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Lecture 07

Here is a possible VLSM scheme to split a class C address into four subnets with the given number of hosts: Subnet 1: 128 hosts Subnet address: 192.168.1.0 Subnet mask: 255.255.255.128 Subnet 2: 64 hosts Subnet address: 192.168.1.128 Subnet mask: 255.255.255.192 Subnet 3: 32 hosts Subnet address: 192.168.1.192 Subnet mask: 255.255.255.224 Subnet 4: 16 hosts Subnet address: 192.168.1.224 Subnet mask: 255.255.255.240 This splits the class C address

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Lecture 07

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Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur

Internet Routing
Protocols – Part I
Prof. Indranil Sen Gupta
Dept. of Computer Science & Engg.
I.I.T. Kharagpur, INDIA

Lecture 7: Internet routing

protocols – Part I

On completion, the student will be able to:

1. Explain the operation of an IP router.
2. Understand the various routing methods.
3. Interpret the various fields in a typical routing
table.
4. Explain the basic concept of an autonomous
system (AS).
5. Explain the working of the RIP and OSPF
protocols for dynamically updating the routing
tables.

1
Connection Options

1. Connection-oriented
¾ Network layer protocol first makes a
connection.
¾ All packets delivered as per the
connection.
2. Connection-less
¾ Network layer protocol treats each
packet independently.
¾ No relationship between packets.

Packet Delivery Options

1. Direct Delivery
¾ Host-to-host
¾ Router-to-host

H1 Network H2

2
2. Indirect Delivery
¾ Through one or more routers.

H1 N R1 N R2

N
H2

Routing Methods

• Several alternatives possible:

a) Next-hop routing
b) Network-specific routing
c) Host-specific routing
d) Default routing

3
a) Next-hop routing

• Routing tables based on next hop.

H1 R1 R2 H2

Dest Next Dest Next Dest Next

Hop Hop Hop
H2 R1 H2 R2 H2 --

b) Network-specific routing

• Routing table based on destination

network address.

Dest Next
Hop R1 H2
N2 R1

N1 N2

4
c) Host-specific routing

• Can specify the address of a host.

Dest Next Hop
H2 R2
N2 R1
N2
N3 R2 R1

N1 R3

H1 R2
N3 H2

d) Default routing

• Follow a default path if no match found.

H1 R1

N1 N2

Dest Next Hop R2

N2 R1
Default R2

5
Types of Routing Table

1. Static
¾ Contains information inserted
manually.
¾ Does not change with time.
2. Dynamic
¾ Updated periodically depending on
network condition.
¾ Uses protocols like RIP, OSPF, BGP,
etc.

Typical Fields in a Routing Table

• Subnet mask
• Destination IP address
• Next hop address
• Flags
¾ U : router is up and running
¾ G : destination is in another network
¾ H : host-specific address
¾ D : added by redirection
¾ M : modified by redirection
• Interface

6
Example (Routing table for R1)

Mask Dest NextHop Interface

255.0.0.0 115.0.0.0 -- M0
255.255.255.224 196.23.15.161 -- M1

0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 112.11.35.18 M0

M0
R1 115.0.0.0 R2

196.23.15.161

Routing Protocols

RIP and OSPF

7
Routing Protocols

• Two classes of protocols:

1. Interior
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
2. Exterior
• Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

Autonomous Systems
R N R N

N R N AS R
AS

N N
R R

R N

N AS R

N
R

8
• What is an AS?
¾A set of routers and networks managed
by a single organization.
¾The routers within the AS exchange
information using a common routing
protocol.
¾The AS graph is connected (in the
absence of failure).

• Which class of protocols to use?

¾Use interior router protocols to
exchange information between routers
within an AS.
¾Use exterior routing protocol to pass
exchange routing information between
routers in different AS’s.

9
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

• Routers within an autonomous

system exchange messages.
¾Distance vector routing using hop
count.
¾Table entries updated using values
received from neighbors.
¾Maintain timers to detect failed links.
¾Used in first generation ARPANET.

Problems

• Slow convergence for larger networks.

• If a network becomes inaccessible, it
may take a long time for all other
routing tables to know this.
¾After a number of message transfers.
• Routing loops may take a long time to
be detected.
¾Counting to infinity problem.
• Too much bandwidth consumed by
routing updates.

10
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

• Widely used as the interior router

protocol in TCP/IP networks.
• Basic concept:
¾Computes a route that incurs the least
cost.
User configurable: delay, data rate,
cost, etc.
¾Each router maintains a database.
Topology of the autonomous system
to which the router belongs.
Vertices and edges.

