Article

The Importance of the Sun Symbol in the Restoration

of Sámi Spiritual Traditions and Healing Practice
Francis Joy
The Anthropology Group, The University of Lapland Arctic Center, Pohjoisranta 4, 96100 Rovaniemi,
Finland; fjoy@ulapland.fi

Received: 16 April 2020; Accepted: 24 May 2020; Published: 28 May 2020

Abstract: Today, artefacts of the past have immense value for Sámi shamans, artists, and custodians
of culture who are reengaging with their spiritual traditions. A cultural revival is taking place
through various applications and approaches. Henceforth, there is an ongoing process of creating a
restorative framework mainly based on the work of individuals, through which, drum making and
decoration, joiking, sacrificial acts, and forms of divination consisting of various sorts of practices
are emerging. One of the central symbols that features prominently amongst the Sámi in relation to
their prehistoric cosmology and reuse of symbolism in different contexts with regard to spiritual
traditions that helps link past with the present is the Sun. Therefore, the purpose of the descriptive
analysis in this research paper examines the application of the Sun symbol to new types of drums
made by Peter Armstrand who is a Sámi person, for healing and identity building and some of the
contexts that appear within. As a method to elaborate on how the past is utilized in the present, the
research material constitutes one short case study involving Armstrand who is a Sámi drum maker
and likewise, a healer. To help broaden the fieldwork materials collected, I also refer to an old
photograph of a drum and its cosmological landscape.

Keywords: Sámi shamanism; drums; cosmological landscapes; healing; cultural heritage; art; spirits; sun

1. Introduction
The emphasis of the study focuses on a contemporary practitioner of shamanism within Sámi
culture and the value he relates to the Sun symbol as a mythical figure that is a source of inspiration
within a modern practice in connection with healing, ceremony, and ritual. This is analyzed through
the art and work of Peter Armstrand who is a Swedish Sámi, from Kiruna, and is the “Vice Chairman
of the Kiruna Sámi Association” Armstrand (2020, p. 1). The material collected in Kiruna, was
gathered between 2014 and 2019, from Armstrand, with regard to in what ways the symbol of the
Sun is constructed, utilized, and applied in healing and ritualistic practices through a variety of
contexts. Correspondence with Armstrand was also established in 2020 for further clarification of
data, relating to prior correspondence.
The collection of the material and its analysis have much value with reference to encountering
some of the structures related to Sámi religion in contemporary society. Hence, a study of the reuse
and application of ancient drum symbolism is a particular area that is currently emerging within
Sámi culture. This is in relation to the representation and implementation of cultural heritage with
regard to the construction and subsequent decoration and use of contemporary Sámi shaman drums
in various contexts by Sámi persons. Drum use is pronounced from Armstrand as an individual Sámi
healer in association with healing practices and rituals that point towards a single contribution
regarding the restoration of various spiritual traditions and practices and the transmission of culture.
In contemporary society today, study of the long-term perspective of traditional or pre-Christian
Sámi religion pertaining to the broad spectrum of practices that are part of it, such as drum use, seems

Religions 2020, 11, 270; doi:10.3390/rel11060270 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions

Religions 2020, 11, 270 2 of 22

obscure and thus hard to grasp, as do the practices of divination, ecstatic trance-shamanism, and
sacrifice, which are all interrelated. This is because, and as stated by Sámi historian Veli-Pekka
Lehtola (2002, p. 28), “the traditions and history of Sámi religious culture are difficult to trace. The
religious culture underwent violent changes in connection with Christian missionizing in the 1600s
and 1700s. […] It is difficult to reconstruct completely the old world-view from sources written by
outsiders”.
At the same time, it is also important to learn and understand from what has survived with
regard to attributes and features of different elements from within traditional Sámi religion.
According to Sámi scholar Elina Helander-Renvall (2016, p. 84), “certain aspects of shamanism can
be located that are particularly important when talking about relationships. One aspect is to be found
among the symbols drawn on traditional Sámi drums. The Sámi shaman drum (goavddis) is an
expression of the Sámi cosmological, cultural, and spiritual world picture”.
It is helpful therefore, at this juncture, to emphasize that approaching the long-term perspectives
on Sámi traditional or pre-Christian religion, is an arduous task as a field of study and not without
its problems. Difficulties not only include its many manifestations as well as regional variations, but
also, in order to fully comprehend what exactly constitutes Sámi religion both past and present, one
requires an intimate knowledge of the language and culture from the inside. Thus, for outsiders, or
those who do not live within Sámi culture or speak the Sámi language, studying Sámi religion is a
monumental task, but not an impossible one.
Despite the cultural fragmentation inflicted upon Sámi society because of colonialism, a
combination of the abundance of literature written on Sámi religion by both insiders as well as
outsiders, as well as inquiries into the works and practices of Sámi elders, artists, and religious
specialists, noaidi, who are open to sharing their knowledge, reveal the following. “[…] There still
exists views and practices amongst the Sámi people that show an unbroken series of links with the
past, portrayed through landscapes, animals and art” Helander-Renvall (2016, p. 85). Today, these
sources and fragments of the past have immense value for Sámi shamans, artists, and custodians of
culture who are reengaging with their spiritual traditions.
A cultural revival is taking place through an assortment of approaches and applications of
artistic symbolism and figures within various contexts. Henceforth, there is an ongoing process of
creating a restorative framework mainly based on the work of individuals, through which, drum
making and decoration, joiking, sacrificial acts, and forms of divination consisting of various sorts of
practices are emerging from within Sámi culture. These provide some insight and understanding into
each of the aforementioned spiritual traditions (drum making, sacrifice, joiking) and thus, do orient
towards the practice of Sámi religion in a contemporary setting through numerous relationships to
culture and heritage. Norwegian scholar Trude Fonneland has written about this in a much broader
sense regarding neoshamanism at the Sámi shaman festival of Isogaisa, Norway, in her scholarly
work: The Festival of Isogaisa: Neoshamanism in New Arenas (Fonneland 2015). In a similar fashion,
another Norwegian scholar, Siv Ellen Kraft, has likewise made a valuable contribution on the subject
matter noted above, through her scholarly work: Sami Indigenous Spirituality: Religion and Nation
Building in Norwegian Sápmi (Kraft 2009).
I have chosen an interview with a Sámi person for this research paper firstly, because I myself
have been involved in the practice of shamanism for over twenty years and have worked with Peter
Armstrand who has made a valuable contribution to this study. In this sense, there was an element
of trust regarding Armstrand deciding to share important information, some of which was of a
personal nature. The second reason I chose to interview Armstrand is because there is an emerging
network concerning the practice of shamanism from within Sámi culture and therefore, this
interaction can be seen as both collaboration and participation within this community for the
purposes of research development with regard to knowledge sharing and documentation.
As a method for creating a basis and setting for the presentation of Armstrand’s contribution to
this study, I initially chose to place the focus of this research on the value, visibility, roles, and
functions of the Sun as a celestial deity. The foundation of which is presented within various contexts
predominantly within Sámi scholarship in order to comprehend its mythical and cultural influence,
Religions 2020, 11, 270 3 of 22

