Nature

Nature, in the broadest sense, is equivalent to the natural world, physical world, or material
world. "Nature" refers to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. It
ranges in scale from the subatomic to the cosmic.

The word nature is derived from the Latin word natura, or "essential qualities, innate
disposition", and in ancient times, literally meant "birth".[1] Natura was a Latin translation of the
Greek word physis (φύσις), which originally related to the intrinsic characteristics that plants,
animals, and other features of the world develop of their own accord.[2][3] The concept of nature
as a whole, the physical universe, is one of several expansions of the original notion; it began
with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre-Socratic philosophers, and has steadily
gained currency ever since. This usage was confirmed during the advent of modern scientific
method in the last several centuries.[4][5]

Within the various uses of the word today, "nature" may refer to the general realm of various
types of living plants and animals, and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate
objects–the way that particular types of things exist and change of their own accord, such as the
weather and geology of the Earth, and the matter and energy of which all these things are
composed. It is often taken to mean the "natural environment" or wilderness–wild animals,
rocks, forest, beaches, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by
human intervention, or which persist despite human intervention. For, example, manufactured
objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature, unless qualified as, for
example, "human nature" or "the whole of nature". This more traditional concept of natural
things which can still be found today implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial,
with the artificial being understood as that which has been brought into being by a human
consciousness or a human mind. Depending on the particular context, the term "natural" might
also be distinguished from the unnatural, the supernatural, and the artifactual.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Earth
o 1.1 Geology
 1.1.1 Geological evolution
o 1.2 Historical perspective
 2 Atmosphere, climate, and weather
 3 Water on Earth
o 3.1 Oceans
o 3.2 Lakes
 3.2.1 Ponds
o 3.3 Rivers
o 3.4 Streams
 4 Ecosystems
 o 4.1 Wilderness
 5 Life
o 5.1 Evolution
o 5.2 Microbes
o 5.3 Plants and animals
 6 Human interrelationship
o 6.1 Aesthetics and beauty
 7 Matter and energy
 8 Beyond Earth
 9 See also
 10 Notes and references
 11 External links

[edit] Earth

View of the Earth, taken in 1972 by the Apollo 17 astronaut crew. This image is the only
photograph of its kind to date, showing a fully sunlit hemisphere of the Earth.
Main articles: Earth, Earth science, Structure of the Earth, Plate tectonics, and Geology

Earth (or, "the earth") is the only planet presently known to support life, and its natural features
are the subject of many fields of scientific research. Within the solar system, it is third nearest to
the sun; it is the largest terrestrial planet and the fifth largest overall. Its most prominent climatic
features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones, and a wide
equatorial tropical to subtropical region.[6] Precipitation varies widely with location, from several
metres of water per year to less than a millimetre. 71 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by
salt-water oceans. The remainder consists of continents and islands, with most of the inhabited
land in the Northern Hemisphere.

Earth has evolved through geological and biological processes that have left traces of the original
conditions. The outer surface is divided into several gradually migrating tectonic plates, which
have changed relatively quickly several times.[citation needed] The interior remains active, with a thick
layer of molten mantle and an iron-filled core that generates a magnetic field.
The atmospheric conditions have been significantly altered from the original conditions by the
presence of life-forms,[7] which create an ecological balance that stabilizes the surface conditions.
Despite the wide regional variations in climate by latitude and other geographic factors, the long-
term average global climate is quite stable during interglacial periods,[8] and variations of a
degree or two of average global temperature have historically had major effects on the ecological
balance, and on the actual geography of the Earth.[9][10]

[edit] Geology

Main article: Geology

Three types of geological plate tectonic boundaries.

Geology is the science and study of the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth. The
field of geology encompasses the study of the composition, structure, physical properties,
dynamics, and history of Earth materials, and the processes by which they are formed, moved,
and changed. The field is a major academic discipline, and is also important for mineral and
hydrocarbon extraction, knowledge about and mitigation of natural hazards, some engineering
fields, and understanding past climates and environments.