• Two types of vertices:

¾Router
¾Network
• Two types of (weighted) edges:
¾Two routers connected to each other by
direct point-to-point link.
¾A router is directly connected to a network.
• A router calculates the least-cost path to all
destination networks.
¾Using Dijkstra’s algorithm.
¾Only the next hop to the destination is
used in the forwarding process.

11
• At steady state
¾All routers know the same network
topology.
¾“Hello” packets sent every 10 seconds
(configurable) to neighbors.
¾Link State Advertisement (LSA) flooded
initially from each router.
¾Absence of “Hello” packet for 40 seconds
indicate failure of neighbour.
Causes LSA to be flooded again.
¾LSAs re-flooded every 30 minutes anyway.

OSPF Header Format

0 8 16 31
Version T ype Message length

SourceAddr
AreaId

Checksum Authentication type

Authentication

12
• Packet types :
¾1 : Hello (check if neighbor is up)
¾2 : Database Description (synchronize
database at beginning)
¾3 : Link State Request (request specific
LSA)
¾4 : Link State Update (LSAs flooded)
¾5 : Link State Acknowledgement
(flooded LSAs are explicitly ack’ed –
reliable flooding)

• Authentication type:
¾Cleartext
¾Encrypted (MD5 Hash, others possible)

13
SOLUTIONS TO QUIZ
QUESTIONS ON
LECTURE 6

14
Quiz Solutions on Lecture 6

1. For the subnet mask 255.255.192.0, how

many hosts per subnet are possible?
11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000
14 bits available for host addresses.
Number of hosts possible is 214-2=16382.

2. In classful addressing, if we are using the

subnet mask 255.255.192.0, which address
class does it correspond to?

Either Class A or Class B.

Quiz Solutions on Lecture 6

3. What is the subnet address if the

destination IP address is 144.16.34.124
and the subnet mask is 255.255.240.0 ?

34 :: 0010 0010
240:: 1111 0000
AND:: 0010 0000
Subnet address will be
144.16.32.0

15
Quiz Solutions on Lecture 6

4. What is the natural mask for a class C

network?

255.255.255.0

5. Using simple subnets, is it possible to

divide a network into unequal sized
subnets?

No. Simple subnets can only divide a

network into equal-sized subnets.

Quiz Solutions on Lecture 6

6. For an IP address 10.17.5.122 and subnet

mask 255.255.128.0, what is the subnet
address? How many hosts per subnet
are possible?

Subnet address = 10.17.5.122 AND

255.255.128.0
= 10.17.0.0
There are 15 bits in the host portion.
Hosts per subnet = 215-2 = 32766.

16
Quiz Solutions on Lecture 6

7. Among multiple network classes and

subnets, which alternative imposes more
burden on the external router?

Multiple network classes.

Quiz Solutions on Lecture 6

8. Using VLSM, give a scheme to split a

class C address into four subnets where
the number of hosts required are:
100, 55, 20, 30

256
128 128
64 64
32 32

17
Quiz Solutions on Lecture 6

9. If the number of hosts required are 100,

50, 50 and 20, can VLSM be used?

Not possible. The last subdivision of

50 and 20 cannot be done.
10. Can the following be the beginning
addresses in CIDR based addressing?
144.16.192.32/28 --- YES
10.17.18.42/28 --- NO Divisible
188.15.170.55/28 --- NO by 16
200.0.100.80/28 --- YES

Quiz Solutions on Lecture 6

11. For a CIDR address of the form W.X.Y.Z/20,

what is the maximum number of hosts
possible in the network?

Number of bits in host part = 32-20 = 12.

So, number of hosts possible = 212-2 = 4094

18
Quiz Solutions on Lecture 6

12. Which of the following can be the starting

address of a CIDR block that contains 512
addresses?

144.16.24.128 --- NO
144.16.75.0 --- NO
144.16.24.0 --- YES
144.16.0.0 --- YES

QUIZ QUESTIONS ON
LECTURE 7

19
Quiz Questions on Lecture 7

1. What is a connection-oriented protocol?

2. What is a connectionless protocol?
3. What is the difference between direct and
indirect packet delivery options?
4. How is the default route specified in the
routing table?
5. What is the problem if we use only host-
specific routing and no network-specific
routing?

Quiz Questions on Lecture 7

6. What do the G and U flags in the routing

table signify?
7. What is the difference between interior
and exterior routing protocols?
8. What is an autonomous system?
9. How do routers update information in
RIP?
10. How to routers compute path in OSPF?
11. Which paths do the packets follow in
OSPF?