The importance of reading

Essay topic: The importance of reading Reading has at all times and in all ages been a source of knowledge, of happiness, of pleasure and even moral courage. In today's world with so much more to know and to learn and also the need for a conscious effort to conquer the divisive forces, the importance of reading has increased. In the olden days if reading was not cultivated or encouraged, there was a substitute for it in the religious sermon and in the oral tradition. The practice of telling stories at bed time compensated to some extent for the lack of reading. In the nineteenth century Victorian households used to get together for an hour or so in the evenings and listen to books being read aloud. But today we not only read, we also want to read more and more and catch up with the events taking place around us. The various courses and classes being conducted in rapid reading support this belief. The amount of reading one should get through is of course nobody's business. There is no end to it for there is a variety of subjects to read about. The daily newspaper or the popular magazine while it discusses topical issues and raised controversies, it also provokes thought and throws light on human nature. It brings the news of wars, rebellions, organizations, political stances, heroic deeds etc., together and helps knit a world of some sort...

On many of the other pages of advice on this site I have emphasized how important reading is as far as learning English is concerned. However, there is a further, very important reason why ESL students should try to develop their reading skills: Educational researchers have found that there is a strong correlation between reading and academic success.* In other words, a student who is a good reader is more likely to do well in school and pass exams than a student who is a weak reader. Good readers can understand the individual sentences and the organizational structure of a piece of writing. They can comprehend ideas, follow arguments, and detect implications. They know most of the words in the text already, but they can also determine the meaning of many of the unfamiliar words from the context - failing this, they can use their dictionary effectively to do so. In summary, good readers can extract from the writing what is important for the particular task they are employed in. And they can do it quickly! Educational researchers have also found a strong correlation between reading and vocabulary knowledge. In other words, students who have a large vocabulary are usually good readers. This is not very surprising, since the best way to acquire a large vocabulary is to read extensively, and if you read extensively you are likely to be or become a good reader! So if you want your child to be successful at school encourage him or her to read. Reading nonfiction in English is probably the most important, but English fiction and any reading in the mother tongue - if done extensively - will help your child develop the reading competence that is essential for academic achievement.

The graphic below illustrates the interdependence of vocabulary, reading ability and academic success.

Types of Reading

Overview Intensive Reading Extensive Reading Intensive and Extensive Reading Together Scanning Skimming Scanning and Skimming Together

Overview:
Several types of reading may occur in a language classroom. One way in which these may be categorized and outlined as follows: A. Oral B. Silent I. Intensive a. linguistic b. content II. Extensive a. skimming b. scanning c. global The first distinction that can be made is whether the reading is oral or silent. This documentry will not deal with oral reading, only silent reading.

Within the category of silent reading, one encounters intensive and extensive reading. Intensive reading is used to teach or practice specific reading strategies or skills. The text is treated as an end in itself. Extensive reading on the other hand, involves reading of large quantities of material, directly and fluently. It is treated as a means to an end. It may include reading reading simply for pleasure or reading technical, scientific or professional material. This later type of text, more academic, may involve two specific types of reading, scanning for key details or skimming for the essential meaning. A relatively quick and efficient read, either on its own or after scanning or skimming, will give a global or general meaning. This web page then will first examine intensive reading. The second part will deal with extensive reading, with a focus on how it results in a general or global meaning. The fourth part gives a short comment on how intensive and extensive reading may operate in the same class. The fourth part examines scanning and the fifth, scanning. A final sixth part comments on how scanning and skimming may be used in the same reading.

Intensive Reading
In this section: What it is How it looks -Characteristics -Materials -Skills developed -Activities -Assessment When it is used Role of the teacher Advantages Disadvantages Questions sometimes asked

What it is

Brown (1989) explains that intensive reading "calls attention to grammatical forms, discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning, implications, rhetorical relationships, and the like." He draws an analogy to intensive reading as a "zoom lens" strategy . Long and Richards (1987) say it is a "detailed in-class" analysis, led by the teacher, of vocabulary and grammar points, in a short passage." Intensive Reading, sometimes called "Narrow Reading", may involve students reading selections by the same author or several texts about the same topic. When this occurs, content and grammatical structures repeat themselves and students get many
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opportunities to understand the meanings of the text. The success of "Narrow Reading" on improving reading comprehension is based on the premise that the more familiar the reader is with the text, either due to the subject matter or having read other works by the same author, the more comprehension is promoted.

How it looks
Characteristics:

usually classroom based reader is intensely involved in looking inside the text students focus on linguistic or semantic details of a reading students focus on surface structure details such as grammar and discourse markers students identify key vocabulary students may draw pictures to aid them (such as in problem solving) texts are read carefully and thoroughly, again and again aim is to build more language knowledge rather than simply practice the skill of reading seen more commonly than extensive reading in classrooms

Materials:

usually very short texts - not more than 500 words in length chosen for level of difficulty and usually, by the teacher chosen to provide the types of reading and skills that the teacher wants to cover in the course

Skills developed:

rapid reading practice interpreting text by using: -word attack skills -text attack skills -non-text information

Activities: Intensive reading exercises may include:

looking at main ideas versus details understanding what is implied versus stated making inferences looking at the order of information and how it effects the message identifying words that connect one idea to another
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identifying words that indicate change from one section to another

Munby (1979) suggests four categories of questions that may be used in intensive reading. These include: 1. Plain Sense - to understand the factual, exact surface meanings in the text 2. Implications - to make inferences and become sensitive to emotional tone and figurative language 3. Relationships of thought - between sentences or paragraphs 4. Projective - requiring the integration of information from the text to one's own background information Note that questions may fall into more than one category. . Assessment: Assessment of intensive reading will take the form of reading tests and quizzes. The most common systems of questioning are multiple-choice and free-response. Mackay (1968) , in his book Reading in a Second Language, reminds teachers that the most important objective in the reading class should NOT be the testing of the student to see if they have understood. Teachers should, instead, be spending most of the time training the student to understand what they read.

When it is used

when the objective of reading is to achieve full understanding of: - logical argument - rhetorical pattern of text - emotional, symbolic or social attitudes and purposes of the author - linguistic means to an end

for study of content material that are difficult

Role of the teacher

The teacher chooses suitable text. The teacher chooses tasks and activities to develop skills. The teacher gives direction before, during and after reading. The teacher prepares students to work on their own. Often the most difficult part is for the teacher to "get out of the way" . The teacher encourages students through prompts, without giving answers.

Advantages
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It provides a base to study structure, vocabulary and idioms. It provides a base for students to develop a greater control of language It provides for a check on the degree of comprehension for individual students

Disadvantages

There is little actual practice of reading because of the small amount of text. In a class with multi-reading abilities, students may not be able to read at their own level because everyone in the class is reading the same material. The text may or may not interest the reader because it was chosen by the teacher. There is little chance to learn language patterns due to the small amount of text. Because exercises and assessment usually follow intensive reading, students may come to associate reading with testing and not pleasure.

Questions sometimes asked

Should the text be read aloud first or some explanation given?

- Nuttall (1986) suggests that if the teacher reads the text aloud before starting work on it, they have assumed part of the students' job. - Others argue that without some help some students could not understand the text. - Still others argue that it is easy to underestimate students. they may actually understand more than is thought. If students cannot make any progress, the material may be unsuitable.

