Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Nutritional values and microencapsulation techniques of fish oil from

different sources: A mini review
N.A. Hashim a, S.K. Abdul Mudalip a,b,⇑, S.Z. Sulaiman a, S. Md Shaarani a
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26300 Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia
b
Centre of Excellence for Advanced Research in Fluid Flow (CARIFF), Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26300 Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fish oil is commonly consumed as dietary supplement due to its richness in long-chain polyunsaturated
Received 16 July 2020 essential fatty acids, Omega-3. Omega-3 fatty acids are essential nutrients that are important in prevent-
Received in revised form 13 November 2020 ing heart disease and also vital in human early development stage. Fish oil-based supplements can easily
Accepted 23 November 2020
be found in global market and may vary in concentrations, forms, and purity. The main concerns on those
Available online xxxx
available fish oil-based products are on their freshness and stability, since Omega-3 fatty acids are prone
to oxidation and release unpleasant smell. In recent years, microencapsulation technology received sig-
Keywords:
nificant increment in demand as it was continuously applied in food and pharmaceutical industries.
Fish oil
Omega-3 fatty acid
Mechanisms of these techniques involved the formation of emulsion containing the core (fish oil) and
Microencapsulation the coating materials. The present review aims to compile findings and scientific research of nutritional
DHA values and microencapsulation techniques of fish oil. The sources of fish oil, therapeutic benefits, and
EPA bioactive compound constituents, different microencapsulation techniques, coating materials formula-
tions, advantages and challenges on the current available microencapsulation techniques are also dis-
cussed and reviewed.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence of Chemical Engineering & Industrial Biotechnology.

1. Introduction EPA and DHA are derived from various sources of marine life,
and human are not able to synthesise it on its own [5]. Most com-
In 1870 s, it was reported that most of the Greenland Eskimos munal dietary sources of EPA and DHA is cold-water oily marine
have low incidents of heart diseases despite of their high fat and life such as mackerel, salmon, tuna, herring and sardines [6–8].
cholesterol diet [1]. Soon, it was discovered that their daily diet Even though cold-water fish is the main source of EPA and DHA,
which incorporated large amount of omega-3 rich fish oil protected fish does not synthesise it on its own, as fish acquired them from
them from heart related diseases. Since then, remarkable interest the microalgae and plankton dietary. Not limited to cold-water
had grown towards fish oil benefits and it has been one of the con- marine life, EPA and DHA also can be extracted from the fresh
sumer alternatives as supplement to lower blood pressure, reduce water fish such as common carp, catfish, and eel [9–11]. According
abnormalities in heart rhythm, reduce chances of heart attack and to Kuvendziev et al. [11], common carp viscera which is commonly
stroke [1–3]. Fish oil derived from oily fish tissues comprises of considered as bio-waste had shown significant presence of omega-
omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahex- enriched fish oil, potentially suitable for food and pharmaceutical
aenoic acid (DHA), are essential in human metabolism and mental industries. Apart from fresh oily fish tissues, fish by-product is also
developments [2–4]. According to Das et al. [3], potential benefits one of the great sources of EPA and DHA. Fish by-products struc-
of EPA and DHA in daily dietary considered as omnipotent since it ture are more complex compared to vegetable oil and land-
helps to improve brain function, heart health, reduce cancer risk, animal oil due to its long chain unsaturated fatty acid [12–13].
mental disorders and support eye health. One of the major challenges in producing omega-3 fatty acids-
based products are on its availability of fresh and stable supplies.
Omega-3 fatty acids are prone to oxidation and known to have
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Chemical Engineering, College of
Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26300 Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia.
unpleasant smell, hence it should be carefully processed and han-
E-mail address: kholijah@ump.edu.my (S.K. Abdul Mudalip). dled to avoid any bioactive compound degradation [13–14].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.849
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference of Chemical Engineering & Industrial Biotechnology.

