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Geology - Formation of Geologic Materials

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COLEGIO DE MUNTINLUPA

POSADAS AVENUE, SUCAT, MUNTINLUPA CITY

FORMATION
OF GEOLOGIC
MATERIALS
SUBMITTED BY

CRIS JESTER H. DAVID


BSCE 201800010

SUBMITTED TO

ENGR. JOHN MARK PAYAWAL


PROFESSOR

DATE

OCTOBER 2019
INTRODUCTION

Geology is the study of Earth, its interior, and its exterior surface, the rocks and other
materials that surrounds us, the processes that have resulted into the formation of those
materials, the water that flows over the surface and lies underground, the changes that have
taken place over the vast of geological time, and the changes that we can anticipate will take
place in the near future.

Geology is a branch of science, which means that we use deductive reasoning and scientific
methods to understand geological problems. It is, arguably, the most integrated of all of the
sciences because it involves the understanding and application of all of the other sciences
such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Mathematics, Astronomy, and others. But unlike most of
the other sciences, geology has an extra dimension, which involves “deep time” what
happened billions of years of age. Geologists study the evidence that they see around them,
but in most cases, they are observing the results of processes that happened thousands,
millions, and even billions of years in the past.

Geology is also about understanding the evolution of life on Earth; about discovering
resources such as metals and energy; about recognizing and minimizing the environmental
implications of our use of those resources; and about learning how to mitigate the hazards
related to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and slope failures.
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF EARTH

The history of the earth involves the evolution of the continents, oceans, atmosphere, and
biosphere. The layers of rock at Earth’s surface contain evidence of the evolutionary
processes undergone by these components of the terrestrial environment during the times at
which each layer was formed. By studying this rock record from the very beginning, it is thus
possible to trace their development and the resultant changes through time.

PRE-GEOLOGIC PERIOD

From the point at which the planet first began to form, the history of Earth spans
approximately 4.6 billion years. The oldest known rocks—the faux amphibolites of the
Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt in Quebec, Canada—however, have an isotopic age of 4.28
billion years. There is in effect a stretch of approximately 300 million years for which no
geologic record for rocks exists, and the evolution of this pre geologic period of time is, not
surprisingly, the subject of much speculation. To understand this little-known period, the
following factors have to be considered: the age of formation at 4.6 billion years ago, the
processes in operation until 4.3 billion years ago, the bombardment of Earth by meteorites,
and the earliest zircon crystals.

It is widely accepted by both geologists and astronomers that Earth is roughly 4.6 billion
years old. This age has been obtained from the isotopic analysis of many meteorites as well
as of soil and rock samples from the Moon by such dating methods as rubidium–strontium
and uranium–lead. It is taken to be the time when these bodies formed and, by inference, the
time at which a significant part of the solar system developed. When the evolution of the
isotopes of lead-207 and lead-206 is studied from several lead deposits of different age on
Earth, including oceanic sediments that represent a homogenized sample of Earth’s lead, the
growth curve of terrestrial lead can be calculated, and, when this is extrapolated back in time,
it is found to coincide with the age of about 4.6 billion years measured on lead isotopes in
meteorites. Earth and the meteorites thus have had similar lead isotope histories, and so it is
concluded that over a period of about 30 million years they condensed or accreted as solid
bodies from a primeval cloud of interstellar gas and dust—the so-called solar nebula from
which the entire solar system is thought to have formed—at about the same time.

Models developed from the comparison of lead isotopes in meteorites and the decay of
hafnium-182 to tungsten-182 in Earth’s mantle, however, suggest that approximately 100
million years elapsed between the beginning of the solar system and the conclusion of the
accretion process that formed Earth. These models place Earth’s age at approximately 4.5
billion years old.

Particles in the solar nebula condensed to form solid grains, and with increasing electrostatic
and gravitational influences they eventually clumped together into fragments or chunks of
rock. One of these planetesimals developed into Earth. The constituent metallic elements
sank toward the center of the mass, while lighter elements rose toward the top. The lightest
ones (such as hydrogen and helium) that might have formed the first, or primordial,
atmosphere probably escaped into outer space. In these earliest stages of terrestrial accretion
heat was generated by three possible phenomena: (1) the decay of short-lived radioactive
isotopes, (2) the gravitational energy released from the sinking of metals, or (3) the impact of
small planetary bodies (or planetesimals). The increase in temperature became sufficient to
heat the entire planet. Melting at depth produced liquids that were gravitationally light and
thus rose toward the surface and crystallized to form the earliest crust. Meanwhile, heavier
liquids rich in iron, nickel, and perhaps sulfur separated out and sank under gravity, giving
rise to the core at the center of the growing planet; and the lightest volatile elements were
able to rise and escape by outgassing, which may have been associated with surface volcanic
activity, to form the secondary atmosphere and the oceans. This chemical process of melting,
separation of material, and outgassing is referred to as the differentiation of the Earth. The
earliest thin crust was probably unstable and so foundered and collapsed to depth. This in
turn generated more gravitational energy, which enabled a thicker, more stable, longer-
lasting crust to form. Once Earth’s interior (or its mantle) was hot and liquid, it would have
been subjected to large-scale convection, which may have enabled oceanic crust to develop
above upwelling regions. Rapid recycling of crust–mantle material occurred in convection
cells, and in this way the earliest terrestrial continents may have evolved during the 300-
million-year gap between the formation of Earth and the beginning of the rock record. It is
known from direct observation that the surface of the Moon is covered with a multitude of
meteorite craters. There are about 40 large basins attributable to meteorite impact. Known as
Maria, these depressions were filled in with basaltic lavas caused by the impact-induced
melting of the lunar mantle. Many of these basalts have been analyzed isotopically and found
to have crystallization ages of 3.9 to 4 billion years. Research has shown that Earth, with a
greater attractive mass than the Moon, must have undergone more extensive meteorite
bombardment. According to the English-born geologist Joseph V. Smith, a minimum of 500
to 1,000 impact basins were formed on Earth within a period of about 100 to 200 million
years prior to 3.95 billion years ago. Moreover, plausible calculations suggest that this
estimate represents merely the tail end of an interval of declining meteorite bombardment
and that about 20 times as many basins were formed in the preceding 300 million years.
Such intense bombardment would have covered most of Earth’s surface, with the impacts
causing considerable destruction of the terrestrial crust up to 4 billion years ago.
FORMATION OF GEOLOGIC MATERIALS

