Unit – IV - Complex Variables

• Function of complex variables • Laurent’s Series

• Analytic Functions • Residues
• Cauchy Riemann Equations • Cauchy Residue Theorem
• Finding Harmonic Conjugates • Evaluation of definite integral involving
• Conformal Mapping sine and cosine

• Bilinear Transformation • Evaluation of certain improper integrals

using the Bromwich contour.
• Contour Integrals
• Cauchy’s Theorem
• Cauchy Integral Formula
• Zeros of Analytic Functions
• Singularities
 Function of complex variables
• General form of Complex Variable: If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 , where x, y are real variables, then z is
called a complex variable.
• Real and Imaginary Parts: The variables x and y are called the real and imaginary part of z
respectively. i.e. 𝑥 = 𝑅 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 𝐼(𝑧).
• Polar Form : 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
• Exponential Form: 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 .
• Modulus : z = r = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 is called modulus of complex variable.
• Argument : arg(z) = amp (z) = θ = tan−1 (𝑦/𝑥) is called argument or amplitude of a
complex variable.
• Argand Diagram : Geometrical representation of complex number is called Argand
Diagram.
• Equation of Circles : z = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑎2 is a circle in xoy plane with centre (0, 0)
and radius equal to 𝑎 .
• If 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0, then z − 𝑧0 = 𝑎 ⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥0)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0)2 = 𝑎2 represents a circle
with centre (𝑥0, 𝑦0) and radius equal to ‘a’.
• z − 𝑧0 ≤ 𝑎 represents the interior part of the circle, including points on the arc of the
circle.
• z − 𝑧0 > 𝑎 represents the exterior region of the circle.
• 𝐼(𝑧) ≥ 0 represents the entire region above x-axis, including points on the x-axis.
• 𝐼 𝑧 < 0 represents the region below x-axis.
• 𝑅 𝑧 > 0 represents the region to the right side of y-axis.
• 𝑅 𝑧 ≤ 0 represents the region to the left of y-axis including points on the y-axis.
Function of Complex Variable: Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and w = 𝑢 + 𝑖v
𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧2
⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑖v = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2 = 𝑥2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 ∵ 𝑖2 = −1
⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 and 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦
∴ 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
Complex Differentiation: Differentiation of complex-valued functions is completely
analogous to the real case. For 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 , the derivative of 𝑓 𝑧 is defined as,
ⅆ𝑤 𝑓 𝑧+ℎ −𝑓(𝑧)
= lim
ⅆ𝑧 ℎ→0 ℎ

and h approaches 0 via any path. 𝑓′ 𝑧 exists, if the limit exists.

Properties of Complex Differentiation:
(i) (𝑓 ± 𝑔)(𝑧) = 𝑓 𝑧 ± 𝑔 𝑧
(ii) (𝑐𝑓)′(𝑧) = c𝑓′ 𝑧 for any constant c.
(iii) (𝑓𝑔)′(𝑧) = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑔′(𝑧) +𝑓′ 𝑧 𝑔(𝑧).
𝑓 𝑔(𝑧)𝑓′ 𝑧 −𝑓 𝑧 𝑔′(𝑧)
(iv) (𝑧) = , 𝑔(𝑧) ≠ 0.
𝑔 𝑔 𝑧 2
ⅆ
(v) 𝑓 𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑓′ 𝑔 𝑧 𝑔′ 𝑧 . (Chain Rule)
ⅆ𝑧
Analytic Function: A function 𝑓 𝑧 is said to be Analytic at a point 𝑧 = 𝑧0, if it is defined and
has derivative at every point in some neighborhood of 𝑧0.
• It is analytic in a Region R, if it is analytic at every point in region R.
• Analytic function is also called Regular or Holomorphic.
• The point 𝑧 = 𝑧1 where function fails to be analytic is called singular point of the function 𝑓(𝑧).
• If f (z) is analytic on the whole complex plane, then it is said to be an entire function.
Necessary Conditions for Analytic Function - Cauchy-Riemann Equations: The Necessary
conditions for the function 𝑓 𝑧 to be analytic at any point z in the region R is
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
= and = .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

These equations are called the Cauchy-Riemann Equations. If 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic at any point then C-R
equations are definitely satisfied at z ,but if C-R equations are satisfied at the z that does not
necessarily mean 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic at z, for this continuity of partial derivative of u, v must be ensured.
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Polar form of Cauchy-Riemann Equations: = and = −𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
Rational Function: If f and g are polynomials in z, then h (z) = f (z)/g(z), g(z) ≠ 0 is called
a rational function.
• All polynomial functions of z are entire.
• A rational function of z is analytic at every point for which its denominator is nonzero.
Harmonic Functions: A real-valued function 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be harmonic in a domain D
if all of its second-order partial derivatives are continuous in D and if each point of D
𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
satisfies + =0.
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦2

• If 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic in a domain D, then each of the functions 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and v

(𝑥, 𝑦) are harmonic in D.
𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
• The equation + 2 = 0 is called Laplace equation.
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝜙 1 𝜕𝜙 1 𝜕2𝜙
• Polar form of Laplace equation is + + = 0.
𝜕𝑟2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟2 𝜕𝜃2
Milne-Thomson Method: This method is used to find Analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 in
terms of z by replacing x by z and y by 0.
Example 1: Prove that the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 is analytic everywhere.
Solution: We have to prove that the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 is analytic everywhere.
Consider 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2
= 𝑥2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖2𝑦2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦
= 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
Here 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2, 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦 both are continuous everywhere.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
Now we have to verify the Cauchy Reimann Equation = and = .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
It is clear that = 2𝑥 = and = −2𝑦 = .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Hence the given function is analytic everywhere.