Please cite this article as: N.A. Hashim, S.K. Abdul Mudalip, S.Z. Sulaiman et al., Nutritional values and microencapsulation techniques of fish oil from dif-
ferent sources: A mini review, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.849
N.A. Hashim, S.K. Abdul Mudalip, S.Z. Sulaiman et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Recently, microencapsulation technologies have been increasing in and DHA in fish oil helps to enhance the immune system by affect-
demand due to its ability in preserving the compound of interest ing cytokines and eicosanoids presence in human body. Lupus is an
from any degradations and maintaining its quality. autoimmune condition characterized by the attacks of immune
Microencapsulation is known as a coating process of an active system towards the various organs and tissues. Fish oil can be ben-
substance to preserve its properties. It can be used to preserve eficial therapy to lupus patients as it helps to reduce the symp-
solid, liquid or gaseous materials with thin protective film or poly- toms. Several studies on fish oil therapeutic benefits have been
meric coatings from suitable polymer, forming a small protected linked with lowering blood sugar and insulin level. Fish oil has
particle [15]. Microencapsulation technique has been widely been consumed to safely prevent the occurrence of type 1 diabetes
implemented in pharmaceutical as well as food, cosmetics and among high-risk group that frequently occur during childhood. The
agrochemical industries. Microencapsulation is aimed for the sta- consumption of fish oil also associated with the reduction of
bilization of the targeted bioactive substances, control release plasma triglyceride concentration. Higher level of plasma triglyc-
and significantly covering core unpleasant smell or taste [15–16]. eride concentration may lead to hyperlipidemia, thus contributing
It is important to know that the success factors of this technique to cardiovascular diseases such as high blood pressure and
are by identifying the suitable coating materials, core release form thrombosis.
and microencapsulation methodology. Based on previous studies,
it was shown that microencapsulation technique significantly pro- 2.2. Main chemical composition
tects the properties of fish oil [17–19]. The selection of suitable
coating materials determines the physicochemical properties and DHA is the most abundant omega-3 fatty acid constitute in
applicability of the fish oil. Łozińska et al. [20] suggested that most of the tissues. According to Silva et al. [25], DHA can be found
spray-granulation method was suited to protect fish oil. Jeyaku- abundantly in the myocardium, retina and brain, which are essen-
mari et al. [21] recommended the use of fish gelatine as coating tial for its proper function and growth. EPA can be found in choles-
materials, as it improved the oxidative stability of fish oil and it terol esters, triglycerides and phospholipids. EPA and DHA can also
was comparable to maltodextrin. Considering the significance of be acquired from short-chain fatty acid omega-3 form, derived
these issues, an introduction and review on the sources of fish from plant sources that are rich in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) such
oil, therapeutic benefits, bioactive compound constituent, as leafy vegetables, canola oils, kale, walnuts, flaxseed oil, spinach
microencapsulation techniques, coating materials formulations, and soy bean oil [23,26–27]. The conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA
advantages and challenges of available microencapsulation tech- by enzymatic action in human body is highly inefficient, with only
niques are defined and discussed. 5%–10% and 1%–5% conversion for EPA and DHA, respectively [13].
According to Swanson et al., [28], there is no significant increment
in EPA level in the blood sample during the consumption of ALA. It
2. Nutritional values and sources of fish oil
will be stored as a fat when it is not converted to EPA or DHA.
Hence, it is essential for human to consume fresh fish or fish oil
Fish oil is rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, derived