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES

A) Weathering
1) Physical Weathering
2) Biological Weathering
3) Chemical Weathering
B) Erosion
1) Physical Erosion
2) Thermal Erosion
3) Mass Wasting
C) Deposition

A) WEATHERING

Weathering is thus the process where rocks or soils are dissolved or worn away into smaller
and smaller pieces due to particular environmental factors such as the examples given above.
In geological terms, weathering is defined as the disintegration of rocks influenced by animal
and plant life, water, and the atmospheric forces in general.

1) PHYSICAL WEATHERING

Physical weathering is the physical breakdown of rocks into smaller and smaller pieces. One
of the most common mechanical actions is frost shattering. It happens when water enters the
pores and cracks of rocks, then freezes. Frost weathering, frost wedging, ice wedging or
cryofracturing is the collective name for several processes where ice is present. These
processes include frost shattering, frost-wedging and freeze-thaw weathering.
Once the frozen water is within the rocks, it expands by about 10% thereby opening the
cracks a bit wider. The pressure acting within the rocks is estimated at 30,000 pounds per
square inch at -7.6°F. Over time, this pressure alongside the changes in weather makes the
rock split off, and bigger rocks are broken into smaller fragments.

Another type of mechanical weathering is called salt wedging. Winds, water waves, and rain
also have an effect on rocks as they are physical forces that wear away rock particles,
particularly over long periods of time. These forces are equally categorized under mechanical
or physical weathering because they release their pressures on the rocks directly and
indirectly which causes the rocks to fracture and disintegrate.

2) BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

Biological weathering is the disintegration of rocks as a result of the action by living


organisms. Trees and other plants can wear away rocks since as they penetrate into the soil
and as their roots get bigger, they exert pressure on rocks and makes the cracks wider and
deeper. Eventually, the plants break the rocks apart. Some plants also grow within the fissures
in the rocks which lead to widening of the fissures and then eventual disintegration.

Microscopic organisms like algae, moss, lichens and bacteria can grow on the surface of the
rocks and produce chemicals that have the potential of breaking down the outer layer of the
rock. They eat away the surface of the rocks. These microscopic organisms also bring about
moist chemical micro-environments which encourage the chemical and physical breakdown
of the rock surfaces. The amount of biological activity depends upon how much life is in that
area. Burrowing animals such as moles, squirrels and rabbits can speed up the development
of fissures.
3) CHEMICAL WEATERING

Chemical weathering happens when rocks are worn away by chemical changes. The natural
chemical reactions within the rocks change the composition of the rocks over time. Because
the chemical processes are gradual and ongoing, the mineralogy of rocks changes over time
thus making them wear away, dissolve, and disintegrate.

The chemical transformations occur when water and oxygen interact with minerals within the
rocks to create different chemical reactions and compounds through processes such as
hydrolysis and oxidation. As a result, in the process of new material formations, pores and
fissures are created in the rocks thus enhancing the disintegration forces.

Rainwater can also at times become acid when it mixes with acidic depositions in the
atmosphere. Acid depositions are created in the atmosphere as a consequence of fossil fuel
combustion that releases oxides of nitrogen, sulfur and carbon.

The resultant acid water from precipitation – (acid rain) reacts with the rock’s mineral particles
producing new minerals and salts that can readily dissolve or wear away the rock grains.
Chemical weathering mostly depends on the rock type and temperature. For instance,
limestone is more prone to chemical erosion compared to granite. Higher temperatures
increase the rate of chemical weathering.