Example 2: Check whether the function 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|2 is analytic.
Solution: We have to check that the function 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|2 is analytic or not.
Consider 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|2 = |(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)|2
= 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 2

= 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2
= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑖.0 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
Here 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2, 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 =0 both are continuous everywhere.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
Now we have to verify the Cauchy Reimann Equation = and = .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
It is clear that = 2𝑥 ≠ = 0 and = 2𝑦 ≠ = 0.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Hence the given function is not analytic.

Example 3: Find 𝑣 such that 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic, where 𝑢=
1
log(𝑥2 + 𝑦2) . Also determine 𝑓 𝑧 in terms of 𝑧.
2
Solution: We have given that
1
𝑢= log(𝑥2 + 𝑦2 ) --------- (1)
2
Differentiating Partially with respect to x and y respectively
𝜕𝑢 1 2𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑢 1 2𝑦 𝑦
= . = and = . = 2 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑥2+𝑦2 𝑥2+𝑦2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝑥2+𝑦2 𝑥 +𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Now from first Cauchy-Riemann Equation =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝑥
=
𝜕𝑦 𝑥2+𝑦2
Integrating with respect to y treating ‘x’ as a constant.
𝑥 1
𝑣= න 2 2 ⅆ𝑥 +𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥. tan−1 (𝑦/𝑥) + 𝑓 𝑥 = tan−1 (𝑦/𝑥) + 𝑓 𝑥 (2)
𝑥 +𝑦 𝑥
Differentiating Partially with respect to x, we have
𝜕𝑣 1 𝑦 𝑥2 𝑦 𝑦
= 𝑦2 − + 𝑓′(𝑥) = − + 𝑓′(𝑥) = − 2 2 + 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 1+ 𝑥2 𝑥2+𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑥 +𝑦
𝑥2
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Now from second Cauchy-Riemann Equation = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Putting the values of and , we get
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑦 𝑦
− 2 2 + 𝑓′(𝑥) = − 2 2
𝑥 +𝑦 𝑥 +𝑦
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) = constant (c)
From equation (2), we have
𝑣 = tan−1 (𝑦/𝑥) + 𝑐
1
∴f z = log(𝑥2 + 𝑦2) + tan−1 (𝑦/𝑥) + 𝑐
2
Now, we have to find 𝑓(𝑧) in term of z. We put 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0 using Milne-Thomson
1
method, then 𝑓(𝑧) = log(𝑧2) + tan−1 (0/𝑧) + 𝑐 = log 𝑧 + 𝑐
2
𝑓(𝑧) = log 𝑧 + 𝑐
Example 4: If 𝑣 = 3𝑥2𝑦 − 𝑦3, find its harmonic conjugate 𝑢. Find 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 in terms of 𝑧.
Solution: We have given that
𝑣 = 3𝑥2𝑦 − 𝑦3 --------- (1)
Differentiating Partially with respect to x and y respectively
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= 6𝑥𝑦 and = 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Now from first Cauchy-Riemann Equation =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢
= 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2
𝜕𝑥
Integrating with respect to x treating ‘y’ as a constant.
𝑥3
𝑢=‫׬‬ (3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2) ⅆ𝑥 +𝑓 𝑦 = 3. − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑥3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑓 𝑦 (2)
3
Differentiating Partially with respect to y, we have
𝜕𝑢
= 0 − 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓′(𝑦) = −6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓′(𝑦)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Now from second Cauchy-Riemann Equation =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Putting the values of and , we get
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
6𝑥𝑦 = −[−6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓 𝑦 ] = 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑦
′

⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑦) = constant (c)

From equation (2), we have
𝑢 = 𝑥3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑐
∴ f z = 𝑥3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑖 (3𝑥2𝑦 − 𝑦3) + 𝑐
Now, we have to find 𝑓(𝑧) in term of z. We put x = z, y = 0 using Milne-Thomson
method, then 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧3 − 0 + 𝑖. 0 + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧3 + 𝑐
 Exercise
1. Check whether the following functions are analytic.
𝑥−𝑖𝑦
(a) 𝑧 + 2𝑧ҧ (b) cosh 𝑧 (c)
𝑥2+𝑦2
(d) 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑖𝑦

2. Find 𝑣 such that 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic for the following functions. Also determine
𝑓 𝑧 in terms of 𝑧.
sin 2𝑥
(a) 𝑢 = 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 2𝑦 (b) 𝑢=
cosh 2𝑦− cos 2𝑥
1
(c) 𝑢 = 𝑟3 cos 3𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (d) 𝑢 = 𝑟 + cos 𝜃 , 𝑟 ≠0
𝑟
3. Find 𝑢 such that 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic for the following functions. Also determine
𝑓 𝑧 in terms of 𝑧.
𝑦
(a) 𝑣 = (b) 𝑣 = 4𝑥𝑦(𝑥2 − 𝑦2)
𝑥2+𝑦2

4. if 𝑣 = 𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓 represent the complex potential for an electric field and 𝜙 =

𝑦 2 2 𝑥
− 2𝑥𝑦 + 2 2.. Determine the function 𝜓. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝜓 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 2
𝑥 +𝑦 𝑥 +𝑦