[edit] Geological evolution

The geology of an area evolves through time as rock units are deposited and inserted and
deformational processes change their shapes and locations.

Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrude into the overlying
rock. Deposition can occur when sediments settle onto the surface of the Earth and later lithify
into sedimentary rock, or when as volcanic material such as volcanic ash or lava flows, blanket
the surface. Igneous intrusions such as batholiths, laccoliths, dikes, and sills, push upwards into
the overlying rock, and crystallize as they intrude.

After the initial sequence of rocks has been deposited, the rock units can be deformed and/or
metamorphosed. Deformation typically occurs as a result of horizontal shortening, horizontal
extension, or side-to-side (strike-slip) motion. These structural regimes broadly relate to
convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries, and transform boundaries, respectively, between
tectonic plates.
[edit] Historical perspective

Main articles: History of Earth and Evolution

An animation of the Earth's hypothesized Pangaea separation.

Plankton inhabit oceans, seas and lakes, and have existed on the Earth for at least 2 billion years.
[11]

Earth is estimated to have formed 4.54 billion years ago from the solar nebula, along with the
Sun and other planets.[12] The moon formed roughly 20 million years later. Initially molten, the
outer layer of the planet cooled, resulting in the solid crust. Outgassing and volcanic activity
produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, most or all of which came from
ice delivered by comets, produced the oceans and other water sources.[13] The highly energetic
chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago.[14]

Continents formed, then broke up and reformed as the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds
of millions of years, occasionally combining to make a supercontinent. Roughly 750 million
years ago, the earliest known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later
recombined to form Pannotia which broke apart about 540 million years ago, then finally
Pangaea, which broke apart about 180 million years ago.[15]

There is significant evidence that a severe glacial action during the Neoproterozoic era covered
much of the planet in a sheet of ice. This hypothesis has been termed the "Snowball Earth", and
it is of particular interest as it precedes the Cambrian explosion in which multicellular life forms
began to proliferate about 530–540 million years ago.[16]
Since the Cambrian explosion there have been five distinctly identifiable mass extinctions.[17]
The last mass extinction occurred some 65 million years ago, when a meteorite collision
probably triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared
small animals such as mammals, which then resembled shrews. Over the past 65 million years,
mammalian life diversified.[18]

Several million years ago, a species of small African ape gained the ability to stand upright.[19]
The subsequent advent of human life, and the development of agriculture and further civilization
allowed humans to affect the Earth more rapidly than any previous life form, affecting both the
nature and quantity of other organisms as well as global climate. By comparison, the oxygen
catastrophe, produced by the proliferation of algae during the Siderian period, required about
300 million years to culminate.

The present era is classified as part of a mass extinction event, the Holocene extinction event, the
fastest ever to have occurred.[20][21] Some, such as E. O. Wilson of Harvard University, predict
that human destruction of the biosphere could cause the extinction of one-half of all species in
the next 100 years.[22] The extent of the current extinction event is still being researched, debated
and calculated by biologists.[23]

[edit] Atmosphere, climate, and weather

Blue light is scattered more than other wavelengths by the gases in the atmosphere, giving the
Earth a blue halo when seen from space
Main articles: Earth's atmosphere, Climate, and Weather

The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The
thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air consists
of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon and other inert gases, carbon dioxide, etc.; but air also
contains a variable amount of water vapor. The atmospheric pressure declines steadily with
altitude, and has a scale height of about 8 kilometres at the Earth's surface: the height at which
the atmospheric pressure has declined by a factor of e (a mathematical constant equal to 2.71...).
[24][25]
The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in depleting the amount
of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light,
this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night,
thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.

Terrestrial weather occurs almost exclusively in the lower part of the atmosphere, and serves as a
convective system for redistributing heat. Ocean currents are another important factor in
determining climate, particularly the major underwater thermohaline circulation which
distributes heat energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions. These currents help to
moderate the differences in temperature between winter and summer in the temperate zones.
Also, without the redistributions of heat energy by the ocean currents and atmosphere, the tropics
would be much hotter, and the polar regions much colder.

