CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW

1. Reading

a. General Concept of Reading

In English there are four skills that should be mastered.

They are listening, reading, speaking and writing. Based on certain

criterion, they could be clustered into two skills: productive and

receptive skills. Speaking and writing involve language production,

so they are regarded as productive skills. On the other hand,

listening and reading involve receiving message, so they are

regarded as receptive skills.

There are various definitions of reading from educators,

psychologist, linguist and sociologist. Reading According to Mc

Donough and Shaw, is one of the most important skill. Reading is

the ability to draw meaning from the printed page and interpret the

information appropriately. “Reading is making meaning from print

and from visual information. But, reading is not simple. Reading is

an active process that requires a great deal of practice and skill.”It

means that reading is complex. It is unlike speech that can be

gotten naturally but reading has to be learnt because for many

people reading is something that they do rarely.

 For many people, reading is a difficult skill to be mastered.

In reading, the reader has to know the meaning of the words and

sentences they’ve read accurately. The other difficulty is the reader

has to know what is the goal or the mind idea of each paragraph of

the text. Many students’ also get the same difficulties in their

reading process. Reading is useful for language acquisition,

provided that students’ more or less understand what they read, the

more they read the better they get at it. Reading is one of the main

four skills that the students’ need to master in order to ensure

success in learning. To learn the language, reading is very

important that the students’ needs.According to Jo Mc Donough

and Christopher Shaw the following of some of the reasons that

students’ may need or want to read:

1) To obtain information for some purposes or because we are

curious about some topics.

2) To obtain instructions on how to perform some tasks for our

work or daily life.

3) To keep in touch with friends by correspondence or to

understand business letters.

4) To know when or where something will take place or what is

available.

5) To know what is happening or has happened (as reported in

newspaper, magazines, reports)

6) For enjoyment or excitement

“Reading for those who have been guided to appreciate it, is

one of the most important activities of life to bring to us not only a

pleasant way of spending the time, but a way of entering into the

life of the world and helping us to contemplate spiritual matters.”

According to Grabe and Stoller, there are many purposes for

reading, they are:

1) Reading to search for simple information is a common reading

ability through a text either to search for a specific piece of

information or to get an initial impression of whether the text is

suitable for a given purposes.

2) Reading to skim quickly is combination of strategies for

guessing where important information might be in the text, and

then using basic reading comprehension skill on those

segments of the text until a general idea is formed.

3) Reading to learn from texts is usually occurs in academic and

professional context in which a person needs to learn a

considerable amount of information from a text.

4) Reading to integrate information requires critical evaluation of

the information being read so that the reader can decide what

information to integrate and how to integrate it for reader’s

goal.
 5) Reading for general comprehension is the process of

understanding and constructing meaning from a piece of text

connected text is any written material involving multiple words

that forms coherent thoughts.

From the explanation above, it can be concluded that reading is

very important for human being. Meaning, learning, and pleasure

are the ultimate goals of learning to read. Knowing how to read

words has ultimately little value if the students’ is unable to

construct meaning from text

2. Reading Comprehension

“Reading comprehension is the process of constructing

meaning by coordinating a number of complex processes that include

word reading, world knowledge, and fluency.” According to Durkin

(1978-1979) there are three steps instruction of reading

comprehension: mentioning, practicing, and assessing. That is,

teachers would mention the skill that they wanted students’ to use, then

they would give them opportunities to practice that skill through

workbooks or skill sheets, and finally assess whether or not they used

the skill successfully.

To be successful at reading comprehension, students’ need to

actively process what they read. That processing skill requires that

students’ have automatic reading skill and fluency, necessary

vocabulary, and text-appropriate background knowledge. Successful

comprehension is augmented when students’ have practice with

strategies and media for monitoring their understanding, increasing

their intrinsic interest in the text, and creating goals and purpose for

their reading.

There are five types or levels of reading comprehension;

lexical comprehension, literal comprehension, interpretative

comprehension, applied comprehension and affective comprehension.

Lexical comprehension is when the students’ are understand key

vocabulary in the texts. Literal comprehension is when the students’

can answer who, what, when and where questions. Interpretative

comprehension is when the students’ can answer what if, why, and

how questions. A applied comprehension is when the students can

relate the story to existing knowledge or opinion. The last, the

students’ have affective comprehension when they are understand

social and emotional aspects of the text.

