COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Introduction to Communication

This topic gives you an overview of communication and introduces you to the
main elements in the communication process. It also highlights the importance
of writing clear, positive messages and offers you some basic tips and
guidelines on this form of communication so that you may become more
proficient in the kind of writing needed at home as well as in the college and
workplace. You will also learn about some of the common pitfalls which may
impede the effectiveness of written communication.

Communication Definition

Communication is the process that occurs between two or more people in

which a message is delivered and received by the other party. Communication
happens everyday in the workplace. Managers give direction to workers,
coworkers communicate to plan a project and employees communicate
information to customers. Poor communication leads to misunderstandings
and poor customer service.

Meaning of Communication

Communication happens through many channels. Messages can be spoken

face to face during conversation. They can be delivered to a group in a meeting
room. Or, they can be delivered over the telephone. They also can be written in
a letter or e-mail, but these forms don't allow the listener to hear the tone of
the message that can be heard if the message were spoken. Face to face
communication offers many benefits because the listener receives the spoken
message, but it is enhanced by the subtleties of facial expressions and body
language.

Process of communication Skills

Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non verbal messages. It

is a continuous process. Pre-requisite of communication is a message. This
message must be conveyed through some medium to the recipient. It is
essential that this message must be understood by the recipient in same terms
as intended by the sender. He must respond within a time frame. Thus,
communication is a two way process and is incomplete without a feedback
from the recipient to the sender on how well the message is understood by him.
Models of communication skills

Aristotle’s Model:

Lasswell’s Model:

Claude Shannon and also Warren Weaver Model:

Schramm’s Model:

The Rileys Model:

Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model:

Contemporary Model:

What is Effective Communication?

Effective communication is not merely about exchanging information

between you and your audience. It is about making what you want to say, what
you actually say and what your audience interprets, consistent.
Improving your communication skills can make a world of a difference in
your relationships with others and help you achieve your personal goals in life.
We are, of course, social beings, and improving the way we relate to others can
only benefit us.

Goals of Effective Communication

The goal of effective communication is to create a common perception that is
received in a positive manner, so that you can together agree on a further
action or decision…even if that just means that the other person will allow you
to continue speaking!
A note for caution: “common perception” does not necessarily mean “agreement
on subject”. All parties involved in the communication can agree to disagree
and that could still be categorized as “effective”.
Benefits of Effective Communication
The importance of effective communication relies on the fact that it reduces
misunderstandings or the possibility of overlooking important
information. This ultimately saves time as situations can be assessed
accurately…and can also save you from potential embarrassment from
assuming things that are incorrect!
Effective communication creates a non-threatening environment where a
diverse group of people (even groups of the same sex, religion, or cultural
background will have individuals that behave and think differently, we are
human, after all) can share their thoughts, feelings, and ideas; feel respected
and understood so that they can work together to solve conflicts and make
decisions.

7Cs Communication for Academic Purposes

Effective communication is an important part of business success. To establish

good business communication, it helps to have a blueprint of the 7 C's of
effective communication. You can use your list of communication "C" words to
create efficient communication at all levels of your company, and to help make
interactions with customers more effective as well.
1. Concise
In business it pays to get to the point quickly. Effective business
communication uses concise and straightforward language that gets the point
across completely and in a manner that encourages efficient action.
2. Complete
Plan your business communication carefully so you get all of the information to
your recipient the first time. If you leave out important information in your
initial correspondence, that will cause a series of problems that will take time
to repair.
3. Conversational
According to communication coach Ric Phillips, writing on the Evan
Carmichael website, it is important to present your information in a
conversational tone that invites interaction, rather than a confrontational tone
that can cause an argument. Effective communication presents the information
in a manner that is not emotional but instead professional.
4. Clear
With a business communication, you sometimes get only one chance to make
your point. If your information is misunderstood, you may not have the
opportunity to correct it before it escalates into a problem. When you present
your information, be sure to do so in a clear voice that allows every word to be
understood.
5. Considerate
When speaking to business associates or customers, always open the
conversation to questions and clarifications. When you finish a statement,
allow a moment for the other person to ask a question before you go on to your
next part. When you answer a question, be sure the answer is understood
before moving on in the conversation.
6. Confidence
An air of confidence in your conversation helps add credibility to your
information. Present your data with a clear and commanding tone that
indicates that you know the subject you are speaking about and that the
information being presented is valuable.
7. Check
Always check your data and facts before giving a business presentation of any
kind. You may have useful ideas, but if they are accompanied by incorrect
information, the power of your ideas is lost.

Effective Communication

When We talk about “ Effective Communication” one thing that comes in mind,
what are the basic principles of “effective communication” .
These principles tells us how your message can becomes effective for your
target group,
These principles also tell about style and importance of the message.
These principles commonly known as 7 C’s of effective communication.

