Earth and Life Science Module 1 Notes

Module 1: Origin and Structure of the Earth
Fields of Earth Science

Geology
This is the study of the earth’s rocky parts found on the crust (lithosphere)
and its historical evolution. It covers lots of different disciplines of sciences such as
 mineralogy (study of the chemistry, crystal structure and physical
properties of minerals)
 petrology (study of rocks)
 geochemistry (study of application of chemistry to all aspects of geology),
 geomorphology (study of landforms),
 paleontology (study of ancient life mainly on fossils),
 stratigraphy (classification of different layers or layering of sedimentary
deposits),
 structural geology (study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock),
 engineering geology (application of geology to engineering study for the
purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design,
construction, operation and maintenance of engineering)
 sedimentology (study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay)
Physical Geography
Also known as geosystems or physiography. Physical Geography deals
with the study of the physical features of the Earth’s surface. It also deals with the
different processes and patterns in the natural environment, as opposed to the
cultural domain of human geography.
Geophysics
This field studies the shape of the Earth, its reaction to different forces as
well as its magnetic and gravitational fields. This study is most vital for mineral and
petroleum explorations
Soil Sciences
Soil sciences cover the Earth’s outermost layer which is the crust. Major sub-
disciplines of soil sciences include edaphology and pedology.
Oceanography/Hydrology
This field of science studies the marine and freshwater domains of the
hydrosphere. The major subdivisions include hydrogeology and physical, chemical,
and biological oceanography
Glaciology
Glaciology studies the ice and icy parts of the Earth known as the cryosphere,
and its effects to the environment.
Atmospheric Sciences
This deals with the study of the gaseous parts of the Earth, known as the
atmosphere. The major sub-disciplines are meteorology, climatology, atmospheric
chemistry and atmospheric physics
Structure of the Earth

Crust
The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth comprising about 8-40 km in
depth. The presence of mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes on the
Earth’s crust are explained through studying of the different energy
transformations. The crust is separated from the next layer by a boundary or
surface with seismic waves that change velocity, known as Mohorovičić
Discontinuity. It was named after Andrija Mohorovičić, a Croatian seismologist
who discovered its existence.
Mantle
The mantle lies beneath the crust and extends to a depth of 2,900 km
making it the thickest layer of the Earth. It is made up of very hot and dense rocks
which flow due to great differences in temperature moving from the bottom to the
top of the mantle, called convection currents. Convection currents from the deepest
part of the mantle is a very hot material that rises and cools, then sinks and then
heats again making a cycle. The convection current acts like a conveyor belt in a
factory which moves boxes. The mantle is divided into 2 sections: the upper and
lower mantle, separated by the transition zone (a discontinuity between the 2
mantles).
Core
The core is the innermost part of the Earth. It is divided into two parts - a
solid inner core which is about 1,300 km and a liquid outer core about 2,250 km
thick.
The outer core is made up of very hot liquid metals. It is composed of melted
nickel and iron. The inner core, on the other hand, is in a solid state despite its very
hot temperature, because of the pressure. The metals are squeezed in and are so
dense that they are not able to move.
Formation of Earth
The Creation Theory - is biblical in origin asserting that everything in the

universe, including humans were created by a supreme being in a span of 7 days
The Big Bang Theory - speaks of the Earth's formation in a scientific perspective.
It states that the universe is formed sometime between 10 and 20 billion years ago
from a cataclysmic explosion.
The two contradicting theories stemmed lots of arguments from believers of the
creationism and those who believe otherwise. One cannot really say exactly how
the universe was formed, but humans do work on the pieces of evidence that are at
hand to answer whatever questions people may have.
History of the Earth

The Earth was formed about 4.5 Billion years ago. During the Earth’s early
formation, it was desolate and was just composed of ice and rock with no
atmosphere and water. However, deep within it lie radioactive elements gradually
unleashing their radioactive power as well as melted rocks that did not cool for the
next hundred million years. As the cooling took place, a dense core of nickel, iron
and other
Heavy elements formed, which was enveloped by a liquid outer core. Land masses
began to form spewing lava and ash clouds. Gravity held the blanket of gases.
Moisture in the clouds fell as rain and evaporated, and fell again, eventually forming
the bodies of water. These processes continuously took place and the Earth was
reshaped again and again.
The same forces acting on the Earth today are the same forces that shaped the
Earth throughout its history. This is known as the principle of uniform processes.
Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, storms, and floods which have all occurred in the
past, still continue to shape the Earth today, just at different rates.
The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth's past based on the
geologic time scale, a system of chronological measurement based on the study of
the planet's rock layers (stratigraphy). Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by
accretion from the solar nebula, a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from
the formation of the Sun, which also created the rest of the Solar System.
Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with
other celestial bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a
solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed
soon afterwards, possibly as the result of a Mars-sized object with about 10% of the
Earth's mass impacting the planet in a glancing blow. Some of this object's mass
merged with the Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion
was ejected into space. Some of the materials survived to form an orbiting moon.
Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing
water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.
As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years,

continents formed and broke apart. They migrated across the surface, occasionally
combining to form a supercontinent. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest-
known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later
recombined to form Pannotia, 600 to 540 million years ago, then finally Pangaea,
which broke apart 180 million years ago.
The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 million years ago, and then
intensified at the end of the Pliocene. The Polar Regions have since undergone
repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40,000–100,000 years. The
last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago.”
Continental Drift Theory
Alfred Wegener theorized that there was once a vast supercontinent 200 million
years ago which he named Pangaea meaning "All-earth".
Pangaea broke into two smaller supercontinents, called Laurasia and Gondwana
throughout the Jurassic period. By the end of the Cretaceous period, the continents
were separated into land masses that looked like our modern-day continents. In
1915, Alfred Wegener published this theory in his book, “On the Origin of
Continents and Oceans”.
There are fossil evidences which supported the continental drift theory. Eduard
Suess, an Austrian geologist first substantiated that there had once been a land
bridge connecting South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. He named
this large land mass Gondwanaland. This was the southern supercontinent formed
after Pangaea broke up during the Jurassic period. Suess based his deductions on
the fossil plant Glossopteris, which is found throughout India, South America,
southern Africa, Australia, and Antarctica.
Fossils of Mesosaurus (one of the first marine reptiles, even older than the
dinosaurs) were found in both South America and South Africa. These finds, plus the
study of sedimentation and the fossil plant Glossopteris in these southern
continents led Alexander duToit, a South African scientist, to bolster the idea of the
past existence of a supercontinent in the southern hemisphere, Eduard Suess's
Gondwanaland. This lent further support to A. Wegener's Continental Drift Theory
The Subsystems of the Earth
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is basically the rocky crust of the earth. It is inorganic and is
composed mainly of different kinds of minerals.
Hydrosphere
This is composed of all the waters in the Earth. This includes the oceans,
seas, rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in the air.
Biosphere
The biosphere is comprised of all living organisms, from the smallest bacteria
to the largest whale. Plants, animals, and single-celled organism are all part of the
biosphere.
Atmosphere
Atmosphere is the mass of air surrounding our planet. It is subdivided into
different layers of different densities. The air of Earth is comprised of 79% Nitrogen
and fewer than 21% Oxygen. The remaining amount is shared by Carbon Dioxide
and other form of gasses.
Remember that the parts mentioned are interconnected and influence the climate,
trigger geological processes, and affect life all over.

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Module 1: Origin and Structure of the Earth

Fields of Earth Science

Structure of the Earth

The Creation Theory - is biblical in origin asserting that everything in the

History of the Earth

As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years,

The Subsystems of the Earth

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