B) EROSION

Erosion is a geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by
natural forces such as wind or water and this transported material is called sediment. Most
erosion is performed by liquid water, wind, or ice (usually in the form of a glacier). If the wind
is dusty, or the water or glacial ice is muddy, erosion takes place.
1) PHYSICAL EROSION

Physical erosion is the process of changing the physical properties of the rocks without
changing their basic chemical composition. Physical erosion often causes rocks to get smaller
or smoother. Rocks eroded through physical erosion often form clastic sediments. Clastic
sediments are composed of fragments of older rocks that have been transported from their
place of origin. Landslides and other forms of mass wasting are associated with physical
weathering. These processes cause rocks to dislodge from hillsides and crumble as they
tumble down a slope. Plant growth can also contribute to physical erosion in a process called
bioerosion. Plants break up earthen materials as they take root, and can create cracks and
crevices in rocks they encounter. Ice and water can also contribute to physical erosion as their
movement forces rocks to crash together or crack apart. Some rocks shatter and crumble,
while others are worn away. River rocks are often much smoother than rocks found
elsewhere, for instance, because they have been eroded by constant contact with other river
rocks.

2) THERMAL EROSION

Thermal erosion is the erosion of permafrost along a river or coastline. Warm temperatures
can cause ice-rich permafrost to break off coastlines in huge chunks, often carrying valuable
topsoil and vegetation with them. These eroded “floating islands” can disintegrate into the
ocean, or even crash into another piece of land—helping spread new life to different
landscapes.

3) MASS WASTING

Mass wasting is the downward movement of rocks, soil, and vegetation. Most of its incidents
include landslides, rockslides, and avalanches. Mass wasting can erode and transport millions
of tons of earth, reshaping hills and mountains and, often, devastating communities in its
path.
C) DEPOSITION

Deposition is a geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform
or land mass. Wind, ice, water, and gravity transport previously weathered surface material,
which, at the loss of enough kinetic energy in the fluid, is deposited, building up layers of
sediment. Deposition occurs when the forces responsible for sediment transportation are no
longer sufficient to overcome the forces of gravity and friction, creating a resistance to
motion. Deposition can also refer to the buildup of sediment from organically derived matter
or chemical processes. For example, chalk is made up partly of the microscopic calcium
carbonate skeletons of marine plankton, the deposition of which has induced chemical
processes (diagenesis) to deposit further calcium carbonate. Similarly, the formation of coal
begins with deposition of organic material, mainly from plants, in anaerobic conditions.

GEOLOGIC MATERIALS

A) Rocks
1) Igneous Rocks
2) Sedimentary Rocks
3) Metamorphic Rocks
B) Minerals
1) Native elements
2) Silicates
3) Oxides
4) Sulfides
5) Sulfates
6) Halides
7) Carbonates
8) Phosphates
9) Mineraloid
A) ROCKS

Rocks are formed and reformed in the Lithosphere. And depending on the type of rock, the
process through which they are created varies. Each type of rock has a differs in origin.

In all, there are three types of rocks:

1) IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks are formed when melted rock cools and solidifies. Melted rock may come in
the form of magma, when it is found underneath the Earth’s surface. It can also come in the
form of lava, when it is released unto the Earth’s surface during a volcanic eruption. Some
examples of igneous rocks are granite, scoria, pumice, and obsidian.

2) SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks start forming when soil and other materials on the Earth’s surface are
eroded and finally settle down, forming one layer of sediments. As time passes, more and
more materials get eroded and settle on the older layers. Thus, layer upon layer is formed.
The lower layers undergo intense pressure due to the weight of the upper layers, eventually
evolving into rocks. Some examples of sedimentary rocks are sandstone, limestone, shale,
conglomerate, and gypsum. Sandstone, for instance, is a result of depositions of sand from
beaches and rivers. You can find them mostly in deltas, since this is where the rivers flow into
the ocean.

3) METAMORPHIC ROCKS

To metamorphose or simply to morph means ‘to change in form’. Metamorphic rocks are
actually products of rocks that have undergone changes. Thus, a metamorphic rock may
have originally been an igneous, sedimentary, or even another metamorphic rock. The
changes occur when the original rocks are subjected to extreme heat and pressure beneath
the Earth’s surface. They may also occur when the original rocks are caught in the middle of
two colliding tectonic boundaries. Some examples of metamorphic rocks are marble, slate,
schist and gneiss. Marble, for instance is the result of the metamorphism of limestone and
dolostone. When limestone metamorphoses, its calcite grains grow and interlock with one
another. As such, marble is denser and harder compared to limestone.

B) MINERALS

Minerals are the building blocks of the earth. A mineral is a combination of elements that
forms an inorganic, naturally occurring solid of a definite chemical structure. For example,
SiO2 is always the mineral quartz. A rock is a solid material that is composed of various
minerals. Minerals can have a variety of crystalline shapes. The shape of the crystal is
dependent on the sizes of the atoms of the elements, the chemical bonds that hold the
elements together to form the mineral, and the pressure and temperature at which the
mineral formed.

1) NATIVE ELEMENTS

Native Elements is the category of the pure. Most minerals are made up of combinations of
chemical elements.

2) SILICATES

Silicates is the largest group of minerals. Silicates are made from metals combined with silicon
and oxygen.