both past and present, from inside the culture. The reason for doing this is because the history of the
Sámi people is an important factor in relation to how myths have been interpreted within various
contexts by Sámi noaidi. Henceforth, some of these are depicted through art on the ancient drum
presented below, as well as scholarly sources and through the contemporary work of Armstrand, all
of which are connected to the past. Conversely, I explore how both Sámi history and the Sun as a
mythical figure and historical resource, have been drawn upon as a source of inspiration in literature
and shamanic practice. In turn, these provide a deeper understanding and examples of the ways in
which certain manifestations of the Sun play a central component within the research in connection
with healing, ritual, art, and myths (cosmology), in order to demonstrate the Sun’s importance in
relation to its purpose as a symbol of communication and unity within Sámi religion, spiritual
practices, and literature.

2. A Focus on Fieldwork and the Interview

It should likewise be noted that I have accompanied Peter Armstrand to the Sámi shaman
festival, Isogaisa, which is an annual event in Lavangen, Tromso, Norway, in 2015, 2016, and 2017.
The festival is where people from different parts of Sápmi—the Sámi homelands areas, as well as areas
outside of Sápmi, come together and share their beliefs and practices with each other in relation to
ceremony, singing, rituals, and healing, which are different applications related to traditional Sámi
religion. The festival is a place where Armstrand sells the drums he makes to other Sámi persons as
well as non-Sámi. There are also handicrafts that are sold at the event as well as drum building
courses that are held occasionally. The ceremonies and practices that take place at the festival are tied
to expressions of Sámi pre-Christian religion within a contemporary setting. These can be seen in
terms of veneration for, and engagements with, sacred stones, reverence of Sámi spirits and ancestors,
drum use, drum circles and journeys, rituals, ceremonies, and healing practices using the drum and
joiking a form of Sámi singing. Observation of these applications and associations demonstrate how
there appears to be “inter-connected features and links, which show an unbroken link with the past”
(Helander-Renvall 2016, p. 85) that are visible within a range of relationships, enactments, and
procedures at the event.
As a method to elaborate on how the past is utilized in the present, the research material
presented below constitutes a short case study involving Peter Armstrand as an artist, drum maker,
and healer. The early photographic material was received from Armstrand at his home between
August 2014 and November 2019. I then did another interview in March 2020 by Skype in order to
expand on earlier correspondence. I wanted to obtain some background information about how he
became involved in the practice of shamanism and this is what Armstrand (2014, pp. 1–2), responded
with.
“I am 49-year-old healer and artist living in Kiruna, Swedish Sápmi with my wife Eva and I
am a forest Sámi.
My healing abilities started one day when my son’s mother complained of pain in her back.
I pulled the pain out of her with my hands. During my childhood days, I spent every
weekend at my grandparents’ home in Lainio; where I experienced them doing healing
work on occasions. From this period, the experiences encountered during time at their
home led me to undertake training as a healer, in order to become a professional person in
my adult life.
The type of spiritual healing I was trained in was Reiki healing for which I became a Master
Practitioner. In addition, I have also trained in Inca Tradition from South America in Munai-
Ki which means: I Love You, in terms of energy.
With regard to my family background, one of the stories, which have survived about my
great grandfather who was called Vaakina-Pekka (1859–1952), and his abilities was
published in a book titled: ‘Lainio –Our Home Village’, on the 650th centenary of the village
of Lainio in 1984. The story describes extraordinary events where Vaakina-Pekka
Religions 2020, 11, 270 4 of 22