Components of Communication

Communication is a two way process of transmitting & receiving verbal & nonverbal

messages & exchanging ideas or information.
Communication is considered effective when it achieves the desired response
from the receiver. There are six components through which communication can
be effective, these are discussed below:
 Context
 Sender-Encoder
 Message
 Medium
 Receiver-Decoder
 Feedback 

Context :
Every message whether oral or written starts with context. Context is a broad
term that includes country, culture, organization & external & internal stimuli.
Every country, culture & organization has its own conventions for processing &
communicating information. This aspect is a playing field on which we must
plan, communicate & design the message successfully. Another aspect is the
external stimulus that prompts us to send a message. The message may be
letter, email, fax or telephone call & response to this message may also be oral
or written. Next internal stimuli have a complex influence on how we translate
ideas into a message. Our attitudes, opinions, likes & dislikes, education all
influence the way we communicate our ideas. So we must consider all these
aspects of context in order to communicate a message successfully.

Sender-Encoder :-
Encoder is the sender of message, the writer or speaker depends on whether
the message is oral or written. We use symbols, graphics or pictures to express
our message so that the receiver will understand it & react with the response
we desire. After considering all these factors, we decide which symbol best
convey the message & which message channel will be most effective among oral
& written media.

Message :-
The message is the core idea we wish to communicate. It consists of both
verbal &nonverbal symbols. Our first task is & what content to include. We
must consider our context &especially the receiver of our message, how the
receiver will interpret it & how it may affect our relationship.

Medium :-
Medium is the way through which the sender sends the message. Like message
content the choice of medium is influenced by the relationship between sender
& receiver. It depends on the message, cost of message, the amount of
information & number of receiver to select the channel of message. The written
channel is preferred when the message is long, technical & formal in nature
while oral medium is effective when the message is urgent or immediate
feedback is required.1

Receiver-Decoder :-
Decoder is the receiver of the message & he may be more than one. The
receiver as well as the sender are influenced by context & by external &
internal stimuli. Both receive messages through the eyes & ears but are also
influenced by nonverbal factors such as touch, taste & smell. All factors of
message are filtered through receiver's view & experience in the world.

Feedback :-
It is the response of receiver based on a clear understanding of the symbols.
Feedback can be oral or written. It can also be an action such as silence which
is almost ineffective. Sender need feedback in order to determine the success or
failure of the message.
 
Sender-Encoder
(experiences, attitudes, skills)Perception

Barriers in Communication

Most people would agree that communication between two individuals should
be simple. It’s important to remember that there are differences between
talking and communicating. When you communicate, you are successful in
getting your point across to the person you’re talking to. When we talk, we tend
to erect barriers that hinder our ability to communicate. There are seven of
these types of barriers to effective communication, including:

 Physical barriers;
 Perceptual barriers;
  Emotional barriers;
 Cultural barriers;
 Language barriers;
 Gender barriers; and,
 Interpersonal barriers.

With this Guide, we'll help you better understand these barriers so you can
recognize them and overcome them.

No matter how good the communication system in an organisation is,

unfortunately barriers can and do often occur. This may be caused by a
number of factors which can usually be summarised as being due to physical
barriers, system design faults or additional barriers.
Physical barriers  are often due to the nature of the environment.
Thus, for example, the natural barrier which exists, if staff are located in
different buildings or on different sites.
Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management
to introduce new technology, may also cause problems.
Staff shortages are another factor which frequently causes communication
difficulties for an organisation.
Whilst distractions like background noise, poor lighting or an environment
which is too hot or cold can all affect people's morale and concentration, which
in turn interfere with effective communication.
System design  faults refer to problems with the structures or systems in
place in an organisation.
 Examples might include an organisational structure which is unclear and
therefore makes it confusing to know who to communicate with.
Other examples could be inefficient or inappropriate information systems, a
lack of supervision or training, and a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities
which can lead to staff being uncertain about what is expected of them.
Attitudinal barriers  come about as a result of problems with staff in an
organisation.
These may be brought about, for example, by such factors as poor
management, lack of consultation with employees, personality conflicts which
can result in people delaying or refusing to communicate, the personal
attitudes of individual employees which may be due to lack of motivation or
dissatisfaction at work, brought about by insufficient training to enable them
to carry out particular tasks, or just resistance to change due to entrenched
attitudes and ideas.

OTHER COMMON BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION INCLUDE:

Psychological factors  such as people's state of mind. We all tend to feel
happier and more receptive to information when the sun shines.
Equally, if someone has personal problems like worries about their health or
marriage, then this will probably affect them.
Different languages  and cultures represent a national barrier which is
particularly important for organisations involved in overseas business.
Individual linguistic ability  is also important. The use of difficult or
inappropriate words in communication can prevent people from understanding
the message.
Poorly explained or misunderstood messages can also result in confusion. We
can all think of situations where we have listened to something explained
which we just could not grasp.
Physiological barriers  may result from individuals' personal discomfort,
caused, for example, by ill health, poor eye sight or hearing difficulties.
Presentation of information  is also important to aid understanding.