3) OXIDES

Oxides form from the combination of a metal with oxygen. This group ranges from dull ores
like bauxite to gems like rubies and sapphires.
4) SULFIDES

Sulfides are made of compounds of sulfur usually with a metal. They tend to be heavy and
brittle.

5) SULFATES

Sulfates are made of compounds of sulfur combined with metals and oxygen. It is a large
group of minerals that tend to be soft, and translucent.

6) HALIDES

Halides are formed from halogen elements like chlorine, bromine, fluorine, and iodine
combined with metallic elements. They are very soft and easily dissolved in water.

7) CARBONATES

Carbonates is a group of minerals made of carbon, oxygen, and a metallic element.

8) PHOSPHATES

Phosphates are not as common in occurrence as the other families of minerals. They are
often formed when other minerals are broken down by weathering. They are often brightly
colored.

9) MINERALOID

Mineraloid refers to the substances that do not fit neatly into one of these eight classes.
RUNNING WATER, GROUND WATER, WIND AND DESERT WORKS

A) GEOLOGICAL WORK OF RUNNING WATER

1) RUNNING WATER EROSION

Streams are one of the most effective surface agents that erode rock and sediment. Erosional
landscapes such as the Grand Canyon have been formed by constant erosion from running
water over millions of years. In addition to eroding the bedrock and previously deposited
sediments along its route, a stream constantly abrades and weathers the individual rock and
soil particles carried by its water. Hydraulic action, abrasion, and solution are the three main
ways that streams erode the earth's surface.

HYDRAULIC ACTION

The ability of flowing water to dislodge and transport rock particles or sediment is called
hydraulic action. In general, the greater the velocity of the water and the steeper the grade,
the greater the hydraulic action capabilities of the stream. Hydraulic action is also enhanced
by a rough and irregular stream bottom, which offers edges that can be “grabbed” by the
current and that create uplifting eddies.

ABRASION

Abrasion is the process by which a stream's irregular bed is smoothed by the constant friction
and scouring impact of rock fragments, gravel, and sediment carried in the water. The
individual particles of sediment also collide as they are transported, breaking them down into
smaller particles. Generally, the more sediment that a stream carries, the greater the amount
of erosion of the stream's bed. The heavier, coarser‐grained sediment strikes the stream bed
more frequently and with more force than the smaller particles, resulting in an increased rate
of erosion.
POTHOLES

Potholes is the circular depressions eroded into the bedrock of a stream by abrasive
sediments. Potholes are found where the rock is softer or in locations where the flow is
channeled more narrowly, such as between or around boulders.

2) RUNNING WATER DEPOSTION

A stream's sediment load is typically deposited, eroded, and redeposited many times in a
stream channel, especially during climatic variations such as flooding. Sediments are
deposited throughout the length of the stream as bars or floodplain deposits. At the mouth
of the stream, the sediments are usually deposited in alluvial fans or deltas, which represent a
lower‐energy, more “permanent” depositional environment that is less susceptible to changes
in the stream flow.

BARS

Bars form in the middle of the channel or along the banks of a stream at points where the
velocity decreases, resulting in the deposition of some of the sediment load. Bars are ridges
generally made up of gravel‐ or sand‐sized particles. A subsequent flood event will erode
bars, transport the sediments, and redeposit the material as a new bar farther downstream.

FLOODPLAINS

Floodplains are level strips of land on the sides of a channel that consist of fine‐grained silt
and clay deposited during episodes of flooding. Higher ridges of sand and silt called natural
levees are deposited near the edge of the channel. As the water spreads outward from the
channel, it loses energy and carries less sediment. The poorly drained and marshy areas
behind the levees are called back-swamps.
ALLUVIAL FANS

Alluvial fans are similar to deltas and are large fanlike accumulations of sediment that form
where streams emerge from rugged terrain onto a broad, flatter surface. Stream velocities fall
quickly, and the fan is built by continual braided stream activity. Large fans show graded
patterns in which the coarsest‐grained materials are deposited at the canyon mouth and the
finer‐grained materials spread outward in a fan shape.

DELTAS

Sediment deposited at the mouth of a stream usually forms a thick, roughly wedge‐shaped
accumulation called a delta, the widest part of which is farthest from the stream mouth.
Distributaries are dendritic, shifting channels that spread out across the delta from the main
river channel and disperse the sediment load. Sediments on the delta's forward slopes are
constantly shaped by water and wind action and redeposited by lake or ocean currents.

TOPSET BEDS

Topset beds are nearly horizontal layers of sediment deposited by the distributaries as they
flow away from the mouth and toward the delta front. They overlie the sandy foreset beds
that compose the main body of the delta, which dip downward from 5 to 25 degrees. These
represent the gradual accumulations of sediment deposited over the forward slopes of the
delta as it builds progressively outward into the receiving body of water. The bottomset beds
are the finest silt and clay particles that are carried out into the deeper water or slide down
the delta front into the deeper water.

BRAIDED STREAM

A braided stream is one in which the water has lost its main channel and flows through a
wandering network of rivulets around sandbars. Braided streams typically have wide
channels. The braiding generally results from a flood‐deposited midchannel bar that splits the
flow. The water is diverted to the sides and erodes stream banks, widening the channel.
Streams will usually be braided if they have high bed loads and easily erodible banks. The
distributaries in a delta are also braided.