based supplements in their daily dietary intake, as the consump-
from the tissues of an oily fish such as cod liver, eels, mackerel, her-
tion of plant sources alone might not be sufficient to provide EPA
ring, tuna, salmon, and anchovies [13,17–18,22]. Findings from
and DHA needed by the human body. Chemically, omega-3 fatty
previous studies suggested that fish oil is essential in daily dietary
acid are hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl (–COOH) at one end
intake as it is rich in long-chain fatty acid of EPA and DHA. Both
and the presence of a methyl group (–CH3) at the other end. EPA,
components are the key elements in preventing numerous diseases
DHA and ALA vary in the length of degree of unsaturation and loca-
including atherosclerosis, aging, heart attack, stroke, hypertension,
tion of double bonds. Fig. 1 shows the molecular structure of EPA,
supporting pregnancy and vital in early life metabolism [12,19–
DHA and ALA.
21,23]. Clinical trials have shown that fish oil is efficacious in treat-
ing various disorders such as cancer, diabetes, asthma and rheuma-
2.3. Sources of fish oil
toid arthritis [12,19–21]. According to the international
recommendations by World Health Organization (WHO), optimum
For the past few decades, there was a growing recognition and
daily intake of EPA and DHA should reach at least 250 mg to
clinical interest on fish oil potentials. Continuous research on the
500 mg for healthy adults [2,24].
extraction of fish oil from various sources has been done to meet
the consumer’s needs. Tuna is one of the common sources of
2.1. Therapeutic values omega-3 and one of the biggest sources of fish oil worldwide. A
study by Trilaksani et al. [29] showed significant amount of DHA,
The epidemiological studies on the effect of fish oil on asthmatic oleic acid and palmitic acid extracted from the tuna’s eyes. Higher
patients show a significant improvement of asthma symptoms. DHA presence were reported in the Tuna’s eyes as DHA plays an
Asthma is commonly suffered by 20% to 25% of children and important role in the light catching process by retina. According
involves an inflammation of the pharynx, larynx and lungs. Dietary to Vida et al. [30], the source of fish oil is not limited to fresh fish
intake of fish oil can be a viable therapy as it is effective in reducing flesh, but it also can be extracted from the fish by-products such as
asthma symptoms in many patients. Fish oil are known for its abil- heads, viscera, frames, skins, bloods and other unutilised fish parts.
ity to improve vision. DHA content in fish oil is the most important It was reported that fish oil extracted from tuna by-product
nutrient for continued eye health as it is the major components of resulted in the presence of DHA (30%), EPA (40%), oleic acid
the retina. Fish oil intake is very common for pregnant woman. EPA (14%), palmitic acid (1%) and erucic acid (1%) [30]. From the find-
and DHA contents in fish oil help in avoiding miscarriage, prema- ings, by-products of marine life may offer alternative source to fish
ture birth, low weight at birth and help the brain development of oil production apart from improving waste management and sav-
the baby. According to Das, insufficient intake of EPA and DHA dur- ing the tuna’s ecological systems. Other than that, an identical
ing pregnancy may result in after birth depression as there is trans- bioactive compound was also found and reported by Yizhou
fer of some amount of brain mass from mother to the child in the et al., [31] who extracted fish oil from Tuna’s liver by using subcrit-
last stages of pregnancy. ical dimethyl ether method.
Regular fish oil consumption can increase our immunity against According to Rosaria et al. [17,32] anchovies is one of the largest
common diseases such as flu, cough and cold. The presence of EPA fish caught in the Mediterranean and Black Sea and become one of
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N.A. Hashim, S.K. Abdul Mudalip, S.Z. Sulaiman et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. Molecular structure of (a) EPA, (b) DHA and ALA. White: hydrogen; red: oxygen; grey; carbon. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