Non Verbal Communication

Types of Non-Verbal Communication

The types of interpersonal communication that are not expressed verbally (with
speech) are called non-verbal communications.

There are many different types of non-verbal communication.

They include:
Body Movements (Kinesics), for example, hand gestures or nodding or
shaking the head;
Posture, or how you stand or sit, whether your arms are crossed, and so on;
Eye Contact, where the amount of eye contact often determines the level of
trust and trustworthiness;
Para-language, or aspects of the voice apart from speech, such as pitch, tone,
and speed of speaking;
Closeness or Personal Space (Proxemics), which determines the level of
intimacy;
Facial Expressions, including smiling, frowning and even blinking; and
Physiological Changes, for example, sweating or blinking more when nervous.

What is Academic Writing?

Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life. However,

academic writing does many of the things that personal writing does not: it has
its own set of rules and practices.

These rules and practices may be organised around a formal order or structure
in which to present ideas, in addition to ensuring that ideas are supported by
author citations in the literature.
In contrast to personal writing contexts, academic writing is different because
it deals with the underlying theories and causes governing processes and
practices in everyday life, as well as exploring alternative explanations for these
events.

Academic writing follows a particular ‘tone’ and adheres to traditional

conventions of punctuation, grammar, and spelling.

Summerzing, Paraphrasing and argumentation skills

Summerzing
A summary, as compared to a paraphrase, is always much shorter that the
original text. When you write a summary, you limit yourself to giving your
readers only the main idea/argument of an article or chapter of a book. To
write a good summary, keep the following points in mind:
Read the original carefully ensuring that you understand the extract.
Mention the author (and date) at the beginning of the summary and add again
if you need to remind the reader that you are summarising another person’s
ideas.
State the author's main idea without distorting those ideas or adding your own.
State the author's most important supporting evidence or sub-points without
distorting them. Do not include details.
Use your own wording. If there is a phrase in the original text that is especially
striking, interesting, or controversial, or really cannot be changed without
distorting its meaning, use the author's exact words. Make sure however that
you put quotation marks around them if you do.
Don't include your own ideas or comments (editorial remarks). The summary
should include only the author's ideas.

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing means using your own words to report someone else's material or
ideas. You will need to paraphrase when you want to change the style or the
language used in the original either to make it easier to understand or to make
it fit better into your own piece of writing. Unlike a summary, a paraphrase is
usually about the same length as the original, but both the words and the
sentence structure must be changed in a paraphrase. An idea that has been
paraphrased must also acknowledge the source of that idea.

Argument
Argument occurs across the full spectrum of human interaction - in pubs, at
home, in seminar classes, and in professional contexts such as those provided
by law, science and medicine. However, despite the importance allotted to
argument and the desire of those engaged in arguments to win them, little
systematic attention is given to the nature of argument and the practical skills
required to argue successfully, even though this information is readily
available. The ambition of the module is to equip students with this knowledge
base and skills, thereby enabling them to enter into argument more confidently
and with a greater prospect of success. The module divides into three parts, the
first being a very brief historical and theoretical contextualisation of the topic.
The second part of the module treats argument and arguing formally, by
mapping the standard forms of argument and by developing the skill of picking
out a bad argument from a good one, and by showing how to spot the set of
common but typically unnoticed mistakes in one’s own argument or in those of
others. The third part of the module turns to the skills of rhetoric and
persuasion, including examination of the ploys that are often used to give bad
or weak arguments persuasive force. The themes of the module are illustrated
throughout using real examples from law and elsewhere.

Text Cohesion
A coherent text can be described as a text where the information is organised
and connected together into a logically-connected unit with cohesive devices
joining the parts so that the text makes sense.
One important cohesive device is the topic sentence. This is the sentence which
introduces the subject of the text and usually occurs at the beginning of the
text. (Open this link and scroll down to the table for information on how to
organise a text.)
The continuity and organisation of the information is also an important factor
in constructing a coherent text.
In addition, there are many words called linking words, which act as links
between clauses and sentences in a text.
Examples of Linking Devices
Conjunctions
and, but, or, so, nor, for, yet, also, too
Other sentence connectors
Ordering: firstly, secondly, next, in addition, furthermore, finally, in
conclusion
Contrasting: however, on the other hand, in contrast, in comparison,
nevertheless
Drawing conclusions: as a result, thus, therefore, consequently, in conclusion
Personal pronouns
I, he, she, it, we, you, they, them, us, etc. 
Pointers
this, that, these, those
Clause connectors
(These connect clauses to form a sentence. They can come at the beginning or
in the middle of the sentence.)
Comparing and contrasting: while, whereas, although, though, even though,
besides
Time: after, before, when, until
Cause: since, because, so that

 
Example of Text Cohesion
Compare these two texts and identify the linking devices in the second text.
Text 1
Bobby was a Skye Terrier. Bobby roamed the streets of Edinburgh. Bobby met
John Grey in the 1850s. Grey worked as a night watchman in the Edinburgh
police. Bobby kept John Grey company. The winters in Edinburgh can be very
cold. Grey fell sick with tuberculosis. Tuberculosis was a fatal disease back in
the 1800s. On 15 February 1858, Grey died. 