To really understand these different levels, let’s take a familiar

text and see how different types of questions probe different

understandings of the same story. For example the fairy tale

Cinderella tells the story

of a young girl, whose evil stepmother won‟t let her to go to the ball.

Cinderella fairy godmother, however, magically whisks her off for the
night and Cinderella eventually marries her Prince Charming. The

different levels of comprehension can be explained as follows:

1) Lexical Comprehension

To gain the students’ lexical comprehension, the teachers need

to make a preview vocabulary before reading the story or text. The

teachers also need to make a review new vocabulary during and

after reading the story or text. The example of lexical

comprehension questions are:

a) What does ‘enchanted’ mean?

b) What words are most like ‘enchanted’: magical or funny?

Scary or special?

2) Literal Comprehension

To gain the literal comprehension, the students’ need to

look in to the text to find the answers written in the story. The

teachers have to ask questions from the beginning, middle, and end

of the story. The example of literal comprehension questions are:

a) Who was the girl who lost the glass slipper?

b) What did Cinderella do in the ball with the prince?

3) Interpretative Comprehension

In this level, the students’ need to understand facts that are

not explicitly stated in the story. The illustrations may help them to

infer the meaning. The example of the interpretative

comprehension questions are:

 a) How did the pumpkin turn into a carriage?

b) What would have happened to Cinderella if she hadn’t lost her

slipper?

4) Applied Comprehension

In this level, teachers can not use a simple questions that

can be marked right or wrong by the students’. They need to

challenge students’ to support their answer with logic or reasons.

The example of the applied comprehension question is: Do you

think that Cinderella was wrong for going to the ball after her

stepmother told her she couldn’t go?

5) Affective Comprehension

In this level, teachers should make a preview of social

scripts to ensure understanding of plot and character development.

They also need to connect motive to plot and character

development. Theexample of affective comprehension question is:

What do you do when you’re disappointed because you can not do

something fun? Is that how Cinderella reacted?

In this research, the levels of reading comprehensions

which are meant by the researcher are the first and the second

levels of comprehensions; lexical and literal comprehension. So,

this research has a purpose to improve the students’ reading

comprehensions in their understanding of the key vocabulary in the

text and its meaning. The other purpose is to know how far their
 understanding in answering who, what, when and where questions

of the text. When the students’ are understand the meaning of the

words in the text, then they can understand the content of the text,

after that they can answer the questions of the text.

a. Strategies in Teaching Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is a skill that must be taught. To

support reading comprehension, teachers can teach the students’ to

use the following strategies. When introducing the reading

strategies, it is better to do side by side with the students’. Practice

these strategies out loud with the students at least two weeks. After

that, teachers can encourage the students’ to use these strategies on

their own will so they can be their own reading

coach.Zimmermann and Hutchins (2003) identify these reading

comprehension strategies:

1) Activating or Building Background Knowledge

In this strategiy, teachers can tickling the brain to think

about a topic gets a child ready to learn new information. For

example, before the teachers open the handbook about the

human body, they can ask the students’ what they already

know about the topic. Having the teachers’ mind already

focused on body parts and system prepares them to more easily

 file away new tidbits of information that the students’ will

reading about.

2) Preview Vocabulary

In this strategy, teachers can start to introduce new words

that will be used in the book or text before start reading.

Teachers can stop reading after come across the word and then

review it to make sure the students’ remember the meaning.

For example, teachers can ask the students’ to draw color-

coded definition card to remember the difference between the

words.

3) Use Context Clues

In this strategy, teachers can start with ask the students’ to

look at the surrounding words in the sentence and paragraph to

see if the writer gives some clues to what a word means.

Students’ can look at the pictures or captions on the page for

additional information or look up a word in the book’s

glossary.

4) Making Predictions

In this strategy, teachers ask the students’ to read the title of

the book, chapter or text then ask them what they think the

story may be about. At the end of the story, teachers talk about

why one prediction is right and how words can have two

meanings.
 5) Summarize Periodically

In this strategy, teachers begin with ask the topic sentence,

usually either the first or the last sentence of the text. If the

section is long, teachers can find convenient paragraph breaks

and summarize together.