MEANDERS AND OXBOW LAKES

The course of a stream bed can be continuously affected by erosion on the outside of a
curve and deposition on the inside. This process will transform a gentle curve into a hairpin
like meander. Meanders continuously change location as they swing back and forth across a
valley or migrate downstream over time. An oxbow lake is formed when a meander begins to
close on itself and the stream breaks through and bypasses the meander. The cut ‐off
meander is dammed by sedimentary deposits in the new channel—resulting in a body of
water that is shaped roughly like a U (the shape of an oxbow, a piece of wood used to
harness an ox). Oxbow lakes mark the location of former stream channels.

B) GEOLOGICAL WORK OF GROUND WATER

The dynamics of groundwater movement have an important effect on stream flow.


Groundwater that migrates into the stream channel increases stream flow; water in a stream
can also enter the unsaturated zone, reducing stream flow.

GAINING STREAMS

A gaining stream is one into which groundwater flows from the saturated zone. The channels
of gaining streams are usually at or below the level of the water table. Bodies of water and
marshes form when the water table intersects the land surface over a broad, fairly flat area.

LOSING STREAMS

The channel of a losing stream lies above the water table and loses water into the
unsaturated zone through which it is flowing This water then migrates down toward the
water table. A losing stream can induce the local water table to rise. In drier climates a losing
stream may actually disappear underground as its water content becomes progressively
diminished downstream.

SPRINGS

A spring is a natural flow of groundwater from a rock opening that results when the water
table intersects a sloping land surface. Springs can be seasonal—for example, during the wet
season the saturated zone is closer to the surface because of increased rainfall, often
resulting in more springs.

AQUIFERS

Aquifers are porous, permeable, saturated formations of rock or soil that transmit
groundwater easily. The best aquifers are coarse‐grained sediments such as sand and gravel.
A confined aquifer is overlain by a less permeable bed that keeps the water in the aquifer
under pressure; an unconfined aquifer does not have a confining bed that separates the
zone of saturation from the unsaturated units above it. Impermeable formations such as
shale, clay, or unfractured igneous rocks that retard water flow are called aquitards or
aquicludes.

C) GEOLOGICAL WORK OF WIND AND DESERT

1) TRANSPORTATION BY WIND

BED LOAD

Bed load consists of the heavier grains (usually sand) that hop and skip along the ground by
saltation. These rarely rise more than 1 meter (3 feet) into the air as they are transported
SUSPENDED LOAD

Suspended load is the finer‐grained clay and silt fraction that is actually carried long distances
in the wind.

2) DEPOSITION OF SEDIMENT BY WIND

The sediments get dropped and deposited forming what are known as Aeolian deposits.
There are two types of Aeolian deposits;

a) Sand dunes

b) Loess

SAND DUNES

Sand dunes are huge heaps of sand formed by the natural deposition of wind-blown sand
sometimes of characteristics and recognizable shape. Such deposits are often found to
migrate from one place to another due to change in the direction and velocity of wind.

The active dunes can be divided into three types:

a) Barchans or Crescent shaped dunes

b) Transverse dunes

c) Longitudinal dunes

BARCHANS

These dunes that look like a new moon in plan are of most common occurrence. They are
triangular in section with the steep side facing away from the wind direction and inclined

at an angle of about 300 to 330 to the horizontal.


The gently sloping side lies on the windward side, and makes an angle of about 10 to 150
with the horizontal. They may have variable sizes, with a generally maximum height of about
335 meters and horn to horn width of say 350 meters.

TRANSVERSE DUNES

A transverse dune is similar to a barchan in section but in plan it is not curved like barchans
such that its longer axis is broadly transverse to the direction of the prevailing winds.

LONGITUDINAL DUNES

Longitudinal dunes are the elongated ridges of sand with their longer axis broadly

parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind. When seen in the side view they will appear to
be triangular on an average they may be 3 m height and 200 m long.

LOESS

The finest particles of dust travelling in suspension with the wind are transported to a
considerable distance. When dropped down under favorable conditions these have been
found to accumulate in the different constituents the form of paper-thin laminae, which have
aggregated together to form a massive deposit known as Loess.
METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

The word "Metamorphism" comes from the Greek word “meta” which means after, and
“morph” which means form, so metamorphism means the after form. In geology this refers
to the changes in mineral assemblage and texture that result from subjecting a rock to
pressures and temperatures different from those under which the rock originally formed.

The original rock that has undergone metamorphism is called the protolith. Protolith can be
any type of rock and sometimes the changes in texture and mineralogy are so dramatic that
is difficult to distinguish what the protolith was.

Note that diagenesis and weathering are also a change in form that occur in rocks. In
geology, however, we restrict diagenetic processes to those which occur at temperatures
below 200oC and pressures below about 300 MPa (MPa stands for Mega Pascals), this is
equivalent to about 3,000 atmospheres of pressure.