Extensive Reading
In this section: What it is Historical perspective Background theory How extensive reading may appear in a language class - Types of programs -Characteristics - Materials - Activities - Assessment Role of teacher Role of student Advantages Challenges Research topics

What it is
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Brown (1989) explains that extensive reading is carried out "to achieve a general understanding of a text." Long and Richards (1971, p.216) identify extensive reading as "occurring when students read large amounts of high interest material, usually out of class, concentrating on meaning, "reading for gist" and skipping unknown words." The aims of extensive reading are to build reader confidence and enjoyment. Extensive reading is always done for the comprehension of main ideas, not for specific details.

Historical Perspective

Harold Palmer (1917) in Britain and Michael West (1926) in India were the first to pioneer the theory of extensive reading as an approach to foreign language teaching and to reading, in particular. Palmer chose the term "extensive reading" to distinguish it from "intensive reading". the 1929 Coleman Report on "Modern Foreign Language Study", introducing the Reading Method , recommended the inclusion of extensive reading in its Method (as distinct from inclusive reading). - Students were to read in the second language without a conscious effort to translate. - Emphasis was placed on developing independent silent reading increasing reading rate of individual students. - Frequency word counts were developed and used as a basis for graded readers.

and

Broughton(1978) argued for the important role Extensive Reading could play in second language programs. Nuttall (1982) wrote that the idea of Extensive Reading should be "standard practice" in second language learning. She suggested the following "slogan": "The best way to improve your knowledge of a foreign language is to go and live among the speakers . The next best way is to read extensively." (p.168) Krashen (1984) supported Extensive Reading because he felt it automatically gave rise to competence in writing. In 1993, he termed it "free voluntary reading". Krashen (1995) argued that 'free voluntary reading" could be used a a "bridge" from communicative language competence to academic language competence. David Eskey (1995) drew the analogy of reading instruction to teaching swimming strokes to people who hated the water. It would be only through their discovery of the rewards of reading by actually doing it, that they would become people that can and do read. Elley (1996), in his report on a study involving 210,000 students and 10,000 teachers in 32 educational systems around the world, concluded that "instructional programs that stress teacher directed drills and skills are less beneficial in raising literacy levels than programs that try to capture students' interest and encourage them to read independently."

Dupre's research (1997) in French supported the theory that Extensive Reading is more pleasurable and beneficial for language acquisition than grammar instruction and practice. Nuttal (1998) argued the case for Extensive Reading programs citing research studies that showed "impressive" gains in reading ability, motivation and attitude, and overall linguistic competence. There was also evidence of gains in vocabulary and spelling.

Although research strongly suggests that extensive reading can boost second language acquisition, few second language learners engage in voluntary reading at their own initiative, ( i.e. Reluctant Readers) and require guidance in the form of Extensive Reading programs.

Background theory
Several theories come into play in Extensive Reading:

Krashen's Input Hypothesis (1982) made a distinction between acquisition and learning. For Krashen, the dominant mode of language learning is in acquisition, the largely subconscious "picking up of the language" which characterizes language in informal settings and which is similar, if not identical, to the way children develop ability in their first language." ( p.10) Language acquisition represents unconscious learning which takes place when attention is focused on meaning rather than form. In order to acquire language, Krashen suggested the learner must be exposed to large amounts of second language input that was "meaningful" , interesting, relevant, not grammatically sequenced, and in a low anxiety setting. It is felt that Extensive Reading programs provide such an environment. The L1=L2 Hypothesis suggests that second language learning, like the first, follows a highly predictable pattern. If the conditions of first language acquisition are approximated by extensive second language reading, the second language learner can achieve native like competence in a classroom. An extension of this suggests that reading for pleasure from appropriate second language texts provides subconscious and progressively more difficult second language input much like that essential for first language acquisition. Rumelhart (1980) proposed an "interactive model" of the reading process in which reading is a complex task of simultaneously combining "bottom-up" processes (in which the reader analyzes text in small pieces and builds meaning from these) and "top-down" processes (in which the reader makes "guesses" about the content of a passage). It is thought that Extensive Reading programs provide the quantities of reading practice necessary for the automaticity of the "bottom-up" (word recognition) process.

How extensive reading may appear in a language class

Types of programs: Extensive reading may appear as any of the following: 1. a complement to an intensive reading program 2. an extra-curricular activity where students read out of class
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3. the main focus of a reading course (termed an Extensive Reading Program) where students work with a class set of books, individual reading of material, of their own choice, with follow-up activities such as reading logs, reading journals, book reports or projects. Although it is less common for extensive reading to form an entire reading course, there are well-established Extensive Reading Programs operating around the world. They have been carried on in many countries, at varying levels of education from Elementary School to College, and in different languages. Characteristics: Day and Bamford (1980) put forward ten characteristics identified in successful Extensive Reading Programs. They are duplicated (in abbreviated form) below: 1. 2. 3. 4. Students read as much as possible. A variety of materials on a range of topics is available. Students select what they want to read . The purposes of reading are usually related to pleasure, information and general understanding. 5. Reading is its own reward. 6. Reading materials are well within the linguistic competence of the students in terms of vocabulary and grammar. 7. Reading is individual and silent. 8. Reading speed is usually faster than slower. 9. Teachers orient students to the goals of the program. 10. The teacher is a role model of a reader for the students.

Bell (2001), in his article "Extensive Reading : What is it? Why bother?" gives ten pieces of practical advice on running Extensive Reading programs.

Materials: With demands for both simplicity and authenticity, the teacher must choose from the following: Graded Readers available by major publishers (e.g.. Cambridge University Press , Heinemann, Oxford and Penguin -These are readers with specific levels of word frequency and idiom counts and the introduction of new vocabulary at a planned rate. -Broughton (1978) favors using graded readers where less than one word in every hundred is unfamiliar. -These are a good choice for students whose second language proficiency makes it difficult for them to read texts written for native speakers.

Texts on the same topic -Reading more than one text on the same topic allows students to bring more background knowledge to each new text read. Authentic materials such as newspapers, magazines, that are related to the second language culture Web resources - These should we chosen from suggestions by the teacher so that students do not choose those that are too overwhelming . Stories and articles chosen by the teacher, with the following guidelines: 1. The style should include repetition, without being monotonous. 2. New vocabulary should not occur at the same place as difficulties of structure. 3. The text should break in sections that are not too long. This is to give the reader a feeling of accomplishment when completed. 4. Authors should be chosen with less complex structure and less extensive vocabulary range. 5. The subject matter should be of real interest to the students and suitable for their age level. Rivers (1981) suggests the subject matter should be as close as possible to the type of material the students would read in their first language.

Some thought may be given to socio-cultural issues. Should there be an attempt to match materials to students' cultural background? Students bring different knowledge of text types from their first language. Is it feasible to include these in the materials? Annotated reading lists are available, suggesting books that can be read for pleasure and a minimum of frustration for new language learners. Books that are recommended for English as a Second Language include the following: -Brown, D.S. (1988) A World of Books: An Annotated Reading List for ESL/EFL Students (2nd ed.) Washington, DC: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. -Brown, D.S. (1994) Books for a Small Planet: A Multicultural-Intercultural Bibliography From Young Young English Learners . Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Materials should be chosen that are at or below the reading ability of the student. They are usually at a lower level of difficulty than those chosen for intensive reading. This is for several reasons: 1. It builds automatic recognition of words 2. It allows the reader to see words in "chunks" of language, allowing for faster reading.