Weather can have both beneficial and harmful effects. Extremes in weather, such as tornadoes or
hurricanes and cyclones, can expend large amounts of energy along their paths, and produce
devastation. Surface vegetation has evolved a dependence on the seasonal variation of the
weather, and sudden changes lasting only a few years can have a dramatic effect, both on the
vegetation and on the animals which depend on its growth for their food.

A tornado in central Oklahoma.

The planetary climate is a measure of the long-term trends in the weather. Various factors are
known to influence the climate, including ocean currents, surface albedo, greenhouse gases,
variations in the solar luminosity, and changes to the planet's orbit. Based on historical records,
the Earth is known to have undergone drastic climate changes in the past, including ice ages.

The climate of a region depends on a number of factors, especially latitude. A latitudinal band of
the surface with similar climatic attributes forms a climate region. There are a number of such
regions, ranging from the tropical climate at the equator to the polar climate in the northern and
southern extremes. Weather is also influenced by the seasons, which result from the Earth's axis
being tilted relative to its orbital plane. Thus, at any given time during the summer or winter, one
part of the planet is more directly exposed to the rays of the sun. This exposure alternates as the
Earth revolves in its orbit. At any given time, regardless of season, the northern and southern
hemispheres experience opposite seasons.

Weather is a chaotic system that is readily modified by small changes to the environment, so
accurate weather forecasting is currently limited to only a few days.[citation needed] Overall, two
things are currently happening worldwide: (1) temperature is increasing on the average; and (2)
regional climates have been undergoing noticeable changes.[26]

[edit] Water on Earth

The Iguazu waterfalls in the border between Brazil and Argentina.

Main article: Water

Water is a chemical substance that is composed of hydrogen and oxygen and is vital for all
known forms of life.[27] In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or state, but the
substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor or steam. Water covers 71%
of the Earth's surface.[28] On Earth, it is found mostly in oceans and other large water bodies, with
1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid
and liquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation.[29] Oceans hold 97% of surface
water, glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface water such as rivers, lakes and
ponds 0.6%. Additionally, a minute amount of the Earth's water is contained within biological
bodies and manufactured products.

[edit] Oceans

A view of the Atlantic ocean from Leblon, Rio de Janeiro.

Main article: Ocean
Earth's oceans
(World Ocean)
 Arctic Ocean
  Atlantic Ocean
 Indian Ocean
 Pacific Ocean
 Southern Ocean

An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the hydrosphere.
Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 361 million square kilometers) is
covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal
oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep.
Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater
has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several 'separate'
oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as
the World Ocean or global ocean.[30][31] This concept of a global ocean as a continuous body of
water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to
oceanography.[32]

The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other
criteria: these divisions are (in descending order of size) the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean,
the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean and the Arctic Ocean. Smaller regions of the oceans are
called seas, gulfs, bays and other names. There are also salt lakes, which are smaller bodies of
landlocked saltwater that are not interconnected with the World Ocean. Two notable examples of
salt lakes are the Aral Sea and the Great Salt Lake.

[edit] Lakes

Lake Mapourika, New Zealand

Main article: Lake

A lake (from Latin lacus) is a terrain feature (or physical feature), a body of liquid on the surface
of a world that is localized to the bottom of basin (another type of landform or terrain feature;
that is, it is not global) and moves slowly if it moves at all. On Earth, a body of water is
considered a lake when it is inland, not part of the ocean, is larger and deeper than a pond, and is
fed by a river.[33][34] The only world other than Earth known to harbor lakes is Titan, Saturn's
largest moon, which has lakes of ethane, most likely mixed with methane. It is not known if
Titan's lakes are fed by rivers, though Titan's surface is carved by numerous river beds. Natural
lakes on Earth are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with ongoing or
recent glaciation. Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers.
In some parts of the world, there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over
from the last Ice Age. All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill
in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them.

[edit] Ponds

The Westborough Reservoir (Mill Pond) in Westborough, Massachusetts.