the main sources of fish oil. Extraction of anchovy with limonene tries [7]. Apart from that, the most popular marine fish in Malaysia,
recorded the presence of EPA (5.4%), DHA (12.38%), ALA (0.96%), India mackerel or also known as kembung among the locals is one
palmitic acid (33.55%), and oleic acid (23.97%). Another study con- of the popular omega-3 sources as it can easily be found and cheap.
ducted by Miguel et al. [24] reported that shell marine life is also An extraction of Indian mackerel reported higher recovery of
one of the richest source of EPA and DHA. It was reported that omega-3 composition observed for Indian mackerel skin followed
the amount of EPA + DHA recorded by sea squirt was by flesh, viscera and head [36].
522.68 mg/100 g raw meat, which was notably higher compared Freshwater eels are family of ray-finned fish that have elon-
to Chilean abalone, razor clam and sea urchin. From the findings, gated body with snake like bodies, long dorsal, caudal and anal fins
it showed that the sources of fish oil are not only limited to fish forming a continuous fringe. Freshwater eel extracts have shown
but it also can be obtained from shell marine life. Guerrero et al. remarkable effects on wide range of therapeutic diseases. A study
[33] reported that DHA and EPA were present in the purification on extraction of eel reported that there was a significant presence
process of cod liver polyunsaturated fatty acids. Catfish is one of of oleic acid, palmatic acid, linolenic acid, EPA and DHA with the
the diverse groups of ray-finned that are mostly found in freshwa- same quantity of 11.11% [26]. According to Razak et al. [8], palmitic
ter. Enzymatic hydrolysis methods was used to extract catfish oil acid was found abundantly in the body of the eel, while arachi-
and resulted in the presence of ALA and EPA [10]. Omega-6 polyun- donic acid (AA) was found in the head of the eel. He also reported
saturated fatty acid such as dihomo-gamma-linoleic acid, eicosa- a high level of DHA presence in the body and head of eel extracts
dienoic acid and gamma-linoleic acid are also present in the with 6.21 g/100 g lipid and 6.11 g/ 100 g lipid, respectively. Com-
extracts. Asmah et al., [34] also reported the presence of EPA mon carp was also identified as one of the potential source of
(2.45%) with an addition of DHA (0.23%) in the catfish extract. It omega-3 fatty acids [11]. Soxhlet extraction of fresh water carp
can be seen that that the content of bioactive compound extracted by Kuvendziev et al. [11] reported the presence of more than 20
may vary based on the methods and conditions of extraction. bioactive compounds including Capric acid (0.42 g/100 g extract),
Salmon is known for being exceptionally high in omega-3 fatty lauric acid, myristic acid (0.71 g/100 g extract), palmitic acid
acid because of its high plankton dietary. Extraction of salmon fish (12.74 g/100 g extract), linoleic acid (26.61 g/100 g extract), EPA
shows promising presence of ALA, EPA, DPA and DHA [8,14]. High (0.51 g/100 g extract), DHA (0.95 g/100 g extract) and oleic acid
EPA, DPA and DHA present in the salmon by-products oils suggest (42.6 g/100 g extract), thus showing a promising potential of
that the oil can be utilized for various nutraceutical applications. becoming one of the fish oil supplements sources [11]. Based on
Besides, cobia fish or black salmon can also be considered as one authors’ knowledge, the commercial fish oil supplements based
of the accessible sources of EPA and DHA enriched oil. An extrac- on eel fish oil is not yet available in the market. Table 1 summa-
tion of cobia liver by Kuo et al. [35] reported the presence of EPA rizes the nutritional values present in various types of fish.
(5.2%) and DHA (19.7%). It was suggested that the best methods
to extract cobia liver was homogenizer extraction and homoge-
nizer extraction plus sonication, at low temperature and short 3. Importance of microencapsulation
time. Herring is also one of the good sources of fish oil. The oil
extracted from herring has shown relatively high in EPA and In recent years, there was increasing demand on microencapsu-
DHA composition, which is suitable to be commercialized in indus- lation techniques for pharmaceutical (68%), cosmetics (8%), agri-
trial scale production such as soap, pharmaceutical and food indus- cultural (2%), textile (5%) as well as food industries (13%)
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N.A. Hashim, S.K. Abdul Mudalip, S.Z. Sulaiman et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 1
Nutritional values of the fish oil from the various sources.