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Activities that may occur:

Reading may be combined with a speaking component. For example, they may interview each other about their reading. Reading may be combined with a writing component. For example, after reading the newspaper, students may be asked to write a newspaper report. Class time may be included for book exchange, if there is an in-class library. Students may set their own goals for their next session. Students may progress from reading graded reading material to authentic text . It should be expected that students will "slow down" in their reading then, it it becomes more challenging. Students may complete any of the following: 1. a reading log (recording number of pages read and at what 2. a reading journal (reflections on the text read) A reading journal may take the following format: - date, title of book and author - the category of the book if known by the student - a brief statement on what the book is about - a summary of each part as it is read - student's reactions to each part Often teachers will respond to the students and if so, the student should room in the journal for this. 3. a reflection on what they noticed about their own reading 4. a book report or summary - Helgesen (1997) recommends not spending than 20 minutes on a report 5. a retelling of part of the text 6. book project In some Extensive Reading Programs, teachers will allow their students to report on their reading in their native language so as not to make the "proof" of reading more difficult than the reading itself. This, of course, only works if the teacher understands the student's first language. Extensive reading programs are often cited as being more "pleasurable" because there are no "tedious" exercises to complete.

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Assessment:

there are no reading comprehension exercises or formal assessments in Extensive Reading programs. Course grades for an Extensive Reading program may be determined by marks given for reading reports, reading journals, book reports and projects.

Role of Teacher

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The teacher gives recommendations on reading materials, based on student's interests.

- The teacher guides students in choosing appropriate levels of material, beginning with easy books. - The teacher guides students in choosing a variety of materials of their interest. This may especially be necessary for students that choose the same type over and over.

The teacher guides students in setting specific goals for amounts read. The teacher provides modeling. If class time is given for reading, the teacher reads at the same time. The teacher overlooks if students are not aware of the exact meaning of each word. The teacher should not jump in and explain. The teacher leads pre-reading activities to build interest in the text, such as in the characters, places, themes, and actions. The teacher must be careful to provide just enough to stimulate curiosity but not so much that the need to read is removed.

Role of Student

The student assumes total responsibility for developing reading ability . The student reads without the use of a dictionary. The student usually chooses their own material and moves along at their own pace but must push themselves in order to show greater progress.

Advantages

The students may:

- develop a "reading habit" - gain more confidence in reading -improve their attitude towards reading and become more motivated to read - feel more autonomous over their own learning and more likely to take more initiative. - become more " independent readers", being able to read for different purposes and being able to change reading strategies for different kinds of texts - become more aware of what's available to them to read and how to access materials - expand sight vocabulary - acquire "incidental" grammatical competence - that is, it may be acquired even though it was not directly taught -build background knowledge - increase reading comprehension - improve overall language competence - be more prepared for further academic courses because they have read large quantities

An Extensive Reading program may be combined with writing or combined with speaking practice in a meaningful way (such as when students discuss with each other the books they have been reading.

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Broughton (1978) suggested that "It is by pursuing the activity of extensive reading that the volume of practice necessary to achieve rapid and efficient reading can be achieved." (p.92) Krashen (1993a) suggested that the benefits of free voluntary reading included "enhanced language acquisition and literacy development, more ideas and information, greater success in life, loss of verbal memory, and more fun."

Challenges:

An Extensive Reading program may be costly and time-consuming to set up if materials are not already available. It may be difficult to get support from Administration. Students need to have easy access to texts within their language proficiency level. An Extensive Reading program is easiest to establish when the students have a high level of second language proficiency. For intermediate levels, students require a specialized library within their language proficiency range. They need texts they can read without great use of a dictionary. It may be difficult to keep students challenged to read more difficult texts as the program continues. Some established programs use a "weighing scale" for students to record materials read, giving more "marks" for materials read at a higher level. Although this has proven to be a motivating or competitive factor in some cases, in others it becomes counter-productive if students try to read texts that are more difficult than they can manage and consequently become discouraged. Reading each student's journals and reports can be very time-consuming for teachers. Students who come from a culture in which literacy is not valued may be unwilling to participate in pleasure reading or may not get support at home. Some teachers prefer a skills based program and do not feel comfortable with Extensive Reading. Some teachers are unaware of how to use Graded Readers and so, provide a limited range of activities for students, limiting their responses. Some teachers feel that time spent on Extensive Reading will take away from time that could be spent on learning language skills. Others will argue that Extensive Reading provides a "richer context" for practice. Some people feel that if graded readers are used, they can give a false impression of the level of reading that has been achieved. They feel that some students may try "ungraded" materials too soon and may revert to using a dictionary to translate. Some people feel that students may place too much emphasis on the number of pages read instead of on the understanding achieved. Students that have only been exposed to Intensive Reading programs may not believe that Extensive Reading is a "proper" way to learn. Aeberscold (1997) reported that feedback from students in an Extensive Reading program indicated that they liked the "choice" but not the "load"

Research topics

What is the impact of extensive reading on attitude and motivation to read?

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How does vocabulary acquisition while reading compare to direct vocabulary instruction? What is the relation between amounts of reading and growth in reading comprehension? What are the students' perceptions of their reading, their habits and difficulties? Do students that have an extensive reading component of their program show greater improvements reading than students who have no such component? Do the use of simplified authentic texts actually increase comprehension or simply confidence? Past studies have shown that extensive reading leads to gains in students' second language proficiency as measured on cloze tests. Would the use of cloze exercises in addition to extensive reading be more effective than intensive reading alone? What other improvements in the area of language uses and language knowledge may result from Extensive Reading?

Intensive and Extensive Reading Together

It is common for both approaches to reading to be used in the same class. For example, where extensive reading is encouraged, the teacher may have all the students read the same text so they can discuss the topic together or learn a specific skill such as as writing an outline. In a class where intensive reading is mostly used, students may be asked to read texts of their own choosing to report back on, in either an oral or written format. In both approaches, it is not the nature of the skills that are of most interest but rather, the results.

Scanning
In this section: What it is When it is used Role of Teacher Role of Student Activities Research Questions

What it is

Scanning ia a quick reading, focusing on locating specific information. Scanning involves quick eye movements, not necessarily linear in fashion, in which the eyes wander until the reader finds the piece of information needed. Scanning is used when a specific piece of information is required, such as a name, date, symbol, formula, or phrase, is required. The reader knows what the item looks like and
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so, knows when he has located what he was searching for. It is assumed then, that very little information is processed into long-term memory or even for immediate understanding because the objective is simply matching.

When it is used

Scanning is used often with technical, scientific or professional materials to locate specific information. Scanning is a valuable skill for second language learners to develop because often they do not require a detailed read of a text. There are many everyday uses for scanning, relevant to a purpose, such as reading a schedule.

Role of Teacher

The teacher selects passages that do include specific information. The teacher may use authentic materials that are commonly scanned in real life, such as the telephone directory, menus, bus schedules. The teacher may ask students before they scan a text to note how the information is organized in the text. The teacher needs to remind students that as they read carefully to find the required information, they should pay particular attention to titles and keywords.

Role of the Student

The student forms questions before reading. What specific information are they looking for? The student looks for contextual clues. The student tries to anticipate what the answer might look like and what sorts of clues would be useful. The student is aware of the graphic form that the answer may take, such as a numeral, a written number, a capitalized word or a short phrase that includes key words.