6) Answer Comprehension Questions

In this strategy, teachers begin by focusing attention on

literal comprehension questions by asking basic questions

about who, what, where and when. These questions can always

be answered by looking back to the text.Those are some

reading strategies that can be used to support the students’

reading comprehension. In this research, researcher used two

strategies to support students’ in their reading comprehension;

previewing vocabulary and answer comprehension questions

3. Narrative Text

A narrative is a text that tells a story and, in doing so, entertains the

audience. Also, its narrative purpose is mainly to inform often contains

large passage arranging the events in a story stricly chronological

order. Narrative can be imaginary or factual (fairy tales, mysteries,

fables, romances and adventure stories, myths and legends). Anderson

and Kathy describe many different types of narrative: namely humour,

 romance, crime, real life fiction, historical fiction, mystery, fantasy,

science fiction, diary novel, and adventure.

From the explanation above, narrative text is a story occurred in

past time which its social funtion is to emuse or entertain the readers. It

is written with certain characteristics and its language features.

a. Elements of Narrative Text

1) Characters

In every story, there must be characters that play on it.

There are two characters take place within a story. They are main

characters and secondary characters. Character is the single most

important element in the narrative text. It describes physical of the

character such as age, weight, height, even personality traits

including

the strength and weaknesses.

2) Settings

Settings are what author writes to describe where and when

the story takes place. The setting addressed the location (where)

and period (when) of the story whether the story tells a readers

among realistic, historical fiction or fantasy.

3) Plot

The plot includes a series of episodes or events written by

the author to hold the reader’s attention and to build excitement as

 the story progresses. The plot contains an initiating event, starting

the main character of the series of events toward problem solving.

4) Conclusion

The writer ends up the story by summarizing and telling the

solution of the problem in the story.

b. Generic structure of narrative text

1) Orientation

Every story needs an orientation although how simple that

story. An orientation is an introduction of character, time and place

that will be told in the story. It is impossible to tell a story without

knowing characters set up in a particular time and place.

2) Complication

In this part, crisis of the story arises. The story is pushed along by a

series of events which the reader espects some problem to arise.

This complication will involve the main character and often serve

to (temporarily) toward them from reaching the goal.

3) Resolution

The complication that happened in the story will be resolved for

better or worse, but rarely the complication left completely

unresolved to leave the reader wondering how the end is.

Narrative text has some characteristics of language features, such

as:

a) Focus on spesific and usually individually participant.

 b) Use of material (action) processes.

c) Use of relational and mental processes.

d) Use of temporal conjunctions and temporal circumtances.

e) Use of past tense.

4. Comics

a. Definition of comics

Once the great comics in the community and so many like to

the comics it inspired to make comics as a learning media. One of

the advantages of comics such as research conducted by Thorndike,

it is known that children who read more comics, for example, in a

month at least one comic book is the same as reading textbooks in

each year, this has an impact on students' reading ability and

vocabulary mastery much more many of the students’ don't like

comics.

Comics come from the English word Comic which is

interpreted as being funny. Initially developed in the west and only

broadcast in newspapers in the style of cartoon paintings that contain

elements of humor and criticism, but then action-action comics

began to be published such as Superman, Batman and Captain

America.

Comics are defined as a cartoon form that expresses

characters and plays a story in a sequence that is closely connected

with the picture and designed to provide entertainment to the reader.

At the same time, McCloud argues that sequential images are a

means of communication superior. It can be used to convey scientific

messages that are not stories, but are displayed like stories. Thus, it

can be said that comics are a good means of communication in

conveying cartoon characters and storylines that interest students’ to

read.

Comic books provide stories that are simple, easy to grasp

and understand, so they are very popular with both children and

adults. Comics are also effective as a medium of communication

because of their sequential nature. It can be said that any message

can be conveyed through the language of comics.