Bobby followed John Grey to his grave at Greyfriars Kirkyard in the old part of
Edinburgh. Bobby did not leave the grave except for when he was hungry.
Bobby did not leave the grave except for when he was very cold.
People started to notice the dog in the churchyard. People started worrying
about Bobby. The City of Edinburgh had decided that ownerless dogs should
be shot. The city council bought a licence for Bobby. Bobby could keep on
watching his master’s grave. Bobby survived his master by 14 years. He died in
1872. He was buried just inside the gate of the churchyard. He could not be
buried together with his master. The church ground is sacred.

Organizational Communication

Have you ever tried to eat soup without a spoon? Tried to drive a car without
gas? Or tried to build a house without nails? If these questions sound
ridiculous to you, they should, because each of the items I mentioned are
necessary to facilitate the corresponding action. The same is true of
organizational communication - without it, any organization would fail to meet
its objectives.
Organizational communication, or the sharing of organizational information,
remains a vital and critical tool when trying to create and maintain a
competitive advantage. Without organizational communication, it would be
extremely difficult to know what an organization stands for, why it exists, who
its customers are, how work is completed, who has authority over others and
so on. Organizational communication serves as the glue that holds everything
together while, at the same time, acting as a magnifying glass by making this
more clear.

Formal & Informal Communication

Companies need to be able to communicate effectively. This is especially true of
large companies where personal interaction may not be practical. This is where
formal communication comes into play.
Formal communication involves utilizing the formal communication channels
of an organization. Formal communication can move vertically in an
organization. Information is collected and flows up to the top levels of
management for review and decision making, while orders flow down from the
top to the place where it will be implemented. For example, employees may be
given a presentation from the human resources department on new policies
and procedures

Public speaking and communication skills

Public speaking (sometimes termed oratory or oration) is the process or act

of performing a presentation (a speech) focused around an individual
directly speaking to a live audience in a structured, deliberate manner in order to inform,
influence, or entertain them. Public speaking is commonly understood as the formal, face-to-face talking
of a single person to a group of listeners. It is closely allied to "presenting", although the latter is more
often associated with commercial activity. Most of the time, public speaking is to persuade the
audience.
6 I's of Credibility
Ideation Be creative in presenting the idea
Information Bring out new and decision driving facts
Influence Be charismatic with show of confidence
Integrity Be authentic and build a trust through the first half of the session
Impact Identify and present a memorable delivery to root the message
Call out to action, if required (E.g. Funding, Social Action,
Ignition
Proselytisation ...etc.)

What is Audience Analysis?

Audience analysis is the process of examining information about your listeners.

That analysis helps you to adapt your message so that your listeners will
respond as you wish.
There are three phases in audience analysis: adaptation before, during, and
after the speech.
When we analyze our audience, there are three ways to do this; demographic
analysis, attitudinal analysis, and environmental analysis.

Demographic Analysis involves age, gender, culture, ethnicity, race,

religion, and educational level. Aristotle noted more than 2,000 years ago
that few things affect a person's outlook more than his or her age.  (2)

Attitudinal Analysis addresses the audience's attitudes, beliefs, and values. 

Environmental Analysis is finding out things like the seating arrangement,
the number of people likely to attend, and the room lighting.  The way
the seats are arranged will affect the audience's response. It is also important
to know how many people will be there for the speech. And the way the room
is lighted will affect the way the audience responds. If it is dark and the
speaker is showing overheads, there will not be conversation. But if the room is
light and open, the audience may feel more free to talk. The seating
arrangement, the number of people and the room lighting are all factors that
will affect the speech.

Interview skills

The purpose of the interview

Firstly, it is for the interviewer to see if you match the requirements of the
job. These will naturally vary with different jobs but are likely to include:
Your personal qualities
How well you express yourself
Your motivation and enthusiasm

Before the Interview

Research the Company, Practice interviews, Dress Professionally, Arrival,

During the Interview

First impressions, Smile, Body Language, Speak Clearly, Listen Before
Answering, Give Brief Answers, Be Truthful, Keep things at a professional level,

After the Interview

Back in Touch, Get Everyone's Business Card, Thank the Interviewer,