Activities

Activities may include exercises that are devised by the teacher in which students scan for a single word or specific text . Activities may include exercises that are often carried on as a competition so students will work quickly. Students use skills of prediction and anticipation. Students may do any of the following:

- make predictions and guesses - use titles and tables of contents to get an idea of what a passage is about - activate prior knowledge about the topic of the passage by answering some questions or performing a quiz - anticipate what they want to learn about the top - use titles, pictures, and prior knowledge to anticipate the contents of the text
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- use key words, that may have been given to them by the teacher, that do not appear in the text, that allude to the main idea

It is an accepted view today that efficient readers are not passive. They react with a text by having expectations and ideas about the purposes of the text as well as possible outcomes. They reflect on expectations as they read, anticipate what will come next. In other words, they "interact with the text".

Research Questions

Does the skill of scanning transfer from the first language to the second?

Skimming
In this section: What it is When it is used Role of the teacher Role of the student Activities Research Questions

What it is

Skimming is a quick reading to get: - to - to

- to know the general meaning of a passage know how the passage is organized, that is, the structure of the text get an idea of the intention of the writer

Skimming is a more complex task than scanning because it requires the reader to organize and remember some of the information given by the author, not just to locate it. Skimming is a tool in which the author's sequence can be observed, unlike scanning in which some predetermined information is sought after.

When it is used

Skimming is used when reading some some general question in mind. Skimming is used in making decisions on how to approach a text such as when determining if a careful reading is deserving.

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Skimming is used to build student confidence and an understanding that it is possible to gain meaning without reading every word in a text. Skimming is used as part of the SQ3R method of reading, often for speed reading. This method involves the student in surveying, questioning, reading, reviewing and reciting. Skimming is used for the initial survey and for review. Skimming is a skill that a student may want to develop if they are planning to continue with academic studies. It is often used in reviewing for a test.

Role of the teacher

Before the students start reading, the teacher should guide students to ask themselves the following questions:

- What kind of audience was the text written for? Was it, for example, the general public, technical readers, or academic students? - What type of text is it? Is it, for example, a formal letter, an advertisement, or a set of instructions? - What was the author's purpose? Was it , for example, to persuade, to inform or to instruct?

The teacher should make the following clear to students before assigning a skimming exercise:

1. the purpose of the exercise 2. how deeply the text is to be read

Role of the student

Students read through the text in the following manner: Read the title if any. Read the introduction or the first paragraph. Read the first sentence of each of the following paragraphs. Read any headings or sub-headings. Look at any pictures or phrases that are in boldface or italics Read the summary or last paragraph.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Activities

Students must locate facts that are expressed in sentences, not single words. Although speed is essential and the teacher often sets a time limit to the activity, skimming should not be done competitively. Students should be encouraged individually to better themselves. To improve skimming, readers should read more and more rapidly, to form appropriate questions and predictions and then read quickly

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Pugh (1978) suggests that to assess skimming, after the students have read and completed the assigned questions, further questions may be asked, "beyond the scope of the purpose originally set" (p.70). If students can answer these questions correctly, it indicates they have read the text too closely.

Research Questions

Does the skill of skimming transfer from the first language to the second?

Skimming and Scanning Together

Skimming and scanning are sometimes referred to as types of reading and at other times, as skills. Skimming involves a thorough overview of a text and implies a reading competence. Scanning is more a limited activity, only retrieving information relevant to a purpose. Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the newspaper, you're probably not reading it word-by-word, instead you're scanning the text. Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your research. There are many strategies that can be used when skimming. Some people read the first and last paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other organizers as they move down the page or screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when you're seeking specific information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names, and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts. Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're looking for, so you're concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first find a resource to determine whether it will answer your questions. Once you've scanned the document, you might go back and skim it. When scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different font size, style, or color. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin.

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Presentation Skills
Today presentation skills are required in every field. Whether you are student or an executive or the Chairman of a big name organization, you will have to make a presentation at one time or other. In order to deliver captivating presentations a lot of input and work is needed. To really succeed at presenting and build up effective presentation skills, there are several key areas that you need to become skilled in. And once youve mastered these skills, youll be able to create a presentation with a clear message and deliver it with confidence. These key skills areas are:

Planning and writing the presentation Using visual aids effectively Overcoming presentation nerves Delivering the presentation confidently Answering questions competently

Skills for Planning & writing the presentation Planning the presentation involves much of the work that youre going to do before you actually deliver the presentation. This is a very important area and its also one that many people should consider improving their skills in. A key part of this planning is to research your presentation audience, since the more you know your audience, the more you can understand them and what their preconceptions might be. You also need to get to grips with the purpose of the presentation so that you are very clear about what you are trying to achieve from it. (This is a skill in itself.) Then its down brainstorming what youre actually going to say and then structuring this into digestable chunks within the beginning, middle and end. Using visual aids effectively Once youve done your planning, you need to consider what visual aids youre going to be using. (aka Powerpoint slides or PowerPoint skills!) Think about what you want to do here why you actually need the visual aids in your presentation and what are they going to be used for. Often they are fairly redundant people put them in for the sake of it. So some key presentation skills well be looking at are associated with reducing your slides to the minimum you need to support your message. So we are going to look at how to make visual aids effective and what types of visual aids are going to help you with your presentation.
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Skills for Overcoming presentation nerves Were then going to look at You Yourself! To start considering your personal presentation skills. When most people when they hear the word presentation previously built presentation skills are often forgotten about and nerves kick in. So were going to help you overcome your nerves and become more confident in your personal presentation skills. There are lots of techniques and things you can do to help you to control your nerves and build your confidence even before you actually start your presentation as well as while youre speaking and delivering it. Skills for Delivering the presentation confidently After that, its important to think about how youre actually going to deliver your presentation. We will look at some of the key techniques and skills you can call on to help you speak confidently, keep the audiences interest, really engage with them and create the presence that want to have in front of your audience. So your personal resources are very important when you come to deliver your presentation. Answering questions competently Finally its important that you have the confidence to interact with your audience and deal with any questions that your audience might throw at you. So well give you techniques to help you deal with the difficult questions the different scenarios that you might face when you are actually having to interact with the audience