Main article: Pond

A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is usually smaller than a
lake. A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water
gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding,
and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy. Ponds and lakes are distinguished from
streams via current speed. While currents in streams are easily observed, ponds and lakes possess
thermally driven microcurrents and moderate wind driven currents. These features distinguish a
pond from many other aquatic terrain features, such as stream pools and tide pools.

[edit] Rivers
The Nile River in Cairo, Egypt's capital city
Main article: River

A river is a natural watercourse,[35] usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a lake, a sea or
another river. In a few cases, a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before
reaching another body of water. Small rivers may also be called by several other names,
including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill; there is no general rule that defines what can be
called a river. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location; one example is
Burn in Scotland and North-east England. Sometimes a river is said to be larger than a creek,[36]
but this is not always the case, due to vagueness in the language.[37] A river is part of the
hydrological cycle. Water within a river is generally collected from precipitation through surface
runoff, groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of stored water in natural ice and
snowpacks (i.e., from glaciers).

A rocky stream in Hawaii.

[edit] Streams

Main article: Stream

A stream is a flowing body of water with a current, confined within a bed and stream banks. In
the United States a stream is classified as a watercourse less than 60 feet (18 metres) wide.
Streams are important as conduits in the water cycle, instruments in groundwater recharge, and
they serve as corridors for fish and wildlife migration. The biological habitat in the immediate
vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone. Given the status of the ongoing Holocene
extinction, streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in
conserving biodiversity. The study of streams and waterways in general is known as surface
hydrology and is a core element of environmental geography.[38]

[edit] Ecosystems
Loch Lomond in Scotland forms a relatively isolated ecosystem. The fish community of this lake
has remained unchanged over a very long period of time.[39]

An aerial view of a human ecosystem. Pictured is the city of Chicago

Main articles: Ecology and Ecosystem

Ecosystems are composed of a variety of abiotic and biotic components that function in an
interrelated way.[40] The structure and composition is determined by various environmental
factors that are interrelated. Variations of these factors will initiate dynamic modifications to the
ecosystem. Some of the more important components are: soil, atmosphere, radiation from the
sun, water, and living organisms.

Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other
element in their local environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, stated: "Any unit that
includes all of the organisms (ie: the "community") in a given area interacting with the physical
environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity,
and material cycles (i.e.: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the
system is an ecosystem."[41] Within the ecosystem, species are connected and dependent upon one
another in the food chain, and exchange energy and matter between themselves as well as with
their environment.[42] The human ecosystem concept is grounded in the deconstruction of the
human/nature dichotomy and the premise that all species are ecologically integrated with each
other, as well as with the abiotic constituents of their biotope.[citation needed]

A smaller unit of size is called a microecosystem. For example, a microsystem can be a stone
and all the life under it. A macroecosystem might involve a whole ecoregion, with its drainage
basin.[43]
[edit] Wilderness

Old growth European Beech forest in Biogradska Gora National Park, Montenegro.
Main article: Wilderness

Wilderness is generally defined as areas that have not been significantly modified by human
activity. The WILD Foundation goes into more detail, defining wilderness as: "The most intact,
undisturbed wild natural areas left on our planet - those last truly wild places that humans do not
control and have not developed with roads, pipelines or other industrial infrastructure."
Wilderness areas can be found in preserves, estates, farms, conservation preserves, ranches,
National Forests, National Parks and even in urban areas along rivers, gulches or otherwise
undeveloped areas. Wilderness areas and protected parks are considered important for the
survival of certain species, ecological studies, conservation, solitude, and recreation. Some
nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity,[44] and some
Ecologists consider wilderness areas to be an integral part of the planet's self-sustaining natural
ecosystem (the biosphere). They may also preserve historic genetic traits and that they provide
habitat for wild flora and fauna that may be difficult to recreate in zoos, arboretums or
laboratories.