Source of Fish Oil Nutritional values Reference

Tuna Eyes(Extra Virgin DHA (34.96%), Oleic Acid (16.98%) and Palmitic Acid (14.50%) [29]
Fish Oil)
Tuna By-products DHA (30%), EPA (40%), Oleic Acid (14%), Palmitic Acid and Erucic Acid (1%) [30]
Tuna Liver Palmatic Acid (27.79%), Oleic Acid (16.45%), DHA (16.52%), EPA (4.02%) [31]
Anchovy Fillet Leftover EPA (5.4%), DHA (12.38%), ALA (0.96%), Palmitic Acid (33.55%), Oleic Acid (23.97%) [41]
Sea Squirt DHA and EPA [24]
Cod Fish(Liver) DHA and EPA [33]
Catfish ALA, EPA, Dihomo-gamma-linoleic Acid, Eicosadienoic Acid and Gamma-linoleic Acid [10]
Salmon Linoleic Acid (8.48 g/100 g–10.20 g/100 g),EPA (7.41 g/100 g–8.88 g/100 g)Docosapentaenoic Acid (3.87 g/100 g–4.30 g/100 g) [14]
DHA (7.53 g/100 g–8.90 g/100 g)
Salmon(Head, skin, and EPA + DHA (16.4%–18.9%) [43]
backbone)
Cobia - Black Salmon Palmitic Acid (24.5%–26.9%), Stearic Acid (9.9%–11.5%), Oleic Acid (32.2%–33.5%), EPA (4.45%–5.24%) and DHA (16.0%–19.7%). [35]
(Liver)
Herring Fish EPA and DHA [7]
Indian Mackerel EPA (9%–12%) and DHA (10%–14%) [36]
Eel Fish Oleic acid, palmatic acid, linoleinc acid, EPA and DHA [26]
Eel Fish Palmitic acid, arachidonic acid and DHA [8]
Carp Fish Capric acid (0.42 g/100 g extract), lauric acid, myristic acid (0.71 g/100 g extract), palmitic acid (12.74 g/100 g extract), linoleic [11]
acid (26.61 g/100 g extract), EPA (0.51 g/100 g extract), DHA (0.95 g/100 g extract) and oleic acid (42.6 g/100 g extract)

[13,16,37]. Microencapsulation is a process where an active mate- is one of the most suitable approach in order to achieve stability,
rial or core material is coated with protective layers of coating storage and also delivery of the product. Findings from Lavanya
materials to avoid any side effects due to its exposure to environ- et al. [40] suggested that microencapsulation techniques are suit-
ments. The coating materials will then break under the application able to maintain the bioactive compound in fish oil and chia oil.
of specific stimulus such as heat, pressure or pH, releasing the Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, such as fish oil are known
active substance in the specific target location. Microcapsules par- for its undesirable off flavour, fishy smell and prone to oxidation.
ticle sizes are generally ranging from 1 ppm to 100 ppm and fur- Microencapsulation technique can be used in encapsulating gel,
ther classified into mono-core shell, multi-core shell and matrix solid, liquid and gas as a core and it has been proven in maintaining
type of structure [30,38]. The first step of microencapsulation con- fish oil viability during storage, covering the fishy smell, limiting
sists of mixing the active materials with the mixture of one or two off-flavour, improving the oil stability and controlling its release
coating materials, producing an emulsion. The mixture is then into food [13,41]. This technique has been widely applied in phar-
dried, producing microcapsules of different diameters and forms macological development and also food industries. Despite its
depending on the preparation method and coating material used. promising gains, problems such as the decrease of sensory accep-
Fig. 2 shows the sketch on basic mechanism of microencapsulation tance and oxidation of fish oil caused formation of toxic hydroper-
process. oxides, off-flavours and shorter shelf-life of the products [42].
According to Kolanowski et al. [39], the applications of microen- Due to that, it is important for a researcher to know the success
capsulation is vital in stabilization of the active substance, control factor of this technique by identifying the coating materials, core
release of the active substances and most importantly covering the release form and most importantly the microencapsulation
core unpleasant smell or taste. Nowadays, this technique appears methodology itself. The right choice of the coating material or wall
to be essential in handling and processing sensitive materials that material is very important in microencapsulation process. It will
have great potential to be in food system such as flavours, essential influence the encapsulation efficiency and stability of the micro-
oil, lipids and colorants, vitamins, acids and microorganism. Pang capsule and the ideal coating material should not be reactive with
et al. [18] reported that microencapsulation of a functional food the core, has an ability to seal and maintain the core, lack of

Fig. 2. Sketch showing the basic mechanism of microencapsulation process.