ORAL PRESENTATION SKILLS : Body language a) Positive body language: eye contact to keep audiences' attention (Asian audience might feel aggressed.) facial expressions should be natural and friendly: raise eyebrows to show surprise open eyes wide squint your eyes curl your eyebrows the hands Lots of possibilities to emphasise, to enumerate.
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to express sincerity or reflexion Be conscious of what you do with your hands If you are unhappy, hold notes or cards to occupy them arm - movements back and forth to suggest flow. Open arms to include or welcome ideas body movement to indicate a change of focus keep audience's attention move forward to emphasize move to side to indicate a transition gesture up and down head motions are movements to indicate importance or acknowledgement pen or pointer to indicate part, place (on a transparency) shrug shoulder to indicate I don't know or care posture stand straight but relaxed (do not slouch or lean sideways) Lean forward to emphasize however No hands in pockets b) Negative body language: Failing to make eye contact Do not look at your notes all the time Looking at the screen/board means your back is turned to the audience cutting contact Don't stare, or look blankly into people's eyes Avoid swaying back and forth like a pendulum Avoid leaning against walls Be aware of your nervous tics Do not fold your arms like a barrier While one hand in a pocket gives a very relaxed pose, both hands in pockets looks too casual and should be avoided
Body language is important. Standing, walking or moving about with appropriate hand gesture or facial expression is preferred to sitting down or standing still with head down and reading from a prepared speech. Use audio-visual aids or props for enhancement if appropriate and necessary. Master the use of presentation software such as PowerPoint well before your presentation. Do not over-dazzle your audience with excessive use of animation, sound clips, or gaudy colors
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which are inappropriate for your topic. Do not torture your audience by putting a lengthy document in tiny print on an overhead and reading it out to them. Speak with conviction as if you really believe in what you are saying. Persuade your audience effectively. The material you present orally should have the same ingredients as that which are required for a written research paper, i.e. a logical progression from INTRODUCTION (Thesis statement) to BODY (strong supporting arguments, accurate and up-to-date information) to CONCLUSION (re-state thesis, summary, and logical conclusion). Do not read from notes for any extended length of time although it is quite acceptable to glance at your notes infrequently. Speak loudly and clearly. Sound confident. Do not mumble. If you made an error, correct it, and continue. No need to make excuses or apologize profusely. Maintain sincere eye contact with your audience. Use the 3-second method, e.g. look straight into the eyes of a person in the audience for 3 seconds at a time. Have direct eye contact with a number of people in the audience, and every now and then glance at the whole audience while speaking. Use your eye contact to make everyone in your audience feel involved. Speak to your audience, listen to their questions, respond to their reactions, adjust and adapt. If what you have prepared is obviously not getting across to your audience, change your strategy mid-stream if you are well prepared to do so. Remember that communication is the key to a successful presentation. If you are short of time, know what can be safely left out. If you have extra time, know what could be effectively added. Always be prepared for the unexpected. Pause. Allow yourself and your audience a little time to reflect and think. Don't race through your presentation and leave your audience, as well as yourself, feeling out of breath. Add humor whenever appropriate and possible. Keep audience interested throughout your entire presentation. Remember that an interesting speech makes time fly, but a boring speech is always too long to endure even if the presentation time is the same. When using audio-visual aids to enhance your presentation, be sure all necessary equipment is set up and in good working order prior to the presentation. If possible, have an emergency backup system readily available. Check out the location ahead of time to ensure seating arrangements for audience, whiteboard, blackboard, lighting, location of projection screen, sound system, etc. are suitable for your presentation. Have handouts ready and give them out at the appropriate time. Tell audience ahead of time that you will be giving out an outline of your presentation so that they will not waste time taking unnecessary notes during your presentation. Know when to STOP talking. Use a timer or the microwave oven clock to time your presentation when preparing it at home. Just as you don't use unnecessary words in your written paper, you don't bore your audience with repetitious or unnecessary words in your oral presentation. To end your presentation, summarize your main points in the same way as you normally do in the CONCLUSION of a written paper. Remember, however, that there is a difference between
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spoken words appropriate for the ear and formally written words intended for reading. Terminate your presentation with an interesting remark or an appropriate punch line. Leave your listeners with a positive impression and a sense of completion. Do not belabor your closing remarks. Thank your audience and sit down. Have the written portion of your assignment or report ready for your instructor if required.

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Interview Skills
There are some easy steps that you can take that will increase your chances of success at interviews. First, remember that job interviews should be a process of two-way communication. Not only are they a tool for employers to use to evaluate you, but they are also an opportunity for you to assess the job, the organization, and to see if there is a "fit."

Types of Interviews Interviewing Strategies Illegal Questions Who gets Hired? Negotiating Your Compensation Package More Information About The Interview

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS There are several different types of interviews which you may encounter. You probably won't know in advance which type you will be facing. Below are some descriptions of the different types of interviews and what you can expect in each of them.

Screening Interview A preliminary interview either in person or by phone, in which a company representative determines whether you have the basic qualifications to warrant a subsequent interview. Structured Interview In a structured interview, the interviewer explores certain predetermined areas using questions which have been written in advance. The interviewer has a written description of the experience, skills, and personality traits of an ideal candidate. Your experience and skills are compared to specific job tasks. This type of interview is very common and most traditional interviews are based on this format. Unstructured Interview Although the interviewer is given a written description of the ideal candidate, in the unstructured interview, the interviewer is not given instructions on what specific areas to cover. Multiple Interviews Multiple interviews are commonly used with professional jobs. This approach involves a series of interviews in which you meet individually with various representatives of the organization. In the initial interview, the representative usually attempts to get basic information on your skills and abilities. In subsequent interviews, the focus is on how you would perform the job in relation to the company's goals and objectives. After the interviews are completed, the interviewers meet and pool their information about your qualifications for the job. A variation on this approach involves a series of interviews in which unsuitable candidates are screened out at each succeeding level. Stress Interview The interviewer intentionally attempts to upset you to see how you react under pressure. You may be asked questions that make you uncomfortable or you may be interrupted when you are speaking. Although it is uncommon for an entire interview to be conducted under stress conditions, it is common for the interviewer to incorporate stress questions as
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a part of a traditional interview. Examples of common stress questions are given later in this document. Targeted Interview Although similar to the structured interview, the areas covered are much more limited. Key qualifications for success on the job are identified and relevant questions are prepared in advance. Situational Interview Situations are set up which simulate common problems you may encounter on the job. Your responses to these situations are measured against pre-determined standards. This approach is often used as one part of a traditional interview rather than as an entire interview format. Group Interview You may be interviewed by two or more company representatives simultaneously. Sometimes, one of the interviewers is designated to ask stress questions to see how you respond under pressure. A variation on this format is for two or more company representatives to interview a group of candidates at the same time.

INTERVIEWING STRATEGIES The interview strategies discussed below can be used effectively in any type of interview you may encounter.

Before the Interview During the Interview After the Interview

Before the Interview Prepare in advance. The better prepared you are, the less anxious you will be and the greater your chances for success.

Role play. Find someone to role play the interview with you. This person should be someone with whom you feel comfortable and with whom you can discuss your weaknesses freely. The person should be objective and knowledgeable, perhaps a business associate. Use a mirror or video camera when you role play to see what kind of image you project. Assess your interviewing skills. What are your strengths and weaknesses? Work on correcting your weaknesses, such as speaking rapidly, talking too loudly or softly and nervous habits such as shaking hands or inappropriate facial expressions. Learn the questions that are commonly asked and prepare answers to them. Practice giving answers which are brief but thorough. Decide what questions you would like to ask and practice politely interjecting them at different points in the interview.

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Evaluate your strengths. Evaluate your skills, abilities, and education as they relate to the type of job you are seeking. Practice tailoring your answers to show how you meet the company's needs, if you have details about the specific job before the interview. Assess your over-all appearance. Find out what clothing is appropriate for your industry. Although some industries such as fashion and advertising are more stylish, acceptable attire for most industries is conservative. Have several sets of appropriate clothing available since you may have several interviews over a few days. Your clothes should be clean and pressed, and your shoes polished. Make sure your hair is neat, your nails clean, and you are generally well groomed. Research the company. The more you know about the company and the job you are applying for, the better you will do in the interview. Get as much information as you can before the interview. Have extra copies of your rsum available to take on the interview. The interviewer may ask you for extra copies. Make sure you bring along the same version of your rsum that you originally sent the company. You can also refer to your rsum to complete applications that ask for job history information (e.g., dates of employment, names of former employers and their telephone numbers, job responsibilities, and accomplishments). Arrive early at the interview. Plan to arrive 10 to 15 minutes early. Give yourself time to find a rest room so you can check your appearance.

It's important to make a good impression from the moment you enter the reception area. Greet the receptionist cordially and try to appear confident. You never know what influence the receptionist has with your interviewer. With a little small talk, you may get some helpful information about the interviewer and the job opening. If you are asked to fill out an application while you're waiting, be sure to fill it out completely.