reportedly walked over a swollen river without being swept away. Vaakina-Pekka was
known for his humility and fear because of his magical knowledge. In the village he was
one of the most famous noids. The tools he used for his healing work included a snake skin
and a stone which was kept in a special box that had never seen the light of day”.
As a reflection of what is noted above, Armstrand’s explanation of use of New Age healing
practices are illustrative of how a Sámi healer has flexibly utilized and combined such practices with
traditional Sámi healing practices by merging them together to give Sámi shamanism global
recognition, as both Reiki healing and Munai-Ki are universal healing systems, but the Sámi one is
concerned with the local, which he emphasized and which his work is grounded in. However, it
should be noted that there is an area of ambiguity by contrast to traditional practice of noaidivuohta
and the use of New Age spiritual practices among some Sámi shamans, as noted at the Sámi shaman
festival Isogaisa.
The aim of the research is to document the proposed case study to the extent that it demonstrates
the number of ways that Peter Armstrand, as a Sámi person, uses art, healing, and ritual as methods
to bring traditional Sámi practices related to spiritual traditions and Sámi religion into a
contemporary setting. This is presented through research of Armstrand’s work regarding how he
uses drum building, decoration, and a series of practices that not only help with rebuilding Sámi
culture, but also transmit cultural heritage, cosmology, shamanism, and myths for the purposes of
building and maintaining identity and preserving cultural memory through the processes of
remembering.
One of the most important contexts outlined within these applications is the collection of data
from Armstrand, which conveys how and why cosmological landscapes are painted onto the drums
he makes for therapeutic purposes with regard to communicating with Sámi spirits. The research
thus aims to elaborate on how these spiritual powers are called upon in order to receive help when
administering various forms of spiritual healing. Within these descriptions, I have attempted to
demonstrate links with Sámi pre-Christian religion as a method for illustrating connections between
the past and present in order to articulate aspects of continuity of tradition and practices; this has not
been easy because of the cross-over with New Age practices.
To help broaden the aforementioned aims, I am including three other painted drums made by
Armstrand (four in total), which he provides information about concerning the transmission of
culture through painted landscapes depicting the Sun as well as Sámi deities. This is for the purposes
of providing additional examples of how the symbols of both the Sun and deities are intricately linked
to Sámi language, and in what manner they function as systems of communication and in what ways
these can vary in their respective landscape settings. Henceforth, his explanations are aimed at
communicating religious beliefs that are part of a social institution, which are an intrinsic part of the
very fabric of Sámi society.
To further support the contemporary art and drum landscapes made by Armstrand, an
illustration of ancient Sámi drums taken from Ernst Manker’s esteemed works: Die Lappische
Zaubertrommel: Eine Ethnologische Monographie. 1, Die Trommel als Denkmal Materieller Kultur. [The
Lappish Drum: as an Ethnological Monograph, volumes 1 and 2, (1938 and 1950) is incorporated. This is
included because it helps validate the thinking in the mind of the Sámi noaidi who painted the
cosmological landscapes on the drum in the seventeenth century. In this sense the drum depicts how
using ancient art as a system of communication within Sámi society is linked to religious practices
and inter-species communication, which are important as expressions of both culture and identity as
well as connection to traditions and cultural memory. By the term ‘communication’ I am referring to
prayer, out-of-body travel, and sacrifice directed towards other spiritual dimensions of reality.
I implemented two approaches to the research. The first concerns the application of empathy in
the relational approach to the study concerning communication and cooperation with Armstrand,
which made the focus meaningful. What this means is that I extensively studied how throughout the
course of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Sámi history has been predominantly written by
priests and missionaries who were scholars, in relation to religious practices. As a consequence, this
led to their misrepresentation in order to bring the Sámi under the control of the Christian Churches,
Religions 2020, 11, 270 5 of 22

which can be seen as a method to destroy indigenous practices and traditions. In addition,
information collected from Sámi persons at that time in connection with their religious practices was
used against them in court cases in connections with accusations of sorcery; in fact, some Sámi in
Norway, Finland, and Sweden were given death-sentences for using the drum. Therefore, it is
important to understand the history of the indigenous Sámi and their culture, traditions, and
practices1.
Henceforth, the approach to the study supports building a foundation as a way of minimizing
research practices that are prejudiced by giving Armstrand a voice in the research. Presenting
photographs of his drums and using reliable sources written from within Sámi scholarship, validate
and affirm their contributions to the study and also help demonstrate in what ways tradition as
cultural inheritance can be seen as a flexible and constantly changing concept in relation to the
transmission of both material and spiritual culture and practices. My reasons for bringing these
elements together as someone who practices shamanism is for the purposes of outlining how in doing
so “[…] [my] quest is to be able to hear, feel, understand, and value the stories of […] [the research
participant] and to convey that felt empathy and understanding back to the
client/storyteller/participant. [Furthermore, and] when relevant, the quest also includes conveying
that felt understanding to a broader audience” Gair (2011: 134). The collection of data helps with
understanding how Sámi sacred drums as artifacts, connected to material culture, play a central role
and function in the development and formulation of identity in relation to Armstrand’s sense of self2.
I have chosen Vilma Hänninen’s narrative approach as a framework for application of the
research method regarding the analysis of the materials. In this case, it has value through its
implementation, given that it works rather well when combining both scholarly and artistic material
together. For instance, we see its “[…] ability to bring together various disciplines, as well as bridge
the gap between science and art” (Hänninen 2004, p. 69). This helps give the Sámi participant a voice
and equal representation that is supported with textual data. In essence, the stories and material
collected are deeply embedded in both personal and collective narratives and therefore, the narrative
approach “[…] is a primary way of organizing and giving coherence to […] experience” (Hänninen
2004, p. 71).
The inner and outer experiences of Armstrand presented below reflect past and present and are
therefore indicative of how cosmology, myths, and shamanism function in connection with various
types of religious experiences through multiple relationships and reuse of cultural heritage.
Therefore, the implementation of the narrative method provides a framework where “the inner
narrative can be seen to serve several functions: it makes sense of the past, provides a vision of the
future, defines the individual’s narrative identity, [and] articulates values […]” (Hänninen 2004, p.
74).3

3. Examples of Some of the Roles and Functions of the Sun as a Celestial Deity in Sámi Cosmology
from within Academic Sources
From observations of early literature written about Sámi cosmology, oral traditions, and myths,
the symbol of the Sun is typically portrayed as a positive healing force that brings warmth and makes
the grass grow to feed the reindeer. Sacrifices were made to the Sun, as it was worshipped as a major
deity who played a central role in fertility rites and healing because of its power and warmth (see for
example, Fragments of Lappish Mythology, Lars-Levi Laestadius [1838-1845] (2002, p8); also, the