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N.A. Hashim, S.K. Abdul Mudalip, S.Z. Sulaiman et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

unpleasant taste or smell for food applicability, economical and the surfactant or chemical used may remain in the polymer, and
most importantly have an ability to provide maximum protection the removing process is quite challenging and costly. Physical
to the core against adverse conditions [16,35,37,43]. According to microencapsulation on the other hand can be further divided into
Silva et. al. [25], most of the coating materials do not have all the physico-chemical and physico-mechanical. Physico-mechanical is
desired properties to preserve the core materials and the most the most common technique implemented in preserving fish oil,
common practices is to mix two or more suitable coating materials and it includes spray drying, freeze drying, emulsification, coacer-
together before encapsulating. Natural and synthetic polymers are vation and lyophilisation [37,40,46]. Fig. 3 illustrates the available
the most common coating materials used by the industries. These methods for the microencapsulation process.
include carbohydrate (starch, dextrin, cellulose, chitosan and Spray drying method has been extensively used in the encapsu-
sucrose), gums (Arabic gums, alginate and carrageenan), lipids lation of flavours, oils, fats and oil soluble compounds. It is one of
(wax, paraffin, fats and hydrogenated oil), proteins (gluten, casein the most commonly used microencapsulation technologies in food
and albumin) and inorganic materials (calcium sulphate and sili- and pharmaceutical industries because of its simplicity, low cost,
cate) [20]. easy to scale up and reproducible. This method produces powder
Other factor that affects the selection of coating material is con- microparticles with low water activity, simplifying transport han-
trol release of core substances. According to Gharsallaoui et al. dling and storage [13]. Spray drying is a process for turning an
[44], the encapsulation process should allow the core to be isolated infeed into dry powder in a single and continuous stage. The infeed
from the external environment until release is desired. Therefore, is atomized in the form of fine drops in a hot drying medium such
in microencapsulation process, the release of the core materials as nitrogen or air. When the small droplets make contact with the
at an appropriate time and place is important to improve its effec- drying medium at high temperature, a fast evaporation of the sol-
tiveness, reducing required dosage of additives and also expanding vent takes place and fine powder is produced. A number of poly-
its applications [39]. Several mechanisms of core releases include mers have been used to microencapsulate fish oil, these include
diffusion, degradation, and use of solvent, pH, temperature and carbohydrates, protein and gums. For example, Pourashouri et al.
pressure. The most important factor in microencapsulation process [19] used mixture of gelatine and chitosan to microencapsulate
is the encapsulation method and the selection of suitable methods fish oil and this resulted in increasing fish oil oxidative stability.
depends on the type of the core, the size of particle, the application Though applied in wide range of industries, some studies reported
of microcapsule, release mechanism, production scale and also that the use of air in drying process at high temperature produces
cost. porous particle structure and will decrease its shelf-life [20,47].
Freeze dying adapting microencapsulation of frozen fish oil is
4. Microencapsulation technique carried out at temperature between 90 °C to 40 °C and then
dried by sublimation under low pressure. The main advantages
Microencapsulation as preservation technique to deliver active of this method are the use of low temperature and the removal
core materials has gained popularity in many areas of industries, of oxygen which can minimize the oxidation of the coated mate-
particularly in food and pharmaceutical areas. According to Das rial. Thus, it makes freeze drying suitable for the microencapsula-
et al. [45], currently extensive number of methodologies are avail- tion of highly sensitive materials. The comparison study on
able for the microencapsulation of active substance and it should different microencapsulation methods of fish oil by Pang et al.,
be carefully selected based on its applications and properties. [18] suggested that spray freeze dying as a new method for the
Microencapsulation technique is further divided into two major preparation of microcapsule. High quality of powder was obtained
groups, which is chemical and physical. The main advantage of with a yield of 95.07% along with porous powder structure. Accord-
adapting chemical microencapsulation method (emulsion poly- ing to Heinzelmann et al. [48] long shelf life was achieved for fish
merization) is its final product can be used as it is as no further oil with a slow freezing rate and the addition of antioxidants was
alteration needed. However, this technique is impractical due to necessary to produce dried microencapsulated fish oil with an ade-

Fig. 3. Microencapsulation methods.