During the Interview The job interview is usually a two way discussion between you and a prospective employer. The interviewer is attempting to determine whether you have what the company needs, and you are attempting to determine if you would accept the job if offered. Both of you will be trying to get as much information as possible in order to make those decisions. The interview that you are most likely to face is a structured interview with a traditional format. It usually consists of three phases. The introductory phase covers the greeting, small talk, and an overview of which areas will be discussed during the interview. The middle phase is a question and answer period. The interviewer asks most of the questions, but you are given an opportunity to ask questions as well. The closing phase gives you an opportunity to ask any final questions you might have, cover any important points that haven't been discussed, and get information about the next step in the process.

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Introductory Phase This phase is very important. You want to make a good first impression and, if possible, get additional information you need about the job and the company.

Make a good impression. You only have a few seconds to create a positive first impression which can influence the rest of the interview and even determine whether you get the job. The interviewer's first impression of you is based mainly on non-verbal clues. The interviewer is assessing your over-all appearance and demeanor. When greeting the interviewer, be certain your handshake is firm and that you make eye contact. Wait for the interviewer to signal you before you sit down. Once seated, your body language is very important in conveying a positive impression. Find a comfortable position so that you don't appear tense. Lean forward slightly and maintain eye contact with the interviewer. This posture shows that you are interested in what is being said. Smile naturally at appropriate times. Show that you are open and receptive by keeping your arms and legs uncrossed. Avoid keeping your briefcase or your handbag on your lap. Pace your movements so that they are not too fast or too slow. Try to appear relaxed and confident. Get the information you need. If you weren't able to get complete information about the job and the company in advance, you should try to get it as early as possible in the interview. Be sure to prepare your questions in advance. Knowing the following things will allow you to present those strengths and abilities that the employer wants:
o o o

Why does the company need someone in this position? Exactly what would they expect of you? Are they looking for traditional or innovative solutions to problems?

When to ask questions. The problem with a traditional interview structure is that your chance to ask questions occurs late in the interview. How can you get the information you need early in the process without making the interviewer feel that you are taking control? Deciding exactly when to ask your questions is the tricky part. Timing is everything. You may have to make a decision based on intuition and your first impressions of the interviewer. Does the interviewer seem comfortable or nervous, soft spoken or forceful, formal or casual? These signals will help you to judge the best time to ask your questions. The sooner you ask the questions, the less likely you are to disrupt the interviewer's agenda. However, if you ask questions too early, the interviewer may feel you are trying to control the interview. Try asking questions right after the greeting and small talk. Since most interviewers like to set the tone of the interview and maintain initial control, always phrase your questions in a way that leaves control with the interviewer. Perhaps say, "Would you mind telling me a little more about the job so that I can focus on the information that would be most important to the company?" If there is no job opening but you are trying to develop one or you need more information about the company, try saying, "Could you tell me a little more about where the company is going so I can focus on those areas of my background that are most relevant?" You may want to wait until the
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interviewer has given an overview of what will be discussed. This overview may answer some of your questions or may provide some details that you can use to ask additional questions. Once the middle phase of the interview has begun, you may find it more difficult to ask questions. Middle Phase During this phase of the interview, you will be asked many questions about your work experience, skills, education, activities, and interests. You are being assessed on how you will perform the job in relation to the company objectives. All your responses should be concise. Use specific examples to illustrate your point whenever possible. Although your responses should be prepared in advance so that they are well phrased and effective, be sure they do not sound rehearsed. Remember that your responses must always be adapted to the present interview. Incorporate any information you obtained earlier in the interview with the responses you had prepared in advance and then answer in a way that is appropriate to the question. Below are frequently asked questions and some suggested responses:

"Tell me about yourself." Briefly describe your experience and background. If you are unsure what information the interviewer is seeking, say, "Are there any areas in particular you'd like to know about?" "What is your weakest point?" (A stress question) Mention something that is actually a strength. Some examples are: o "I'm something of a perfectionist." o "I'm a stickler for punctuality." o "I'm tenacious." Give a specific situation from your previous job to illustrate your point.

"What is your strongest point?" o "I work well under pressure." o "I am organized and manage my time well." o If you have just graduated from college you might say, o "I am eager to learn, and I don't have to unlearn old techniques."

Give a specific example to illustrate your point.

"What do you hope to be doing five years from now?" o "I hope I will still be working here and have increased my level of responsibility based on my performance and abilities." "Why have you been out of work for so long?" (A stress question) o "I spent some time re-evaluating my past experience and the current job market to see what direction I wanted to take".
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"I had some offers but I'm not just looking for another job; I'm looking for a career." "What do you know about our company? Why do you want to work here?" This is where your research on the company will come in handy. o "You are a small/large firm and a leading force in the local/national economy" o "Your company is a leader in your field and growing." o "Your company has a superior product/service."

You might try to get the interviewer to give you additional information about the company by saying that you are very interested in learning more about the company objectives. This will help you to focus your response on relevant areas.

"What is your greatest accomplishment?" Give a specific illustration from your previous or current job where you saved the company money or helped increase their profits. If you have just graduated from college, try to find some accomplishment from your school work, part-time jobs, or extra-curricular activities. "Why should we hire you?" (A stress question) Highlight your background based on the company's current needs. Recap your qualifications keeping the interviewer's job description in mind. If you don't have much experience, talk about how your education and training prepared you for this job. "Why do you want to make a change now?" o "I want to develop my potential." o "The opportunities in my present company are limited." "Tell me about a problem you had in your last job and how you resolved it." The employer wants to assess your analytical skills and see if you are a team player. Select a problem from your last job and explain how you solved it.

Some Questions You Should Ask

"What are the company's current challenges?" "Could you give me a more detailed job description?" "Why is this position open?" "Are there opportunities for advancement?" "To whom would I report?"

Closing Phase During the closing phase of an interview, you will be asked whether you have any other questions. Ask any relevant question that has not yet been answered. Highlight any of your strengths that have not been discussed. If another interview is to be scheduled, get the necessary information. If this is the final interview, find out when the decision is to be made and when you can call. Thank the interviewer by name and say good-bye. DO:

Be sincere and direct

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Be attentive and polite Ask relevant questions Answer questions concisely Use specific examples to illustrate points

DON'T:

Smoke Try to control the entire interview Bring up salary, benefits or working hours Be too serious Let your depression or discouragement show Make negative comments about anyone or anything, including former employers Look at your watch Take extensive notes

After the Interview You are not finished yet. It is important to assess the interview shortly after it is concluded. Following your interview you should:

Write down the name and title (be sure the spelling is correct) of the interviewer Review what the job entails and record what the next step will be Note your reactions to the interview; include what went well and what went poorly Assess what you learned from the experience and how you can improve your performance in future interviews Make sure you send a thank you note within 24 hours; your thank you note should: Be hand-written only if you have a very good handwriting; most people type thank you notes Be on good quality paper Be simple and brief Express your appreciation for the interviewer's time Show enthusiasm for the job Get across that you want the job and can do it

Everyone knows that a thank you letter should be sent after an interview, but very few people actually send one. Make sure you are one of those few. It could give you the edge.

