324,400 million square meters, a maximum
width of 1.52 kilometers, and a distance of 4.1 kilometers from crown to toe. Independent
reports place the volume of the deposit at 15–20 million cubic meters (Lagmay et al., 2006)
and 21 million cubic meters (Araiba, in Suwa, 2006). Based on the duration of the telephone
calls and the extent of the landslide deposit, the avalanche is estimated to have traveled with
a velocity of about 100 kilometers per hour.

Three factors are suspected of having triggered the avalanche. First is the excessive
amount of rain that fell in the days before the disaster, even though the landslide happened
on a sunny morning. Multi-satellite precipitation analysis from the NASA-JAXA Tropical
Rainfall Measuring Mission reported that 500 millimeters of rain fell on Southern Leyte
between 4 and 7 February. The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical
Services Administration (PAGASA) rainfall station at Otikon, located seven kilometers
southwest of the landslide head, recorded 683.6 millimeters from 8–14 February. The highest
amount of rainfall over this duration was 171 millimeters, recorded on 12 February (Lagmay
et al., 2006).

Second is an earthquake that occurred in Southern Leyte on 17 February 2006. The

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) recorded a 2.6 magnitude
(Ms) earthquake 21 kilometers west of Guinsaugon at 10:35:30.99, using seven of its
unmanned satellite-telemetered seismic stations (PHIVOLCS, 2006a; 2006b). An earthquake
was also recorded by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) at 10:36:32.59 (PDE-W
2006), about two kilometers north of the landslide, at a depth of 35 kilometers, and with a
magnitude (Mb) of 4.3 (USGS, 2006). Records obtained from the F-net broadband
seismograph network established and operated by the National Research Institute for Earth
Science and Disaster Prevention, Japan, measured the occurrence of ground motion at 10:37.
Yamanaka (2006) interprets this record of ground motion as the Rayleigh wave generated by
the landslide event.

Third is deformation of the slope prior to the landslide. Accounts described by Suwa
(2006) indicate that the slope had been experiencing deformation due to creep. This phase of
creep motion may have developed from secondary to tertiary creep at the end of 2005 or in
early 2006.

The timing of the landslide is still uncertain, although accounts of the events provided
by witnesses converge at around 10:30 am (Lagmay et al., 2006; Suwa, 2006). A telephone
call made by Lita Siona, a Department of Agriculture technician and one of the listed fatalities,
probably offers the best approximation of the time and duration of the incident. Siona placed
a call to the Mayor of St. Bernard, Southern Leyte, as the landslide transpired. According to
the Mayor, the conversation started with a query from the terrified technician: ‘Mayora, dakong
anas . . . Aruy, asa mi ron dagan?’ (Mayor, a big landslide . . . Oh no, where are we going to
run?). The records of the mobile telephone company show that this conversation started at

10
10:26:00, and that it lasted for 26 seconds. After a brief interruption, it was followed by a
second call, which started at 10:27:53 and lasted for 91 seconds before the connection was
cut again. These reported times, as verified by the mobile telephone company, are based on
the standard atomic clock time used by its computer servers.

By 28 February 2006, 139 bodies had been recovered from the landslide—56 have
been identified and 83 remain unidentified. Two victims died in hospital, out of the 33 treated
for injuries. The number listed as missing and presumed dead is 980 (NDCC, 2006). The
remaining residents of the village were not in the area at the time of the disaster. In total, the
official number of fatalities is 1,221 (Lagmay, 2008).

I. Rainfall induced rockslide, avalanche and debris flow

II. More than 1000 people killed. The entire barangay of Guinsaugon
including more than 200 houses, a barangay hall and an elementary
school building were damaged. Psychological trauma to survivors and
relatives of those killed were experienced.

III. Debris from rockslide and avalanche travelled at speed greater than 100
kph that prevented residents of barangay Guinsaugon from evacuating.
Landslide debris was highly erosive and abrasive destroying structure
within the flow path. Large volume of landslide debris buried the town
destroying all structures. People buried or trapped in houses were
suffocated under the weight of the debris.

IV. More careful selection of site for establishing communities away from
landslide prone areas. Installation of early warning systems. Information
dissemination regarding landslide hazards for affected communities.

11
ANSWER HERE:
Name of the disaster: ___________________________________________

I. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.

II. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.

III. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.

IV. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.

12
 REFLECT ON THIS!

Direction: Examine the picture and answer the following questions.

1391 Buildings Sealed as Containment Zones in Mumbai. Mumbai Live. Retrieved from
https://www.mumbailive.com/images/media/images/images_1586524827694_dharavi.jpg

Do you think people in congested areas are prone to disaster? Why?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

13
 KEEP THIS IN MIND!

Prevention is better than cure. Once a disaster

occurred, it is very difficult to handle and control it. For example,
the occurrence of natural disasters like earthquakes, typhoons,
and volcanic eruptions cannot be prevented but reducing
exposure and vulnerability can minimize their impact.

Risk assessment model: (a) normal condition and (b) after the risk reduction. Retrieved from
https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/Iad

Figure 2. Mitigation and preparedness measures will result in the reduction of vulnerability
and thus, in disaster risk. The area of overlap of hazard, exposue, and vulnerability is smaller
compared with that in Figure 1.

The level of vulnerability and exposure can be reduced by keeping people and
property away as far as possible from hazards. Relocating people to reduce
vulnerability and exposure, however, is not a simple matter of imposing it to be
followed blindly by those who are affected. Whenever possible, relocation must come
hand in hand with other mitigation and preparedness measures. People resist
relocation and it is a big challenge to move them away from their homes even if the
new place is safer. The resistance is because it would mean giving up their house,
land, and even jobs. The most vulnerable are the poor who have no better option than
to live in unsafe places near volcanoes, flood- prone sites, and steep hillsides. People
also tend to turn a blind eye as they are comforted by the fact that the risk of death is
lower compared with that from accidents. People also remain in places previously hit
by a disaster thinking that after a disaster comes a period of safety, which is not always
true. Some natural events tend to cluster in time. Estimates of return periods give us
a false idea that events are cyclic (with fixed frequency) in nature but, these are just
averaging. Often, people consider the risks more acceptable than facing the curse of
starvation away from the very productive fertile volcanic soils or river flood plains.

14
 GLOSSARY

DISASTER- a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society

involving widespread human, material, economic, or environmental losses,
which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its
own resources.

DISASTER RISK- the potential disaster losses in lives, health status, livelihood,
assets, and services, which could occur in a community or a society over some
specified future time period; is a function of hazard, exposure, and vulnerability.

EXPOSURE- the degree to which the elements at risk are likely to experience
hazard events of different magnitudes; this also refers to people and property.

HAZARD- a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that

may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental
damage.

MITIGATION- structural and non- structural measures undertaken to limit the

adverse impact of natural hazards, environmental degradation, and
technological hazards and to ensure the ability of at- risk communities to
address vulnerabilities and minimize the impact of disasters.

PREPAREDNESS- pre- disaster actions and measures being undertaken within

the context of disaster risk reduction and management and are based on sound
risk analysis as well as pre- disaster activities to avert or minimize loss of life
and property sch as, but not limited to, community organizing, training,
planning, equipping, stockpiling, hazard mapping, insuring of assets, and public
information and education initiatives.

RISK- the probability that negative consequences may arise when hazards interact
with vulnerable areas, people, property, and environment.

VULNERABILITY- the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system,

or asset that makes it susceptible to the damaging effects of hazard.

15
 ASSESS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED!

Direction: Read each item carefully and answer the questions that follow.

1. What are the elements of disaster risk? Explain the significance of each
element of disaster risk in determining the possibilities of a disaster
happening and its impacts.

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.

2. Given that the occurrence of potentially hazardous natural phenomena

cannot be prevented, taking into consideration the elements of disaster risk,
discuss ways by which disasters and disaster risk can be minimized.

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.

16
 ANSWER KEY

TRY THIS!

1. B
2. C
3. A
4. D
5. B

DO THIS!

1.

HAZARD EXPOSURE VULNERABILITY

strong winds farming poor families
floods homes light structures
storm surges students stubborn people
lacks information on
ash fall buildings
hazard
wooden elements of
landslides government employees
structures

2. Explain how hazard, exposure, and vulnerability are related to disaster

risk.
Hazard, exposure and vulnerability are related to disaster risk in a sense
that each of them plays a role in determining the extent of disaster happening.
As the disaster risk model shows us, it is the function of the three elements. So,
if there is a hazard, the exposed elements and vulnerabilities are also present,
then there is a chance of a disaster happening. The extent or the magnitude of
the impact will vary on the present condition of the exposed elements and
vulnerabilities.