Metamorphism therefore occurs at temperatures and pressures higher than 200oC and 300
MPa. Rocks can be subjected to these higher temperatures and pressures as they become
buried deeper in the Earth. Such burial usually takes place as a result of tectonic processes
such as continental collisions or subduction.

The upper limit of metamorphism occurs at the pressure and temperature of wet partial
melting of the rock in question. Once melting begins, the process changes to an igneous
process rather than a metamorphic process.

During metamorphism the protolith undergoes changes in texture of the rock and the
mineral made up of the rock. These changes take place mostly in the solid state and are
caused by changes in physical or chemical conditions, which in turn can be caused by such
things as burial, tectonic stress, heating by magma or interactions with fluids.
A) FACTORS THAT AFFECT METAMORPHISM

Metamorphism occurs because rocks undergo changes in temperature and pressure and
may be subjected to differential stress and hydrothermal fluids. Metamorphism occurs
because some minerals are stable only under certain conditions of pressure and temperature.
When pressure and temperature change, chemical reactions occur to cause the minerals in
the rock to change to an assemblage that is stable at the new pressure and temperature
conditions. The process is complicated by such things as how the pressure is applied, the
time over which the rock is subjected to the higher pressure and temperature, and whether
or not there is a fluid phase present during metamorphism.

1) TEMPERATURE

Temperature increases with depth in the Earth along the Geothermal Gradient. Thus, higher
temperature can occur by burial of rock. Temperature can also increase due to igneous
intrusion.

2) PRESSURE

Pressure increases with depth of burial, thus, both pressure and temperature will vary with
depth in the Earth. Pressure is defined as a force acting equally from all directions. It is a
type of stress, called hydrostatic stress, or uniform stress. If the stress is not equal from all
directions, then the stress is called a differential stress. There are two kinds of differential
stress. Normal stress causes objects to be compressed in the direction of maximum principal
stress and extended in the direction of minimal stress. If differential stress is present during
metamorphism, it can have a profound effect on the texture of the rock. Shear stress causes
objects to be smeared out in the direction of applied stress. Differential stress if acting on a
rock can have a profound effect on the appearance or texture of the rock. Rounded grains
can become flattened in the direction of maximum stress. Minerals that crystallize or grow in
the differential stress field can have a preferred orientation. This is especially true of the
sheet silicate minerals (the micas: biotite and muscovite, chlorite, talc, and serpentine). These
sheet silicates will grow with their sheets orientated perpendicular to the direction of
maximum stress. Preferred orientation of sheet silicates causes rocks to be easily broken
along approximately parallel sheets. Such a structure is called a foliation.

3) FLUID PHASE

Any existing open space between mineral grains in a rock can potentially contain a fluid. This
fluid is mostly H2O, but contains dissolved ions. The fluid phase is important because
chemical reactions that involve changing a solid mineral into a new solid mineral can be
greatly speeded up by having dissolved ions transported by the fluid. If chemical alteration
of the rock takes place as a result of these fluids, the process is called metasomatism.

4) TIME

Because metamorphism involves changing the rock while it is solid, metamorphic change is a
slow process. During metamorphism, several processes are at work. Recrystallization causes
changes in minerals size and shape. Chemical reactions occur between the minerals to form
new sets of minerals that are more stable at the pressure and temperature of the
environment, and new minerals form as a result of polymorphic phase transformations (recall
that polymorphs are compounds with the same chemical formula, but different crystal
structures.

Laboratory experiments suggest that the the sizes of the mineral grains produced during
metamorphism increases with time. Thus coarse grained metamorphic rocks involve long
times of metamorphism. Experiments suggest that the time involved is tens of millions of
years.
B) GRADE OF METAMORPHISM

Metamorphic grade is a general term for describing the relative temperature and pressure
conditions under which metamorphic rocks form. As the temperature and/or pressure
increases on a body of rock we say that the rock undergoes prograde metamorphism or that
the grade of metamorphism increases.

1) LOW-GRADE METAMORPHISM

Low-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures between about 200 to 320oC, and
relatively low pressure. Low grade metamorphic rocks are characterized by an abundance of
hydrous minerals (minerals that contain water, H2O, in their crystal structure).

Examples of hydrous minerals that occur in low grade metamorphic rocks:

1) Clay Minerals
2) Serpentine
3) Chlorite

2) HIGH-GRADE METAMORPHISM

High-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures greater than 320oC and relatively
high pressure. As grade of metamorphism increases, hydrous minerals become less hydrous,
by losing H2O and non-hydrous minerals become more common.

Examples of less hydrous minerals and non-hydrous minerals that characterize high grade
metamorphic rocks:

1) Muscovite - hydrous mineral that eventually disappears at the highest grade of


metamorphism
2) Biotite - a hydrous mineral that is stable to very high grades of metamorphism.
3) Pyroxene - a non-hydrous mineral.
4) Garnet - a non-hydrous mineral.

3) RETROGRADE METAMORPHISM

As temperature and pressure fall due to erosion of overlying rock or due to tectonic uplift,
one might expect metamorphism to a follow a reverse path and eventually return the rocks
to their original unmetamorphosed state. Such a process is referred to as retrograde
metamorphism. If retrograde metamorphism were common, we would not commonly see
metamorphic rocks at the surface of the Earth. Since we do see metamorphic rocks exposed
at the Earth's surface retrograde metamorphism does not appear to be common.