Phone follow-up. If you were not told during the interview when a hiring decision will be made, call after one week. At that time, if you learn that the decision has not been made, find out whether you are still under consideration for the job. Ask if there are any other questions the interviewer might have about your qualifications and offer to come in for another interview if necessary. Reiterate that you are very interested in the job. If you learn that you did not get the job, try to find out why. You might also inquire whether the interviewer can think of anyone else who might be able to use someone with your abilities, either in another department or at another company. If you are offered the job,
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you have to decide whether you want it. If you are not sure, thank the employer and ask for several days to think about it. Ask any other questions you might need answered to help you with the decision. If you know you want the job and have all the information you need, accept the job with thanks and get the details on when you start. Ask whether the employer will be sending a letter of confirmation, as it is best to have the offer in writing. ILLEGAL QUESTIONS During an interview, you may be asked some questions that are considered illegal. It is illegal for an interviewer to ask you questions related to sex, age, race, religion, national origin, or marital status, or to delve into your personal life for information that is not job-related. What can you do if you are asked an illegal question? Take a moment to evaluate the situation. Ask yourself questions like:

How uncomfortable has this question made me feel? Does the interviewer seem unaware that the question is illegal? Is this interviewer going to be my boss?

Then respond in a way that is comfortable for you. If you decide to answer the question, be succinct and try to move the conversation back to an examination of your skills and abilities as quickly as possible. For example, if asked about your age, you might reply, "I'm in my forties, and I have a wealth of experience that would be an asset to your company." If you are not sure whether you want to answer the question, first ask for a clarification of how this question relates to your qualifications for the job. You may decide to answer if there is a reasonable explanation. If you feel there is no justification for the question, you might say that you do not see the relationship between the question and your qualifications for the job and you prefer not to answer it. return to table of contents

WHO GETS HIRED? In the final analysis, the employer will hire someone who has the abilities and talents which fulfill their needs. It is up to you to demonstrate at the interview that you are the person they want. return to table of contents

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NEGOTIATING YOUR COMPENSATION PACKAGE Do not discuss your specific compensation package, especially salary, with the employer until you have been offered the job and you think it is an offer you should seriously consider. During salary negotiations, you are not only talking about your monetary salary but your entire compensation package. This includes vacation time, sick leave, health insurance, tuition reimbursement, and other benefits the company may offer. Your base salary and performancebased raises are probably the most negotiable parts of your compensation package. However, many companies do have a cafeteria approach to benefits where you select from a number of benefit options based on a total monetary cost. In other words, the company will spend a certain amount of money on each employee for benefits, and employees have some flexibility on which benefit options they select. For example, employees with children might select child care reimbursement benefits, while employees interested in going back to school might choose tuition reimbursement. When negotiating your compensation package, it is important to keep in mind the total package. Make sure you consider all benefits the company has to offer, not just salary. Before you begin negotiating your compensation, decide which benefits are most important to you, so you are ready to talk to the employer. Salary Negotiations Like other parts of the job search process, the key to salary negotiations is preparation. It is very important for you to do your research before you begin salary negotiations. In order to determine the salary you are willing to accept, investigate the salary range that someone with your skills and experience can expect to receive. How do you find salary information?

The Library Your local library should have a number of references to use to find out the salary ranges for the occupation which you are considering. The reference librarian can provide assistance in locating salary information resources. Some reference books include: State and Metropolitan Area Data Book Published by the U.S. Department of Commerce; compiles statistical data from many public and private agencies; includes unemployment rates, rate of employment growth, and population growth for every state; presents a vast amount of data on employment and income for metropolitan areas across the country White Collar Pay: Private Goods-Producing Industries Produced by the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics; good source of salary information for white collar jobs AMS Office, Professional and Data Processing Salaries Report (Administrative Management Society, Washington, D.C.) Salary distributions for 40 different occupations, many of which are professional; subdivided by company size, type of business, region of the country and by 41 different metropolitan areas

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American Salaries and Wages Survey (Gale Research, Detroit) Provides detailed information on salaries and wages for thousands of jobs; data is subdivided geographically; gives cost-of-living data for selected areas, which is very helpful in determining what the salary differences really mean; provides information on number of people employed in each occupation, along with projected changes American Almanac of Jobs and Salaries (Avon Books, NY) Information on wages for specific occupations and job groups, many of which are professional and white collar; presents trends in employment and wages Professional associations Conduct salary surveys both nationally and regionally; provides salary/compensation information received from membership Your network Talk to colleagues in your professional network; talk about salary ranges Job Search Centers Can be found in schools, libraries, community centers, or as part of federal, state, or local government programs; frequently keep salary information Your past experience Think about your past salary; your previous salary is a starting point for salary negotiation if the position you are applying for does not dramatically differ from your former position

The Negotiation Meeting Once you have a good feeling for the type of salary and benefits you are willing to accept, it's time to negotiate with the company. Don't sell yourself short during these negotiations. Usually, when a company is ready to make you an offer they have invested a lot of time and money in their search for a qualified employee. You don't want to be overly aggressive with the employer, but you do want to receive a fair compensation package. If the employer makes you an offer that does not seem equitable, discuss your concerns with the employer. Present your concerns about the benefits package in a constructive, non-threatening manner. Focus on the reasons why you have concerns, as opposed to making general statements about what you think you deserve. For example, it won't be productive to simply state, "I must have more money." It would be more productive to explain that the company's offer is less than you were making previously and you would like them to match your previous salary. In most situations employers do have some flexibility in what they can offer an applicant. They might be able to offer you more money or compensate you with additional benefits (e.g., more vacation leave). Some companies can offer a signing bonus to compensate for other weaknesses in their compensation package. When you are considering the offer, make sure you are taking the entire benefits package into account. Sometimes excellent benefits can compensate for a lower salary. If you really want the job, but the offer still seems low after negotiations, see if the employer will consider a salary review three to six months from your starting date. Usually, you don't have to make a decision about the offer immediately. Ask the employer for a couple of days so you can carefully consider the position and the offer. If you do come to an agreement with the employer, find out when you can expect to receive the offer in writing. It is very important to get the official offer documented. An official letter usually means that the management at the company has approved your acceptance of their offer.