1 More about this history can be found in the paper (Joy 2018): The Disappearance of the Sacred Swedish Sámi
Drum and the Protection of Sámi Cultural Heritage (2018), by Francis Joy.
2 In addition, I was given permission to undertake the interviews by Armstrand, and I sought permission to
take photographs of the drums he made and uses for healing and ritual work, as well as the photographs of
drums he sent to me.
3 It is likewise necessary to inform the reader that because of different Sámi dialects and languages, there are
various spellings of Sámi terms in relation to spirits, the Sun, and landscapes. Examples of these are
expressed in quotes by Sámi scholars especially in relation to the data regarding the roles and functions of
the Sun within the Sámi culture in Finland and Norway, for instance.
Religions 2020, 11, 270 6 of 22

work of Johannes Schefferus, The History of Lapland (Schefferus [1674] 1971)). In terms of portraits
of the Sun on a noaidi drum in the works of Laestadius (p. 8) and its position and status within Sámi
cosmology, editor Juha Pentikäinen notes how
“The celestial being is seen as a female deity of the sky and the second class of gods or
deities of the sky include Beiwe and Ailekis Olmak. Beiwe, the Sun is represented by a
quadrangle, figure number 4 on the drum. From each angle of the quadrangle runs a line
called Beiwe labtje (the Sun’s reins, i.e., rays). There were four of these reins and they signify
the Sun’s power of affecting all four directions of the wind” (Jessen 1767) (Pentikäinen 2002,
p. 77).
Furthermore, Sámi professor Elina Helander-Renvall (2005, p. 5) writes about in what ways,
“Older written accounts describe the Sun as the mother of all life and living animals. The
Sun is always important to the Sámi. […] The Sámi ask the Sun to shine: Beaivváš would
provide light to wanderers in the mountains, to farers at sea, and to herders searching for
lost reindeer. The Sun daughter’s many names indicate that in most Sami areas the Sun
appeared most often in female form”.
Another source from Sámi scholar Anna Westman (1997, p. 31) reflects in what way,
“In almost all circumpolar societies, there exists/existed the concept of female goddesses or
‘mothers’ who regulate fertility and protect family, especially women during pregnancy
and children. (…) Biejvve is also part of this complex. She is the burning fire in the sky, the
annually recurring force, which in springtime makes the hillsides turn green and ensures
there is food for the reindeer. She protects the reindeer calves during spring and sees to it
that women get milk from the animals during summer”.
Perhaps one of the most interesting and descriptive stories about the mythology concerning the
Sun with regard to its value and position on the Sámi drum and reindeer is found in stories related
by Sámi scholar of religion Jelena Sergejeva about Sámi folklore tales from amongst the Eastern Sámi
on the Kola Peninsula, north-west Russia. Sergejeva’s (2000, pp. 235–36) contribution reminds us of
how the knowledge of the environment has been important for understanding relationships between
the Sámi and the relativity of both truth and values attached to it, which can be seen through
Armstrand’s work today, as well as what is written by the other Sámi scholars presented below.
“The symbol of the Sun is usually thought to be represented on the Sami shaman’s drum as
a circle (in the north) or as a rhombus, from each corner of which there is a line (common
in the south). These four lines, which are like sunbeams, signify the power of the Sun
(Kharuzin 1890; Harva 1915, p. 61; Pentikäinen 1995, p. 120). According to many researchers
– for instance Kharuzin, who in turn quotes A. Erman-these lines mean the spreading of
power in four directions over the earth. A direct translation of the name of these lines, which
are known in research literature as nealja because labikje (old orthography), is four reins of
the sun (Kharuzin 1890, p. 143). […] It is no mere chance that there is an analogy between
the sunbeam, the lines of the sun’s power and reins, because, on the one hand, it is natural
from the point of view of an ancient reindeer-breeder. On the other hand, this analogy
seems to have deeper significance. In the Sami mythology, the sun was connected with
fertility. Reproduction of the reindeer/earlier wild deer and other animals was thought to
be closely connected to the warmth and power of the sun. The ancestors of the Kola Sami
illustrated the idea of a relationship between the Sun and fertility in ancient cave paintings.”
Sámi archaeologist from the Swedish side of Sápmi, Inga-Maria Mulk has, likewise, made an
interesting contribution to discussions concerning the Sun and its roles and functions on both drums
and in rock art. For example, Mulk (2004, p. 50) notes how on some of the south Sámi drums “the
cosmic power is represented as the image of the Sun in the drum’s center; as Tjoarvveahkka, the deity
with horns, in the upper world; as Mattarahkka’s three daughters in the everyday (middle) world; and
as Jabmeahkka, deity of the dead, in the underworld” (Manker 1938, 1950; Mulk 1985, 1994).
Religions 2020, 11, 270 7 of 22