[edit] Life
Female mallard and ducklings - reproduction is essential for continuing life
Main articles: Life, Biology, and Biosphere

Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that
the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth,
adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction.[45] Life may also be said to be simply the
characteristic state of organisms.

Properties common to terrestrial organisms (plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea and bacteria)
are that they are cellular, carbon-and-water-based with complex organization, having a
metabolism, a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. An entity with these
properties is generally considered life. However, not every definition of life considers all of these
properties to be essential. Human-made analogs of life may also be considered to be life.

The biosphere is the part of Earth's outer shell – including land, surface rocks, water, air and the
atmosphere – within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform.
From the broadest geophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system
integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements
of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air). Currently the entire Earth
contains over 75 billion tons (150 trillion pounds or about 6.8 x 1013 kilograms) of biomass (life),
which lives within various environments within the biosphere.[46]

Over nine-tenths of the total biomass on Earth is plant life, on which animal life depends very
heavily for its existence.[47] More than 2 million species of plant and animal life have been
identified to date,[48] and estimates of the actual number of existing species range from several
million to well over 50 million.[49][50][51] The number of individual species of life is constantly in
some degree of flux, with new species appearing and others ceasing to exist on a continual basis.
[52][53]
The total number of species is presently in rapid decline.[54][55][56]

[edit] Evolution
An area of the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil. The tropical rainforests of South America contain
the largest diversity of species on Earth.[57][58]
Main article: Evolution

Life is only known to exist on the planet Earth.(cf Astrobiology) The origin of life is still a
poorly understood process, but it is thought to have occurred about 3.9 to 3.5 billion years ago
during the hadean or archean eons on a primordial earth that had a substantially different
environment than is found at present.[59] These life forms possessed the basic traits of self-
replication and inheritable traits. Once life had appeared, the process of evolution by natural
selection resulted in the development of ever-more diverse life forms.

Species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life
forms became extinct. However, the fossil record retains evidence of many of these older
species. Current fossil and DNA evidence shows that all existing species can trace a continual
ancestry back to the first primitive life forms.[59]

The advent of photosynthesis in very basic forms of plant life worldwide allowed the sun's
energy to be harvested to create conditions allowing for more complex life.[citation needed] The
resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the ozone layer. The
incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of yet more
complex cells called eukaryotes.[60] Cells within colonies became increasingly specialized,
resulting in true multicellular organisms. With the ozone layer absorbing harmful ultraviolet
radiation, life colonized the surface of Earth.

[edit] Microbes

A microscopic mite Lorryia formosa.

Main article: Microbe
The first form of life to develop on the Earth were microbes, and they remained the only form of
life on the planet until about a billion years ago when multi-cellular organisms began to appear.
[61]
Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally microscopic, and smaller than
the human eye can see. They include Bacteria, Fungi, Archaea and Protista.

These life forms are found in almost every location on the Earth where there is liquid water,
including the interior of rocks within the planet.[62] Their reproduction is both rapid and profuse.
The combination of a high mutation rate and a horizontal gene transfer[63] ability makes them
highly adaptable, and able to survive in new environments, including outer space.[64] They form
an essential part of the planetary ecosystem. However some microorganisms are pathogenic and
can post health risk to other organisms.

[edit] Plants and animals

A selection of diverse plant species

Main articles: Plants and Animals
See also: Botany, Fauna, and Biology

Originally Aristotle divided all living things between plants, which generally do not move fast
enough for humans to notice, and animals. In Linnaeus' system, these became the kingdoms
Vegetabilia (later Plantae) and Animalia. Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as
originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae
were removed to new kingdoms. However, these are still often considered plants in many
contexts. Bacterial life is sometimes included in flora,[65][66] and some classifications use the term
bacterial flora separately from plant flora.

Among the many ways of classifying plants are by regional floras, which, depending on the
purpose of study, can also include fossil flora, remnants of plant life from a previous era. People
in many regions and countries take great pride in their individual arrays of characteristic flora,
which can vary widely across the globe due to differences in climate and terrain.