RUBRICS
5 3 1
Explain the Whenever appropriate, Learners are able to Learner is unable to
relationship of learner can give or show the explain some of the explain the
three elements relevance of the three elements and relate it in relationship of the
of disaster risk. elements of disaster risk in disaster risk. three.
determining the probability of
disaster happening.

17
 TRY THIS!

VULNERABILITY/
AREA EXPOSED
DISASTER HAZARD POTENTIAL
AFFECTED ELEMENTS
EFFECTS
Earthquake Virac Ground Houses, • Floors of
Shaking, Establishments houses or even
Ground establishments
Rupture cracked.
• Members of
the households
are also prone
to physical
injury.
Typhoon Virac • Storm • Houses • Houses made
Surge near from light
coastal structures can
areas be easily swept
by waves.
• People are
prone to injury
or drowning.
• Floods • Roads • Relief
operations are
blocked due to
loss of access
to the main
roads.
• People are
prone to injury
or drowning.

ASSESS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED!

1. The elements of disaster risk are: Hazard, Exposure, and Vulnerability. Each of
the elements play a significant role in the development of risk. Hazard is the only
element which we cannot control. So, the impact of the disaster happening will
mostly rely on the two other elements: exposure and vulnerability. The greater
the exposed elements and vulnerabilities are present, the larger the impact will

18
 be. In the same way, if there are less exposed elements and less vulnerabilities,
the impact will also be minimal.

2. Awareness on the type of hazard. It is a must that every individual knows what
type of hazard will be present. If one knows the hazard, they will be more ready
on the expected impact.
Information and Education Campaign.
Securing homes.
Preparing Go Bags.

RUBRICS
4 3 2 1
Explain the Learner can Learner can Learner is unable Learner is unable
significance of distinguish distinguish to suggest any to differentiate
each element of between hazard, between hazard, mitigation, between hazard,
disaster risk in exposure and exposure and adaptation and exposure and
determining the vulnerability in all vulnerability in all preparedness vulnerability for
odds of a situations. situations. strategies. the specific
disaster situation.
happening and Most of the
its impacts. Whenever exposed
appropriate elements and
learner can vulnerabilities
distinguish identified are
between physical, physical
social, economic
and
environmental
exposed element
and
vulnerabilities.
Suggests Learner can Learner can Learner can Learner is unable
mitigation, suggest suggest some suggest some to suggest any
adaptation and mitigation, mitigation, mitigation, mitigation,
preparedness adaptation and adaptation and adaptation and adaptation and
strategies for preparedness preparedness preparedness preparedness
managing strategies that are strategies that are strategies; strategies.
disaster risk appropriate for appropriate for however, these
based on the hazard they the hazard they are inappropriate
experiences are intended to are intended to for the hazard
from previous address. address. they are intended
disasters Strategies to address
whenever suggested show
possible originality,
innovation and
resourcefulness
of the learner

19
9
REFERENCES

Maria Isabel B. Lanada, Ma. Lourdes F. Melegrito, PhD Cand. and Diana J.
Mendoza, PhD. (2016). Building Resilient Communities, Disaster
Readiness and Risk Reduction. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House

Rimando, R. E. (2016). Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction (1st ed.).

Sampaloc, Manila: REX Book Store.

UNIDSR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction), 2013.

Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2013.

UNIDSR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction),

2015a. Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015.

The Asia Pacific Disaster Report. (2012). Reducing Vulnerability and

Exposure to Disaster, 1-9.

A man stands surrounded by the devastation wrought by Typhoon Haiyan in

the city of Tacloban. Retrieved from
https://www.preventionweb.net/v2/assets/img/risk/RISK.jpg

Guinsaugon Landslide. Retrieved from

https://static.rappler.com/images/guinsaugon-2006-afp.jpg

1391 Buildings Sealed as Containment Zones in Mumbai. Mumbai Live.

Retrieved from
https://www.mumbailive.com/images/media/images/images_1586524827694
_dharavi.jpg

20