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N.A. Hashim, S.K. Abdul Mudalip, S.Z. Sulaiman et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2
Microencapsulation of fish oil using spray drying and freeze drying.

Techniques Coating Material Advantages Challenges References

Spray 10% soybean soluble Applicable to dry heat-sensitive coating materials as the Parameter should be carefully controlled [49]
Drying polysaccharide (SSPS) and 65% setting temperature usually remain below 100 °C to avoid higher oil remaining at the
octenyl succinic anhydride surface of particle
(OSA-starch) Lower stability of the particle during
storage
Modified starch, Arabic gum The coating wall were amorphous with relatively spherical The loss of omega-3 was observed when [50]
and cashew gum shape particles without cracks or holes modified starch used as the wall
materials.
Skim milk powder The microcapsules produce continuous wall without any A larger droplet size formed causes the [51]
visible cracks in the surface of particles, which is vital to formation of retarded crust
prevent from penetration of gases and provide a better The increasing of drying air temperature
protection of core and aspirator lead to higher peroxide
value
Protein – Inulin No evidence of cracks or fissures was found Moisture content increased when a very [52]
high inlet temperature applied
Acacia gum and sodium alginate Low operation cost and short processing time Yield and low quality of the products [18]
(food grade) Not suitable for high viscous solution
Freeze 10% Sodium caseinate, 10% Long shelf life was achieved for sample with a slow freezing Addition of antioxidants to fish oil was [48]
Drying carbohydrate rate necessary to produce dried
microencapsulated fish oil with an
adequate shelf life
80% Whey Protein Concentrate Encapsulation efficiency showed the highest values of Spray dried powders recorded lower [47]
63.18% for freeze dried powder moisture content compare to freeze dried
Acacia Gum High quality of particle Require longer operating time and high [18]
Sodium Alginate (food grade) operating cost
Poly-e-caprolactone (PCL) More effective compared to vacuum freezing process The particle slightly enlarges when higher [53]
freezing temperature was applied to the
system
10% Sodium Caseinate Longer shelf life achieved by fast-feeding in liquid nitrogen Addition of antioxidants to fish oil was [54]
10% Carbohydrate necessary to produce dried
microencapsulated fish oil with an
adequate shelf life

quate shelf life. In a similar study, it was reported that freeze dry- 6. Authors’ contribution
ing of fish produced highly porous structure and short shelf-life
[48]. Despite of its promising results, freeze drying method is an N A Hashim and S K Abdul Mudalip developed paper outline
expensive technology for scale up and commercialisation. Table 2 and wrote the manuscript. S M Shaarani and S Z Sulaiman edited
tabulates the techniques for microencapsulation of fish oil, types the manuscript and gave conceptual advice. All authors have
of coating materials used, advantages and challenges of the approved the final article to be submitted as manuscript.
selected technique.
Declaration of Competing Interest

5. Conclusion and recommendation The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
In conclusion, the nutritional values and microencapsulation to influence the work reported in this paper.
technique of fish oil are reviewed and summarized. It was sug-
gested that eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid
Acknowledgements
(DHA) are the most common bioactive compounds extracted from
the marine life mainly tuna, salmon and mackerel. Not only limited
The authors are grateful for the financial support under the Fun-
to cold-water sources, they also can be obtained from fresh water
damental Research Grant Scheme FRGS/1/2019/K02/UMP/02/9
fish and shell marine life. Although the current situation of fish oil
(Grant No. RDU1901134) by the Ministry of Education Malaysia.
production is stable, future projections indicate that the availabil-
Special thanks to the Faculty of Chemical & Process Engineering
ity of wild marine resources is becoming increasingly limited as
Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang for the re research
the demand for fish oil continues to rise. From time to time,
facilities.
researchers keep on exploring new alternatives and currently fish
by-product has shown promising potential as one of the omega-3
sources. Applications of microencapsulation technique are vital in References
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