At first the comics were created not for learning activities,

but for entertainment purposes only. Comics are a relic of the past

when people were not familiar with writing. Like reliefs in ancient

times can be included in the comic category. The presentation of

stories in comics follows a story that uses like picture. Streliefs in

ancient times can be included in the comic category. The

presentation of stories in comics follows a story that uses pictures

like reliefs in ancient times can be included in the comic category.

The presentation of stories in comics follows a story that uses

pictures as the language. This suggests that in the comic that is the

core of the story is the picture itself. Illustrations in comics can be

 equipped with narration or not. The series of pictures clearly can

clearly show what and why the event occurred.

Comics are categorized in visual media because comics

include graphic media. Graphic media can communicate facts and

ideas clearly and strongly through a combination of the expression of

words and images. Meanwhile, in terms of their use, comics can be

categorized in non-project media because comics are presented

without having to use a projector to display them to students’.

Comics designed in this study will be printed in book form.

b. Comic Beginnings

In the years 1519 the discovery of a 12-meter long pictorial

text in pre-colombus discovered by Cortes. Hundreds of years

before, France had produced a similar work, the Bayeux Tapestry.

In the mid years 1800, Rudolphe Topffer made a form of the first

work in Europe. The work is a picture story using cartoons and

dividing panels, and aligning word with pictures so that they

support one another.

c. Structure comic and anatomy comic

The assessment and understanding of various structural

elements of comics must be based on the means of comic

 representation in the form of visual aspects (images), and verbal

aspects (language), and not only in pictures or language alone.

Some of the structural elements of comic:

1) Characteristics: in the form of subjects in comics. Characters

are actors and sufferers of events that form the flow.

2) Plot: the life journey of a story character who has been created

in such a way that it looks interesting.

3) Themes and morals: aspects of the content that are up to the

reader.

4) Pictures and language: comic elements that can be seen clearly

because both represent the comic media.

In a comic, there are important components that make up

the anatomy of a comic. The following is a brief review of the

components which is commonly used in comics.

TABEL 2.1

ANATOMI COMIC

Name Component Explanation Example

The box that restricts the image of

the scane. Panels are divided into

2 types, namely closed panels and

Panel
open panels, panels closed has a

panel dividing line while the open

panel has no dividing lines.

 The visual form in which there is

a dialogue from the character.

The word balloon of various types

Speech Bubbles adapted to its function, as at the

time of the usual way, thinking or

talk to the heart, whisper and

shouting.

The dialog box that describes the

Naration
time, place and situation.

The images that represent

Icon someone, place, object, and

expression of the idea.

Sound effects describ a situation,

Sound Effect such as telephon “RING RING”

or “DHUARRR!!”

Sumber : Toni Masdiono

d. Comic Style
 Comics contain character designs that always contain

visualization designs. The simplest, namely the physical form and

costume design of the shop designed. However, the premise of a

story and character design can also influence the choice of drawing

style that is most suitable for a comic. There are several main

styles in comics, namely:

1) Cartoon style: this style is usually used for humorous stories,

adventure stories for children, or children's fantasies.

2) Realist style: this style is usually used for drama, adventure /

fantasy, history, or adult stories.

3) Expressive style: this style is usually used in action / action /

battle adventure stories. Or art comics.

4) Surrealistic style: this style is used in describing circumstances

close to dreamland, or the subconscious.

According to its function, comics are distinguished from

commercial comics and educational comics. Commercial comics

are much more needed in the market, because they are personal,

provide crude humor, are packaged in conversational and market

language, have a simplicity of soul and morals, and there is a

universal human tendency towards hero worship. A critical

approach is needed so that comics can fulfill their function as

educational media
e. Criteria for Good Comics

The selection of comics that will be used as media in

learning are comics that educate, can arouse learning enthusiasm in

children, and comics known by children, namely by adjusting

comics to the world of children. Chose comics that will be used in

learning activities, namely:

1) Does the image support text

2) Are the images clear and easily distinguishable

3) Do the illustrations make clear the background, story sequence,

sentiments and characters

4) Is the child able to define character and action

5) Is language style and accuracy suitable for children

6) Will present clichés

7) Does the theme have any use?

8) Are there appropriate concepts and themes for children

9) Does the variation of the book you have chosen reflect cultural

diversity

10) Does the selected book reflect the style

f. Comic Characteristics

As for the characteristics of comics are as follows:

1) Personal, by reading comics can bring readers to be

emotionally involved with the main actors in the comics.