A further contribution by Mulk accounts the roles, functions, and manifestations of the Sun as
documented in early sources described below by Sámi student Nicolaus Lundius and Jacob Fellman,
for example, who refers to the following regarding its value, roles, and functions in Sámi myths and
cosmology.
“The Sun belongs to the upper world and is another aspect of the Earth Mother figure. In
the Sami worldview, the Sun (Biejvve) is feminine and, as Mother Áhkká, her role is the
creation of life. For example, Nicolaus Lundius in the 1670s recorded that for the Sami the
Sun is “Mother of all living creatures” (Lundius 1905; Westman 1997). Almost all drums
have an image of the sun placed in a center among the heavenly gods and goddesses, of
whom Mattarahkka is the most important.
Mattarahkka belongs to all spheres but was primarily associated with aspects of the upper
world—the south, warmth, the source of life. As the primordial, original or first mother,
Mattarahkka was a deity with multiple qualities (Fellman 1906; Rank 1949, 1955; Bäckman
1982). Together Mattarahkka and Biejvve were seen as the cosmic force that created life and
ended it. These two deities represented the forefathers and foremothers of the Sami people,
as well as symbolizing their belief in reincarnation.
Some of Mattarahkka’s different aspects were represented in the earthly sphere by her three
daughters Sarahkka, Juoksahkka and Uksahkka, who are depicted on Sami drums usually
standing together in a line […]. Juoksahkka’s symbol is a bow while Sarahkka and Uksahkka
hold staffs with cleft sticks. Mattarahkka might also be found in the underworld as
Jabmeahkka, the goddess of death. Together these deities symbolized the cosmic force that
created life and ended it” (Mulk 2004, pp. 54–55).
It seems almost certain the Sun and its solar power as a deity has been a focal point for reverence
and worship and expression in its many forms by the Sámi because of its warmth and healing powers,
turning darkness to light and cold into warmth. In addition, and according to the edited works of
Salisbury et al. (1997, p. 6), in their writing about Finnish Sámi poet and artist Nils-Aslak Valkeapää,
it is mentioned how “according to one myth, the Sami are the children of the Sun, and the poet honors
that myth”. This belief is in Valkeapää’s written works titled The Sun my Father—Beaivi, Áhcázan
(1988).
These literature sources are included because they help us to become familiar with
interpretations and scholarly-produced learning about Sami knowledge systems, and in a broader
sense communicate how Armstrand uses the traditional knowledge he has to reflect Sámi myths,
deities, and cosmological landscapes for the purposes of portraying practices and beliefs today that
coherently reproduce aspects of Sámi culture in various contemporary settings.
Regarding a further emphasis and explanation of the importance of the Sun as a healing force
amongst the Sámi, the focus now turns to use of a healing drum with the Sun at its center belonging
to Peter Armstrand, which is pictured below (Figures 1 and 2). The sacred vessel is decorated with
Áhkká goddesses, namely, Mádderáhkká, Sáráhkká, Uksáhkká, and Jouksáhkká, and their significance as
co-creators regarding the existence of the Sámi people. When asked to explain the significance of both
the Sun symbol and Áhkká goddesses painted on the drum landscape and use of the instrument,
Armstrand answered in the following way.
“The drum I use for healing is a bowl type drum I made myself, five years ago, from birch
burl, and it has a reindeer skin sewn onto it.
It is painted with acrylic paints on the skin, and inside the drum are Sámi symbols, which
have been burned on to it. I also continue to search for old Sámi symbols. When the Sámi
spirits give me symbols, I can use them as well for healing and to put inside the drum.
The Sámi spirits play a very important role in the healing work I do. I call upon them to
help provide knowledge, insight and guidance when helping other persons, and also in my
Religions 2020, 11, 270 8 of 22

development as a healer. During ceremonies, I call in all the Áhkká Goddesses who help
protect me and the circle and I use joiking when I feel the need to.
The use of the drum is important because the vibrations from the drum go deep into the
body and help to release pain, which many people who come for healing, have. For some
people, I cannot use the drum because it is too powerful for them, and the healing power
raises issues, which they might not be strong enough or willing to face” (Armstrand 2014,
p. 3).
“The pictures came to my mind about how to decorate this drum head. My guides gave
them to me. The Sun is the source or wellspring of life for us Sámi people and it can help
restore life to people who are sick. The Sun is the most powerful deity. A strong
combination of earth energy from the female Áhkká goddesses incorporated with the
masculine power of the Sun (water and fire) are a powerful combination used for healing”
(Armstrand 2019, p. 1).
In reflecting on Armstrand’s perspective, as stated above, it is important to understand how this
makes a significant contribution to better understanding Sámi healing practices, cosmological
orientation, and application of traditional knowledge, and how sharing is one of the ways he is
helping to maintain, preserve, and sustain this knowledge.

4. Peter Armstrand’s Healing Drum and Interpretations of the Sun Symbol

Observations of the work of Armstrand undertaken during fieldwork helped to understand a
number of ways that his behavior as both a drum maker and healer appeared as being contributory
in reshaping and rebuilding both individual and collective identity and traditions: linking both past
and present together into a unified whole within Armstrand’s own personal practices. The purpose
of approaching the subject matter in this manner is firstly because, through this individual case study,
evidence was presented on how cultural practices are rebuilt and culture revived and transmitted
through art and spiritual practice; where cultural landscapes act as a bridge not only between culture
and nature, but past and present as well. Moreover, by formulating the data as it is presented above,
this method aims to demonstrate what is presented below in terms of how firstly, tradition is a flexible
and constantly changing concept; and secondly, what role the old Sámi cosmological landscapes
painted on drums play as elements of material culture, as well as oral traditions and stories in relation
to these changes that take place on both social and spiritual levels. Henceforth, linking the past with
the present through heritage practices, beliefs, and ancestral memory that are demonstrative of a
holistic worldview that has many dimensions to it. Through feedback from Armstrand, in terms of
both the healing work administered by him as well as drum making and decoration, it is possible to
comprehend in what ways, in connection with his spiritual needs, there is a working relationship and
interdependence on transcendent spiritual beings for everyday matters as well as those concerning
the development and transmission of culture and tradition.
Religions 2020, 11, 270 9 of 22

Figure 1. The painted Sun symbol on Peter Armstrand’s drum, which is divided into four sections
that contain illustrations and symbols depicting the Áhkká goddesses. “The Sun’s rays are also
painted around the outside of the circle as a way to illustrate its healing power” (Armstrand 2014, p.
8). Photograph and copyright Francis Joy 2014.
Religions 2020, 11, 270 10 of 22

Figure 2. A slightly faded illustration of the four female Sámi deities of the Áhkká group are pictures
in the Sun symbol, which is divided into the four quarters of north, east, south, and
west.“Mádderáhkká, the Mother Goddess of the Earth is pictured in the top left section. In the top right
section is Uksáhkká. The bottom left section is Jouksáhkká, and Sáráhkká is pictured in the bottom right
section of the drum” (Armstrand 2014, p. 10). Photograph and copyright Francis Joy 2014.