Regional floras commonly are divided into categories such as native flora and agricultural and
garden flora, the lastly mentioned of which are intentionally grown and cultivated. Some types
of "native flora" actually have been introduced centuries ago by people migrating from one
region or continent to another, and become an integral part of the native, or natural flora of the
place to which they were introduced. This is an example of how human interaction with nature
can blur the boundary of what is considered nature.

Another category of plant has historically been carved out for weeds. Though the term has fallen
into disfavor among botanists as a formal way to categorize "useless" plants, the informal use of
the word "weeds" to describe those plants that are deemed worthy of elimination is illustrative of
the general tendency of people and societies to seek to alter or shape the course of nature.
Similarly, animals are often categorized in ways such as domestic, farm animals, wild animals,
pests, etc. according to their relationship to human life.

There are many animal species on the planet.

Animals as a category have several characteristics that generally set them apart from other living
things, though this is not traced by scientists to having legs or wings instead of roots and leaves.
[citation needed]
Animals are eukaryotic and usually multicellular (although see Myxozoa), which
separates them from bacteria, archaea and most protists. They are heterotrophic, generally
digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also
distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls.
With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges (Phylum Porifera), animals have bodies
differentiated into separate tissues.[citation needed] These include muscles, which are able to contract
and control locomotion, and a nervous system, which sends and processes signals. There is also
typically an internal digestive chamber. The eukaryotic cells possessed by all animals are
surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic
glycoproteins. This may be calcified to form structures like shells, bones, and spicules, a
framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized during development and
maturation, and which supports the complex anatomy required for mobility.

[edit] Human interrelationship

Despite their natural beauty, the secluded valleys along the Na Pali Coast in Hawaii are heavily
modified by introduced invasive species such as She-oak.

Sochi dendrarium is an example of confluence of "natural" and a "made" environment

Although humans currently comprise only a minuscule proportion of the total living biomass on
Earth, the human effect on nature is disproportionately large. Because of the extent of human
influence, the boundaries between what humans regard as nature and "made environments" is not
clear cut except at the extremes. Even at the extremes, the amount of natural environment that is
free of discernible human influence is presently diminishing at an increasingly rapid pace.

The development of technology by the human race has allowed the greater exploitation of natural
resources and has helped to alleviate some of the risk from natural hazards. In spite of this
progress, however, the fate of human civilization remains closely linked to changes in the
environment. There exists a highly complex feedback loop between the use of advanced
technology and changes to the environment that are only slowly becoming understood.[67] Man-
made threats to the Earth's natural environment include pollution, deforestation, and disasters
such as oil spills. Humans have contributed to the extinction of many plants and animals.

Humans employ nature for both leisure and economic activities. The acquisition of natural
resources for industrial use remains the primary component of the world's economic system.[citation
needed]
Some activities, such as hunting and fishing, are used for both sustenance and leisure, often
by different people. Agriculture was first adopted around the 9th millennium BCE. Ranging from
food production to energy, nature influences economic wealth.

Although early humans gathered uncultivated plant materials for food and employed the
medicinal properties of vegetation for healing,[68] most modern human use of plants is through
agriculture. The clearance of large tracts of land for crop growth has led to a significant
reduction in the amount available of forestation and wetlands, resulting in the loss of habitat for
many plant and animal species as well as increased erosion.[69]