The reasons for this include:

1) chemical reactions take place more slowly as temperature is decreased.


2) during prograde metamorphism, fluids such as H2O and CO2 are driven off, and these
fluids are necessary to form the hydrous minerals that are stable at the Earth's surface.
3) chemical reactions take place more rapidly in the presence of fluids, but if the fluids are
driven off during prograde metamorphism, they will not be available to speed up
reactions during retrograde metamorphism.

C) METAMORPHIC ROCK TYPES

1) FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS

These have a planar foliation caused by the preferred orientation (alignment) of minerals and
formed under differential stress. They have a significant amount of sheet silicate (platy
minerals and are classified by composition, grain size, and foliation type.
SLATE

Slates form at low metamorphic grade by the growth of fine grained chlorite and clay
minerals. The preferred orientation of these sheet silicates causes the rock to easily break
along the planes parallel to the sheet silicates, causing a slatey cleavage. Note that in the
case shown here, the maximum stress is applied at an angle to the original bedding planes,
so that the slatey cleavage has developed at an angle to the original bedding. Because of the
nearly perfect breakage along planes, slates are useful for blackboards and shingles.

PHYLLITE

Fine mica-rich rock, formed by low – medium grade metamorphism. In a phyllite, the clay
minerals have recrystallized into tiny micas (biotite and muscovite which reflect a satiny luster.
Phyllite is between slate and schist.

SCHIST

The size of the mineral grains tends to enlarge with increasing grade of metamorphism.
Eventually the rock develops a near planar foliation caused by the preferred orientation of
sheet silicates (mainly biotite and muscovite). Quartz and Feldspar grains, however show no
preferred orientation. The irregular planar foliation at this stage is called schistosity. Schist
often has other minerals besides micas. These include minerals like - Quartz, Feldspars,
Kyanite, Garnet, Staurolite, and Sillimanite.

GNEISS

As metamorphic grade increases, the sheet silicates become unstable and dark colored
minerals like hornblende and pyroxene start to grow. These dark colored minerals tend to
become segregated in distinct bands through the rock, giving the rock a gneissic banding.
Because the dark colored minerals tend to form elongated crystals, rather than sheet- like
crystals, they still have a preferred orientation with their long directions perpendicular to the
maximum differential stress.

GRANULITE

At the highest grades of metamorphism all of the hydrous minerals and sheet silicates
become unstable and thus there are few minerals present that would show a preferred
orientation. The resulting rock will have a granulitic texture that is similar to a phaneritic
texture in igneous rocks.

MIGMATITES

If the temperature reaches the solidus temperature (first melting temperature), the rock may
begin to melt and start to co-mingle with the solids. Usually these melts are felsic with the
mafic material remaining metamorphic.

2) NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS

These have no evident planar fabric or foliation, crystallized under conditions where there
was no differential stress, and are comprised of equant minerals only. These are classified
mainly by the minerals present or the chemical composition of the protolith.

1) Non-foliated rocks lack a planar fabric. Absence of foliation possible for several reasons:
2) Rock not subjected to differential stress.
3) Dominance of equant minerals (like quartz, feldspar, and garnet).
4) Absence of platy minerals (sheet silicates).
5) Non-foliated rocks are given specific names based on their mineralogy and composition:
AMPHIBOLITE

These rocks are dark colored rocks with amphibole (usually hornblende) as their major
mineral. They are usually poorly foliated and form at intermediate to high grades of
metamorphism of basaltic or gabbroic protoliths.

HORNFELS

These are very fine-grained rocks that usually form as a result of magma intruding into fined
grained igneous rocks or shales. The magma causes a type of metamorphism called contact
metamorphism (to be discussed later).

QUARTZITE

A rock made up almost entirely of quartz. They are formed by metamorphism of quartz
arenites (sandstones). Since quartz is stable over a large range of temperatures and
pressures, no new minerals are formed during metamorphism, and the only metamorphic
effect that occurs is recrystallization of the quartz resulting in interlocking crystals that make
up a very hard rock.

MARBLE

A limestone or dolostone made up only of calcite or dolomite will metamorphose to a


marble which is made mostly recrystallized calcite or dolomite. The Recrystallization usually
obliterates all fossils. Marbles have a variety of colors and are often complexly banded.
They are commonly used as a decorative stone.

D) PROTOLITH COMPOSITION

Although textures and structures of the protolith are usually destroyed by metamorphism, we
can still get an idea about the original rock from the minerals present in the metamorphic
rock.
Minerals that form, do so because the chemical elements necessary to form them are present
in the protolith.

General terms used to describe the chemical composition of both the protolith and the
resulting metamorphic rock are:

1) PELITIC

Alumina rich rocks, usually shales or mudstones. These start out originally with clay minerals
and as a result of metamorphism, Alumina rich minerals like micas, chlorite, garnet, kyanite,
sillimanite and andalusite form. Because of the abundance of sheet silicates, pelitic rocks
commonly form slates, phyllites, schists, and gneisses during metamorphism.