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Pre Interview Strategies You Use BEFORE the Interview What you do BEFORE the interview will have a powerful impact on how well you perform DURING the interview. you've already proven you have a strong desire to go above and beyond what most job seekers do. You realize that preparation is essential to success. So let's get busy. Are You Ready For Change? Your answer must be yes, or you wouldn't be interested in job interviews. But have you given much thought to the quality of the change you're about to undergo? Are you just looking for a job, or eager to build a career? A journey is easier if you know the destination at the beginning. PRE INTERVIEW STRATEGY #1: Find work you will love doing. This is the most important strategy you can implement, because it affects all other job-hunting actions that follow. But it's something most people don't give enough thought to. Some of us tend to "fall into" our career paths without much planning, mainly because we don't know what we want to be when we grow up! This doesn't mean you should put your plans on hold until you determine your true "dream job." It may be better to go into a field you're not sure about and end up quitting after 6 months than to do nothing. Sometimes you don't know what you want to do until you try a variety of things. PRE INTERVIEW STRATEGY #2: Research the company. Most companies have web sites these days. Check them out. Do a search for articles and news stories about the company. Ask around. You can even call the company directly and ask a few questions. Your goal is to determine: 1. The company's reputation. Is this a company you'd be proud to name as your employer? 2. The company's benefits. Salary isn't everything, and sometimes you won't know what it is until you are hired and negotiate an amount. But most companies will tell you about the other benefits they offer, such as pension plans, vacation and sick leave, health care programs and so forth. 3. The company's mission, vision and goals. Find out as much as you can about what the company does and how it does it. Search the Internet to see if the company has issued any press releases recently, and read them. Knowledge is power, and in this case, the more you know about the company, the better off you'll be at the interview. You will stand out among the candidates -- whoever interviews you will be impressed that you took the initiative to do this, because most job seekers do not.
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PRE INTERVIEW STRATEGY #3: Study the job description carefully and make sure your application and/or resume compliments what the company is looking for. You should not have a generic resume that you submit for all job openings. You want one that matches your talents and skills to those desired by the company for that job. In other words, if the job announcement makes it clear that someone with strong accounting skills is needed, be sure to highlight any accounting or bookkeeping duties you've done in the past, even if they were a relatively minor aspect of your previous jobs. Don't spend valuable space on your resume and application on skills they are not interested in. (I.e., if you're applying for a job as a ditch digger, don't tell them how great you are at organizing files.) Instead, emphasize how well you fit their idea of the best-qualified candidate for that job. PRE INTERVIEW STRATEGY #4: Prepare for questions that will be asked during the interview. By studying the job announcement, you should have a fair idea of what kinds of questions you will be asked. Some questions are generic in nature and fairly standard for most interviews, while others are specifically related to the position you hope to fill. Put yourself in the hiring person's shoes... what would YOU want to know about potential candidates? What kinds of questions would YOU ask to determine who would be best for the position and the company? A list of possible questions and sample answers is provided at Job Interview Questions Review this, but develop your own list of potential questions based on the position, and practice your answers. Also be aware that unexpected questions may be asked. Don't become flustered if this happens. Just remain calm, take a deep breath, and think before answering. PRE INTERVIEW STRATEGY #5: Prepare questions you will ask during the interview. Yes, in addition to ANSWERING questions, you should ASK some. This opportunity usually comes at the end of the interview, when their final question is, "Do you have any questions for us?" Of course you do! Most job seekers do NOT have questions, so here's another opportunity for you to set yourself apart from those other candidates. Come up with a few of your own questions, based either on the research you've conducted about the company or specifics about the position for which you are applying. Even rather generic questions such as, "What do you like best about working here?" are good. (If is is an interview panel, make sure the person you direct this question to actually works for the company. Some companies, particularly public agencies, get people from other agencies to assist with interview panels.) PRE INTERVIEW STRATEGY #6: Visit the interview location a day or so before your interview. There's nothing more stressful than getting lost and being late for your interview. Before the interview date, find out exactly where you'll be going, where you will park, and how long it takes
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you to get there (consider the time of day and traffic impact). This dry-run will ensure you'll be there right on time when it counts. PRE INTERVIEW STRATEGY #7: Plan what to wear to your interview. Yes, this seems like common sense. But some people don't think about what they're going to wear until the morning of the interview. Then they scramble to find something that's appropriate and clean. Imagine putting on that rarely used suit an hour before your interview and discovering that it no longer fits! Plan your outfit in advance, try it on to make sure it fits well, and get it cleaned and pressed if necessary. When deciding what to wear, think "conservative business attire." Even if you are interviewing for a field job in which you'll wear jeans and steel-toed boots, those clothes are not appropriate for the interview. It's always better to dress "up" than to dress "down." The key is to look professional. Here are some preparation tips:(1) Think about your hair in advance and make sure it's as ready for the interview as your clothes. Do you need a haircut or touch-up on the color? (2) Do not plan to wear perfume or cologne. Having no noticeable scent is better than turning your interviewer off by wearing too much perfume/cologne (or wearing a scent that unpleasantly reminds an interviewer of his/her ex-spouse). It's safest to wear no scent at all. (3) Women, if you decide on a dress or skirt, make sure it's not too short. Be conservative, remember? (4) Same goes for shoes... chose a pair that are stylish, but conservative and comfortable. Make sure they're clean and/or shined. PRE INTERVIEW STRATEGY #8: Plan what to bring to your interview. At a minimum, bring a few extra copies of your application and/or resume. If you have letters of recommendation, bring copies of those, as well. If you don't have any letters of recommendation but have time to obtain some from your past employers or character references, do so -- even if you have to speed things up by writing them yourself and then getting permission from your references to sign their name to them. Having letters of recommendation ready to hand out at the interview will give you another leg up on your competition, and make you stand out among many applicants.

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Writing Skills
Good writing skills are essential for effective communication. Learning to write well takes time and practice. Be sure to leave yourself enough time for all of these steps. A cover letter is an effective tool to introduce yourself to the selection panel and summarises why you are a strong candidate for the role. It also makes the reader take notice of your resume. The cover letter brings your resume to life and connects your talents and work experiences to key attributes listed in the role description for the vacancy you are applying for. The selection panel is not looking for a large volume of writing in your cover letter; rather they are looking for a clear concise summary of how your knowledge, skills and experiences match the key attributes. If you progress through to the interview stage, you will have the opportunity to provide greater detail on the skills, knowledge and experience outlined in your cover letter. Before you commence writing your cover letter, you should spend time thinking and planning what you want to say. You will also need to understand the nature of the job from the role description. Benefits of writing a cover letter A cover letter: 1.Is your chance to really shape your credentials to the role so they match the key attributes of the role 2. Contains explicit connections between the requirements of the advertised position, and your skills and abilities 3. Is an opportunity to showcase information not depicted in your resume Can enhance your chances of being considered for the position 5. Demonstrates your writing skills and ability to communicate A paragraph should contain a topic sentence that introduces the key idea that is then followed by several supporting points. Each paragraph should layer upon the previous idea to develop an overall argument. Paragraphs should finish with a closing sentence that directs the reader's attention back to the main argument. There is no specific rule to the length a paragraph should be, however the general structure of a paragraph is approximately five sentences. tips for writing an effective cover letter Try to keep the length of your cover letter to no more than two (2) pages. Be clear, concise and target your content to the advertised position you are applying for. Avoid generic cover letters at all costs. Highlight your relevant skills and attributes by using powerful, dynamic language, including action verbs. Use the cover letter as a way for you to demonstrate your communication skills.
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 Articulate your enthusiasm for the position in writing. Double-check your cover letter for spelling and grammatical errors. Do not rely on the spell check function on your computer

Phonetics
Phonetics (from the Greek: , phn, "sound, voice") is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, orin the case of sign languagesthe equivalent aspects of sign.[1] It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status. Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds or signs. The field of phonetics is a multiple layered subject of linguistics that focuses on speech. In the case of oral languages there are three basic areas of study:

Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds by the articulatory and vocal tract by the speaker Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the speaker to the listener Auditory phonetics: the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by the listener

These areas are inter-connected through the common mechanism of sound, such as wavelength (pitch), amplitude, and harmonics.

Subfields
Phonetics as a research discipline has three main branches:
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articulatory phonetics is concerned with the articulation of speech: The position, shape, and movement of articulators or speech organs, such as the lips, tongue, and vocal folds. acoustic phonetics is concerned with acoustics of speech: The spectro-temporal properties of the sound waves produced by speech, such as their frequency, amplitude, and harmonic structure. auditory phonetics is concerned with speech perception: the perception, categorization, and recognition of speech sounds and the role of the auditory system and the brain in the same.

Applications
Application of phonetics include:

forensic phonetics: the use of phonetics (the science of speech) for forensic (legal) purposes. Speech Recognition: the analysis and transcription of recorded speech by a computer system

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