The Áhkká goddesses inside the Sun appear to have two recognizable paradigms to them. The
first concerns how Armstrand does not live as a reindeer herder. Armstrand lives in a remote area of
Religions 2020, 11, 270 11 of 22

a town in northern Sweden and works in a school. Therefore, Armstrand’s own cosmology seems
very much concerned with the domestic sphere of people and family life. The Áhkká goddesses are
very much affiliated with the earthly life of family, childbirth, baptism, and human affairs as well as
protection of family members and the dwelling place. This might indicate as to why the four
goddesses depicted in the drumhead are at the center of his own personal cosmology. In addition to
what Armstrand has stated above, I had further personal correspondence with the drum maker on
14 December 2019, concerning the revival of Sámi religion, the important role and function of the Sun
as a deity, and why it was important he attended Isogaisa Sámi shaman festival. Armstrand then
responded in the following way.
“For every drum I make and every drum other Sámi drum maker’s make, they are bringing
back Sámi religion. When I go out into nature and play the drum, I believe the old spirits of
nature wake up and want to work with us again. It is slow but the seeds are being sown
that will grow again if they are cared for.
The Sun was one of the highest deities because it made things grow through its light. When
the Sun returned after the Polar Nights, people began to celebrate again as it brought new
energy. Therefore, the Áhkká goddesses on my drum inside the Sun are a symbol of how
they and the Sun help the human world with their powers.
Isogaisa has been a place where we can meet with other people who work in a similar
capacity. People from other countries, which has created a unifying experience”
(Armstrand 2019, p. 1).
In relation to Figure 3, the artwork on the drum depicts both old and new symbolism, consisting
of a Sámi noaidi at the bottom of the drum, holding a drum and hammer and the four Áhkká goddesses
positioned at each of the quarters of north, east, south, and west.
“The role and function of Mádderáhkká, as the mother goddess of creation stands out because
the image of her is larger than the ones of her three daughters. The old Sámi Sun symbol
with the new Sámi flag represents the Sámi people and Sápmi, the homeland areas. The new
image helps illustrate how the Sun still plays a central role and function in cosmology for
the Sámi people, giving energy and power to us as well as the whole of Sápmi” (Armstrand
2014 p. 1).
When I later asked Armstrand for a further elaboration of the importance of the Sámi flag inside
the Sun symbol, depicted below through figure three, the response was as follows.
“This drum and its content are a representation of Sámi religion. This is because the shaman
at the bottom of the drum is drumming for the Sámi people, the Sun and all the Gods. The
old symbols and figures are important as they are a source of inspiration for my work.
When I make the drums, it is important to make them in a new way but equally as important
to keep the old knowledge because it is essential to remember and to reflect on the old
customs and traditions.
When I reflect on old drums before making a new one, it is really important to honour and
remember the old Sámi noaidi who gave their lives for the Christian world. Therefore, in
this way, contemporary drum making combines past and present so the cultural memory
lives on, as do the religious practices” (Armstrand 2020, p. 1).
The aforementioned quote by Armstrand is necessary to acknowledge in terms of how the
individual reflects on the painful past regarding persecution of noaidi, which is how the demise of
Sámi pre-Christian religion began. Although, he does not clearly say so, his words give the
impression that the events of the past might play a critical function regarding the determination he
has for reanimating Sámi traditions and rebuilding culture in a contemporary setting.
With regard to Figure 4, the drums origins are documented as being from “Lule Lappmark”
(Manker 1938, p. 791). In the center is a Sun symbol (number 10). What makes this interesting is it is
Religions 2020, 11, 270 12 of 22

the only Sun symbol on the surviving drums which has a cross inside of it. Therefore, it is possible to
understand how Armstrand has sought inspiration from drum number 65 in Manker’s book, Die
Lappische Zaubertrommel: Eine Ethnologische Monographie. 2, Die Trommel als Urkunde Geistigen Lebens
The Lappish Drum: An Ethnological Monograph. 2. The Drum as a Record of Spiritual Life (Manker 1950).
The Sun symbol in this drum is what motivated Armstrand in his decoration of different drums, the
photographs of which the drum maker sent to me, describing the following. “This is a beautiful
symbol; small but really powerful. This Sun on the old drum is what inspired me to reuse it on the
drums I build” (Armstrand 2020, p. 1). Examples of these are featured below (Figures 3, 5 and 6).
When I asked Armstrand if it was possible to reflect a little more comprehensively about the
shape and design of the Sun symbol on drum number 65 (Figure 4), the drum maker said “after the
polar nights are ended in January, there appears an old natural optical phenomenon in the sky when
the Sun begins to shine again and there are lots of ice crystals in the atmosphere. The Sun shows
himself to us again and quite often through a phenomenon called a Sundog, which is like a large halo
around the Sun. The symbol of the Sun on drum number 65 is a good example of this in my mind,
and it why I have used it a lot on the drums I make” (Armstrand 2014, p. 1).
Being able to comprehend this explanation enabled me to further understand the links between
the old drum in Figure 4 and in particular, all the contemporary drums made by Armstrand and thus,
get a better understanding of the drum makers knowledge, as well as his interpretation of the Sun
symbol on Manker’s illustration of the drum and its significance.
“[Regarding figure 5] The drum was made in the winter season and therefore, the image reflects
the spirit of this time. The fox is also a representation of freedom and curiosity. The Sun is portrayed
with the Sundog phenomena present in its position, partly below the horizon because it only reaches
this height during the winter months” (Armstrand 2014, p. 1). Photograph and copyright Peter
Armstrand (2014). The Sundog phenomena is captured beautifully through figure 7.
“[In relation to figure 6] the cosmological landscape depicts “Mádderáhkká, the Mother Goddess
of the earth who is pictured in the top of the drum. In the center of the drum is the Sun and its four
rays stretching out in the winter landscape. On the top of the northern ray is a phenomenon that also
appears as part of the Sundog or Sun parhelion phenomenon during Winter (as seen on Figure 7). At
either side of the Sun rays are the Gods of the wind Bieggolmái, and thunder, Horágálles. I have
characterized human manifestations of the Sámi deities because they are always with us in the human
world. In the top right section is the bottom left section is Jouksáhkká, Sáráhkká and Uksáhkká”
(Armstrand 2020, p. 1).
Religions 2020, 11, 270 13 of 22