[edit] Aesthetics and beauty

Pinguicula grandiflora, commonly known as a Butterwort

Beauty in nature has historically been a prevalent theme in art and books, filling large sections of
libraries and bookstores. That nature has been depicted and celebrated by so much art,
photography, poetry and other literature shows the strength with which many people associate
nature and beauty. Reasons why this association exists, and what the association consists of, is
studied by the branch of philosophy called aesthetics. Beyond certain basic characteristics that
many philosophers agree about to explain what is seen as beautiful, the opinions are virtually
endless.[70] Nature and wildness have been important subjects in various epochs of world history.
An early tradition of landscape art began in China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907). The
tradition of representing nature as it is became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a
significant influence in Asian art.
Although natural wonders are celebrated in the Psalms and the Book of Job, wilderness
portrayals in art became more prevalent in the 1800s, especially in the works of the Romantic
movement. British artists John Constable and JMW Turner turned their attention to capturing the
beauty of the natural world in their paintings. Before that, paintings had been primarily of
religious scenes or of human beings. William Wordsworth's poetry described the wonder of the
natural world, which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place. Increasingly the valuing
of nature became an aspect of Western culture.[71] This artistic movement also coincided with the
Transcendentalist movement in the Western world. A common classical idea of beautiful art
involves the word mimesis, the imitation of nature. Also in the realm of ideas about beauty in
nature is that the perfect is implied through symmetry, equal division, and other perfect
mathematical forms and notions.[citation needed]

[edit] Matter and energy

The first few hydrogen atom electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded
probability density
Main articles: Matter and Energy
See also: Chemistry and Physics

Some fields of science see nature as matter in motion, obeying certain laws of nature which
science seeks to understand. For this reason the most fundamental science is generally
understood to be "physics" – the name for which is still recognizable as meaning that it is the
study of nature.

Matter is commonly defined as the substance of which physical objects are composed. It
constitutes the observable universe. The visible components of the universe are now believed to
compose only 4 percent of the total mass. The remainder is believed to consist of 23 percent cold
dark matter and 73 percent dark energy.[72] The exact nature of these components is still unknown
and is currently under intensive investigation by physicists.

The behavior of matter and energy throughout the observable universe appears to follow well-
defined physical laws. These laws have been employed to produce cosmological models that
successfully explain the structure and the evolution of the universe we can observe. The
mathematical expressions of the laws of physics employ a set of twenty physical constants[73] that
appear to be static across the observable universe.[74] The values of these constants have been
carefully measured, but the reason for their specific values remains a mystery.

[edit] Beyond Earth

Planets and dwarf planets of the Solar System (Sizes to scale, distances not to scale)

The deepest visible-light image of the universe from the Hubble Ultra Deep Field telescope

NGC 4414 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices about 56,000 light years in
diameter and approximately 60 million light years from Earth
Main articles: Outer space, Universe, and Extraterrestrial life

Outer space, also simply called space, refers to the relatively empty regions of the universe
outside the atmospheres of celestial bodies. Outer space is used to distinguish it from airspace
(and terrestrial locations). There is no discrete boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and
space, as the atmosphere gradually attenuates with increasing altitude. Outer space within the
solar system is called interplanetary space, which passes over into interstellar space at what is
known as the heliopause.

Outer space is certainly spacious, but it is far from empty.[citation needed] Outer space is sparsely filled
with several dozen types of organic molecules discovered to date by microwave spectroscopy,
blackbody radiation left over from the big bang and the origin of the universe, and cosmic rays,
which include ionized atomic nuclei and various subatomic particles. There is also some gas,
plasma and dust, and small meteors. Additionally, there are signs of human life in outer space
today, such as material left over from previous manned and unmanned launches which are a
potential hazard to spacecraft. Some of this debris re-enters the atmosphere periodically.

Although the planet Earth is currently the only known body within the solar system to support
life, current evidence suggests that in the distant past the planet Mars possessed bodies of liquid
water on the surface.[75] For a brief period in Mars' history, it may have also been capable of
forming life. At present though, most of the water remaining on Mars is frozen. If life exists at
all on Mars, it is most likely to be located underground where liquid water can still exist.[76]

Conditions on the other terrestrial planets, Mercury and Venus, appear to be too harsh to support
life as we know it.[citation needed] But it has been conjectured that Europa, the fourth-largest moon of
Jupiter, may possess a sub-surface ocean of liquid water and could potentially host life.[77]

Recently, the team of Stéphane Udry have discovered a new planet named Gliese 581 g, which is
an extrasolar planet orbiting the red dwarf star Gliese 581.[citation needed] Gliese 581 g appears to lie
in the habitable zone of space surrounding the star, and therefore could possibly host life as we
know it.