 2) Rude humor, the use of materials that are easily understood by

ordinary people.

3) The language of conversation, with the use of everyday

language of conversation will be easier hit for the reader.

4) Simplification of behavior that depicts the moral or soul of the

perpetrator, the pattern of behavior in comic stories tends to be

simplified and easily guessed.

5) Is heroic, the contents of comics tend to bring readers to

worship their heroes.

g. Types of Comics

Comics are divided into 10 types, namely:

1) Cartoons / Caricature (Cartoon), this comic contains only one

display in which there are several characters combined with

writings. The purpose of this comic usually contains elements

of criticism, satire and humor. So that from cartoons, characters

and writings are able to provide a clear meaning and the reader

can understand the intent and purpose of the comic.

2) Comic Strip (Comic Strip), comic strips are fragments of

images that are combined into one part of a short story line but

do not have to be immediately finished and can be made to be

continued. This comic is usually displayed weekly or daily in a

newspaper, magazine or tabloid.

3) Comic Books (Comic Books), a story that contains pictures,

writings and stories packaged in a book. This comic book is

often also referred to as a short story comic that usually

contains 32 pages or more.

4) Annual Comics (Annual Comics), these comics are usually

published once a month or even once a year. Publishers will

usually publish it in the form of a broken story or serial.

5) Comic Album (Album Comic), pieces of images from several

comics that are merged or summarized into one and used as

reading so that it becomes a comic album.

6) Online Comic (Web comic), this comic is published through a

website, so that the readers can access it easily because the cost

is relatively low.

7) Instructional Comic Format, this comic is usually used as a

learning medium. This comic format instruction book can be in

the form of comic books, comic posters, or other displays.

8) Illustration Series, this series of illustrations are usually used in

the world of film and advertising. Before stepping in the

making of advertisements it will usually be easier to work if a

series of illustrations is made first. This series of illustrations is

also called story board.

9) Simple Comics (Simple Comics), these comics are usually

made by the work itself and then photocopied and bound. These
 comics are usually only in the form of rough pictures and do not

need much cost.

10) Planning on Mind (Planning on Mind), this comic is a comic

that has been designed to be a series of drawings but this comic

is not contained in graffiti on paper but only illustrated in our

minds.

Types of comics that will be developed in this study namely

the type of Comic Books (Comic Books). The choice of comic

book types is because it is practical or easy to carry around by

students’ and students’ can choose anywhere they like to read

comic books. There are three types of comic books, namely:

a) Thin Paper Comics (Trade Paperback), this comic book is the

size of an ordinary book, not too big, wide and only contains

about 32 pages. Although it seems thin, it can be packaged

using good quality paper so that the appearance or presentation

looks attractive.

b) Magazine Comics (Magazine Comics), comic books the size of

a magazine (large size), usually use a thick and hard type of

paper for the cover. The large size of course contains about 64

pages and can accommodate a lot of pictures and story content.

c) Graphic Novel Comics (Graphic Novels), the content of the

story is longer and complications and requires a more mature

level of thinking to read it. The contents of this book are more
 than 100 pages. It can be in the form of a series of stories or

breaking up stories.

Based on the type of comic book, the type of thin paper

comic was chosen in the development of this comic media, because

comics developed like ordinary textbooks are only packaged in the

form of comics.

h. Advantages and Disavantages of Comic Media in Learning

Comics can help motivate students’ to learn and facilitate

learning. Hutchinson found that 74% of teachers surveyed thought

that comics helped motivate while 79% said comics improved

individual achievement and made learning easier. The images

presented in comics could attract students’ to learn. Thorndike and

Downes revealed that comics are able to motivate students’ and

attracts interest. This also inspires comics that contain material

lessons. Learning comics are expected to be able to improve

students’ learning outcomes.