Figure 3. A cultural landscape painted on a modern-day Sámi drum also made by Armstrand.
Photograph and copyright Peter Armstrand (2014).
Religions 2020, 11, 270 14 of 22

Figure 4. A Sámi drum pictured as number 65 in Ernst Manker’s inventory (Manker 1950, p. 417).
Religions 2020, 11, 270 15 of 22

Figure 5. An illustration of the spirit of the Arctic Fox. In the background is the Winter Sun and
mountains (Armstrand 2014, p. 1).
Religions 2020, 11, 270 16 of 22

Figure 6. Pictured here is a fourth drum made by Armstrand.

Religions 2020, 11, 270 17 of 22

Figure 7. An example of the optical phenomena seen here in this photograph. Peter Armstrand
wondered whether or not the shape of the Sun at this time of the year was the inspiration for the oval
construction of the Sámi drum since time immemorial and thus, one of the reasons why the oval
construction was unique to the Sámi people. Photograph taken by Peter Gossas (2018):
https://www.svt.se/vader/fragor_och_svar/vad-ar-halo.

5. New Perspectives on Sámi Symbolism and Cultural Practices

In terms of trying to establish links between Sámi religion from the past through the
contemporary practices documented in the aforementioned with regard to the work of Armstrand, it
could be argued how, as part of the processes involved in the construction of identity formulation as
well as the transmission of culture and heritage, through drum building and decoration, each of these
examples above brings into focus the following points: They provide a broader understanding
concerning the important role and function art plays in relation to cultural memory, the creation and
preservation of cosmological landscapes on drums, as well as the healing activities drums are used
for.
Furthermore, combining art, beliefs, and drum use in relation to their functions as part of the
socio-cultural system that underlies Sámi religion, these practices illustrate what Sámi scholar Elina
Helander-Renvall (2009, p. 44) refers to as “the inter-subjective character of human and non-human
relationships”, which are a central component in “Sámi perspectives on the nature of reality”
Helander-Renvall (2009, p. 44).
Bringing the stories behind the creation and decoration of new types of drums and their
landscapes together, in addition to the literature sources, presents important examples in connection
with how the migration and influence of symbolism from the seventeenth century to modern life
have taken place through transmission of culture. In this sense, we are able to better understand in
what ways the reuse of cultural heritage has a sacred function in creating new knowledge systems
that empower Armstrand and the wider Sámi community, thus, adding value and meaning to their
implementation and use. The contexts in which beliefs are applied and executed through drum
making and decoration, healing practices, and ritual, benefits Sámi culture and reflects Sámi
traditional religion because of how Sámi beliefs give “credit [to] natural phenomena [said to be
imbued] with spirit and soul, and attributes life to such phenomena as trees, thunder or celestial
bodies” (Bird-David [1999] 2002, p. 74).
The explanation of the creation, value, and application of the Sun symbol containing illustrations
of the representations of the Áhkká goddesses on Armstrand’s drums likewise suggests the drums
Religions 2020, 11, 270 18 of 22

have their own souls and that Armstrand, as the healer, uses the painted drums for establishing
communication with spiritual beings within Sámi cosmology, through prayers and reverence. In this
sense, it seems evident he is undertaking the role and function of noaidi or shaman as the mediator
between the different worlds that comprise the cosmology of the Sámi people as seen manifested
through their traditional religion and practices, which are in this case still a living part of daily life.
If we can understand how building and decoration of drums, engaging in healing practices as
well as joiking, ceremonies and rituals of various kinds are all art forms, then there is a better
understanding of the following: The important role and function art plays in the restoration,
development, and maintenance of identity and tradition in relation to creating structures and
frameworks for drum users, such as Armstrand, to operate within; moreover, where beliefs and
perceptions about religion are transmitted. Understanding this helps us see how the past influences
the present in connection with transmission of both culture and memory.
Comprehension of Armstrand’s work is demonstrative of how both the value and power of
ancient symbolism works in relation to healing. Not only because of the Sun symbol and Áhkká
goddesses depicted on the drum heads, but also the fact that there are ancient symbols inside the
drum itself he uses for healing which is evidential of the ways the drum both embeds and embodies
the language of the symbols as systems of communication. Henceforth, the language and authority
of the noaidi is conveyed through drum use and relationships. Moreover, the processes involved in
application and use of the drum is symbolic of how Sámi culture is based on symbolism that has been
used for a very long time for transmission of culture, identity building, interaction, and
interdependency with other life forms from the invisible worlds.
Armstrand’s work provides one example of how Sámi knowledge is returning to the world from
within the shadows of the past; this is visible to some extent through combining his own life story
and that of his ancestors with history and mythology. I would conclude that through Armstrand’s
approaches to his work, which emphasize systems of communication, the path of healing, and
restoration of culture and heritage practices, the interviews and photographic materials presented in
this work help to establish, in a number of ways, the means by which Sámi religion plays a central
role and function within such processes.
Finally, epic tales and stories perform a critical function in Sámi religion in the way they contain
expressions of Noaidivuohta, just like stories take up a central position in other religions. The noaidi as
tradition bearer is one of the key figures responsible for the transmission of experience, expressions,
culture, and heritage, through ways of knowing, which takes place when oral memories and myths
are transformed into art. Symbolism as such include ecological landscapes, sacred sites, spirits, and
departed ancestors; thus, exhibiting the unusual qualities of the noaidi as someone who communicates
between worlds and remembers.
Inside the middle of the octagon is a central fire representing the Sun. The four lavvus could be
viewed as manifestations of the Sun’s rays reaching out into the directions of north, east, south, and
west because each of the four lavvus’ has a fire inside of it.
The symbol of the Sámi flag on the lavvu (seen in Figure 8) is also present at the festival each
year. According to Kåven and Svonni (2018, p. 1) “the Sami flag represents the Sámi people and Sápmi
and it carries the Sámi colours red, blue, green and yellow. These colours are most common
traditional colours to use on Sámi clothing. It has a circle that symbolizes the Sun in red, and the
Moon in blue. The yellow and the green are symbols of nature and the animals”.
Religions 2020, 11, 270 19 of 22