2) MAFIC

These are Mg and Fe rich rocks with low amounts of Si. Minerals like biotite, hornblende
and plagioclase form during metamorphism and commonly produce amphibolites.

3) CALCEROUS

These are calcium-rich rocks usually derived from limestones or dolostones, and thus contain
an abundance of Calcite. Marbles are the type of metamorphic rock that results.

4) QUARTZO FELDSPATHIC

Rocks that contain an abundance of quartz and feldspar fall into this category. Protoliths are
usually granites, rhyolites, or arkose sandstones and metamorphism results in gneisses
containing an abundance of quartz, feldspar, and biotite.
E) TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

Metamorphism can take place in several different environments where special conditions
exist in terms of pressure, temperature, stress, conditions, or chemical environments. We
here describe several diff rent types of metamorphism that are recognized.

1) CONTACT/THERMAL METAMORPHISM

Occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions and results from high temperatures associated with the
igneous intrusion. Since only a small area surrounding the intrusion is heated by the magma,
metamorphism is restricted to a zone surrounding the intrusion, called a metamorphic
aureole. Outside of the contact aureole, the rocks are unmetamorphosed. The grade of
metamorphism increases in all directions toward the intrusion. Because temperature
differences between the surrounding rock and the intruded magma are larger at shallow
levels in the crust, contact metamorphism is usually referred to as high temperature, low
pressure metamorphism. The rock produced is often a fine-grained rock that shows no
foliation, called a hornfels.

2) BURIAL METAMORPHISM

When sedimentary rocks are buried to depths of several hundred meters, temperatures
greater than 300oC may develop in the absence of differential stress. New minerals grow,
but the rock does not appear to be metamorphosed. The main minerals produced are the
Zeolites. Burial metamorphism overlaps, to some extent, with diagenesis, and grades into
regional metamorphism as temperature and pressure increase.

3) DYNAMIC METAMORPHISM

This type of metamorphism is due to mechanical deformation, like when two bodies of rock
slide past one another along a fault zone. Heat is generated by the friction of sliding along
the zone, and the rocks tend to crushed and pulverized due to the sliding. Dynamic
metamorphism is not very common and is restricted to a narrow zone along which the
sliding occurred. The rock that is produced is called a mylonite.

4) REGIONAL METAMORPHISM

This type of metamorphism occurs over large areas that were subjected to high degrees of
deformation under differential stress. Thus, it usually results in forming metamorphic rocks
that are strongly foliated, such as slates, schists, and gneisses. The differential stress usually
results from tectonic forces that produce a compression of the rocks, such as when two
continental masses collide with one another. Thus, regionally metamorphosed rocks occur in
the cores of mountain ranges or in eroded mountain ranges. Compressive stresses result in
folding of the rock, as shown here, and results in thickening of the crust which tends to push
rocks down to deeper levels where they are subjected to higher temperatures and pressures.
Most regionally metamorphosed areas can be divided into zones where a particular mineral,
called an index mineral, is characteristic of the zone. The zones are separated by lines
(surfaces in three dimensions) that mark the first appearance of the index mineral. These
lines are called isograds (meaning equal grade) and represent lines (really surfaces) where the
grade of metamorphism is equal.

5) HYDROTHERMAL METAMORPHISM

Near oceanic ridges where the oceanic crust is broken up by extensional faults, sea water can
descend along the cracks. Since oceanic ridges are areas where new oceanic crust is created
by intrusion and eruption of basaltic magmas, these water-rich fluids are heated by the hot
crust or magma and become hydrothermal fluids. The hydrothermal fluids alter the basaltic
oceanic crust by producing hydrous minerals like chlorite and talc. Because chlorite is a
green colored mineral the rocks hydrothermal metamorphic rocks are also green and often
called greenstones.
6) SUBDUCTION RELATED METAMORPHISM

At a subduction zone, the oceanic crust is pushed downward resulting in the basaltic crust
and ocean floor sediment being subjected to relatively high pressure. But, because the
oceanic crust by the time it subducts is relatively cool, the temperatures in the crust are
relatively low. Under the conditions of low temperature and high pressure, metamorphism
produces an unusual blue mineral, glaucophane. Compressional stresses acting in the
subduction zone create the differential stress necessary to form schists and thus the resulting
metamorphic rocks are called blueschist

7) SHOCK METAMORPHISM

When a large meteorite collides with the Earth, the kinetic energy is converted to heat and a
high-pressure shock wave that propagates into the rock at the impact site. The heat may be
enough to raise the temperature to the melting temperature of the earth rock. The shock
wave produces high enough pressure to cause quartz to change its crystal structure to more
a dense polymorph like coesite or stishovite. Ancient meteorite impact sites have been
discovered on the basis of finding this evidence of shock metamorphism.
REFERENCES

o https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/geology

o https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/chapter/reading-geologic-processes-and-

flowing-water/
o https://clarkscience8.weebly.com/weathering-erosion-deposition.html

o http://www.eniscuola.net/en/argomento/subsoil/rocks-and-minerals/what-are-minerals/

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