1) As for the advantages of other comic media:

a) The main role of comics in instructional books is its ability

to create students' interests

b) Guiding interesting reading interests in students’

c) Through the guidance of the teacher, comics can function

as a bridge to foster interest in reading

 d) Comics can increase the vocabulary of readers

e) Make it easier for students’ to catch things or formulas that

are abstract

f) The whole storyline of the comic leads to one thing namely

goodness or other studies

2) In addition to the disavantages of othe comic books:

a) The teacher must use the potential motivation from comic

books, but stop there, if interest and reading has aroused a

picture story must be supplemented by material reading

films, pictures, photographs, experiments and various

creative activities

b) The ease with which people read comics makes them lazy

to read, causing rejection of non-picture books

c) Many actions which accentuate violence or bad behavior

d) Not everyone can learn effectively with visual style.

Because everyone has different learning styles. Therefore

comics are not always used as learning media, in other

words the use of comic media must be adapted to students’

learning styles.

Based on the weaknesses of comics, it is better to use

comics combined with teaching methods, so that comics will be an

effective media of learning. the thing that must be done by the

teacher is to help and direct students’ in finding good (educative)

 and useful comics. And also the teacher must help students’ get

wider knowledge of students' interests and appreciation using

comics in learning. Comics can be said as a medium that is able to

foster students’ interest in reading,

B. Action Model

1. Kurt Lewin

Kurt Lewin developed an action research model in a system

consisting of input, information and output sub-systems. At the input

stage, a diagnosis of the initial problem that appears in individuals or

groups of students’ is carried out. Problem identification data is

collected based on feedback on the results of daily performance

evaluations. The researcher has conducted a preliminary study before

establishing action research or compiling a proposal. Thus, the person

who best understands the problems faced by research subjects and

how to solve them is the researcher himself

In the transformation stage, the actions that have been designed

are carried out. If action research is applied in the classroom, the

implementation of the action is integrated into the learning process.

The expected behavior change is observed during the implementation

of the action. If the expected behavior is not achieved, the researcher

can repeat the process that occurs at the input, namely identifying

problems and planning new appropriate actions to solve the problem

(Feedback Loop A). Conversely, if there is a desired behavior change,

 the next step is to measure the results (through tests) to find out the

progress that has been achieved. The results of this measurement are

then evaluated to decide whether or not there is a need for further

corrective action using a new plan (feedback loop C) or improving

planned actions (feedback loop B).

2. Riel

The second model was developed by Riel (2007) which divides the

action research process into phases: Study and planning, taking action,

gathering and analyzing events, reflection. Riel (2007) argues that to

solve problems, study and planning are needed. Problems are found

based on everyday empirical experiences. After the problem is

identified, then action is planned according to the problem and able to

be implemented by the researcher. Tools that support action (media,

RPP) are prepared at the planning stage. After the plan has been

drawn up and prepared, the next stage is the implementation of the

action.

After taking action, the researcher then collects all the data /

information / events encountered and analyzes them. The results of

the analysis are then studied, evaluated, and responded to with a

follow-up plan to resolve any remaining problems. This cycle of

action continues, until the problem is resolved.

3. Kemmis and Mc. Taggart

 Kemmis and Mc.Taggart (1988) divided action research

procedures into four stages of activity in one cycle (silkus), namely:

planning - action and observation - reflection. Such action research

research models are often referred to by action researchers. Action and

observation activities are combined at one time, namely when the

action is carried out at the same time the observation is carried out.

The teacher as a researcher as well as making observations to observe

changes in students’ behavior. The results of the observations are then

reflected to plan the next stage of action. The cycle of action is

carried out continuously until the researcher is satisfied, the problem

is resolved and the increase in learning outcomes is maximum or does

not need to be improved anymore.

The obstacles and success of implementing the actions in the

first cycle must be observed, evaluated and then reflected to design

actions in the second cycle. In general, actions in the second cycle are

corrective actions from actions in the first cycle but do not rule out the

possibility of actions in the second cycle is to repeat the actions of the

first cycle. Repetition of actions is carried out to convince the

researcher that the actions in the first cycle have or have not been

successful.

4. Hopkins
 A form of reflective study carried out by the actor actions to

increase the rational stability of the actions in practice out tasks and

deepening understanding against conditions in learning practice .

5. Mcniff

Form of reflective research conducted by educators

themselves against curriculum, school development, improve learning

achievement, skill development, etc.