Figure 8. As a way of demonstrating further interlocking features and structures associated with Sámi
religion and cosmological landscapes, the layout of the ritual landscape at the Sámi shaman festival,
Isogaisa, which shows three of the four lavvus connected with the octagon area in-between them,
suggests a ritualized landscape. Photograph and copyright Francis Joy 2015.

From observations through attendance at the Isogaisa festival, there is always a fire-keeper
present whose responsibility is to keep the fire burning for the duration of the event. Fire, as is seen
in figure 9, plays a central role in Sámi religion in terms of it being a gateway into the spiritual realms
for noaidi. Photograph and copyright Francis Joy 2015.
Religions 2020, 11, 270 20 of 22

Figure 9. Inside the octagon area at the Isogaisa festival where the central fire can be seen here as Sámi
shaman Eirik Myrhaug lights it during the opening ceremony in 2015.

6. Concluding Remarks
The short case study presented above demonstrates the need for further discussion in relation
to formulating a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between tradition and
modernity as a method to help better grasp more broadly what constitutes Sámi religion in
contemporary society. Henceforth, a wider understanding is needed regarding how in terms of art,
the reuse of ancient symbolism combined with healing practices and ritual act as a bridge between
culture and nature that is characterized by relationships. One of the main ways these relationships
are portrayed is through painted landscapes, which are applied to the membrane of the Sámi drums
which acts as a template for recording religious experiences, reverence, prayer, and remembering. In
this sense, the decoration of drums helps create a bridge between the human world and the divine
powers in nature and cosmos. Moreover, and in the contexts presented above, how the decoration of
the drum is used to form a bridge between the ancient culture of the Sámi and the culture of today.
The construction, decoration, and use of the drums in relation to Peter Armstrand and his work
characterizes how for this Sámi person, art and ritual reflects aspects of Sámi culture, religion, and
spiritual traditions and practices that emerge from within different contexts, as depicted through the
contrasting drum landscapes. This is a way of expressing individual beliefs, thoughts, and feelings,
which not only bring healing and empowerment to those seeking help, but likewise, for the
participant himself whose determination carries him forward with a sense of pride for being Sámi.
Since it has not been possible to draw an in-depth, comprehension of Sámi religion through this one
individual case study, Peter Armstrand’s contribution to this discussion highlights the need for
further dialogue on the subject matter and a much broader study of these ancient traditions and
practices, that predate Christianity by thousands of years. This is in order to better understand how
traditions are continuously changing within the Sámi worldview and culture is transmitted across
generations.
Funding: This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments: I would like to express my sincere thanks to Peter Armstrand for his cooperation in writing
this paper.
Religions 2020, 11, 270 21 of 22

Conflicts of Interest: The author declare no conflict of interest.

References
Bäckman, Louise. 1982. Female—Divine and Human. A Study of the Position of the Woman in Religion and
Society in Northern Eurasia. In The Hunters, their Culture and Way of Life. Edited by Åke Hultkrantz and
Ørnulv Vorren Tromso. Oslo and Bergen: Universitetsforlaget, pp. 143–62.
Bird-David, Nurit. 2002. Animism Revisited: Personhood, Environment and Relational Epistemology. In
Readings in Indigenous Religions. Edited by Graham Harvey. London and New York: London Continuum,
pp. 72–105. First published 1999.
Fellman, Jacob. 1906. Avteckningar Undermin Vistelse i Lappmarken, 4. Helsinki: Finska Litteratursallskapets
Tryckeri.
Fonneland, Trude. 2015. The Festival Isogaisa: Neoshamanism in New Arenas. In Nordic Neoshamanisms. Edited
by Siv-Ellen, Kraft, Trude, Fonneland, and James R. Lewis. The International Society for the Study of New
Religions; Published in New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 215–34.
Gair, Susan. 2011. Feeling Their Stories: Contemplating Empathy, Insider/Outsider Positionings, and Enriching
Qualitative Research. Qualitative Health Research (QHR). Sage Journals 22: 134–43.
doi:10.1177/1049732311420580.
Hänninen, Vilma. 2004. A Model of Narrative Circulation. In Narrative Inquiry. Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V.,
vol. 14, pp. 69–85.
Harva, Uno. 1915. Lappalaisten Uskonto. Hämeenlinna and Porvoossa: Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö.
Helander-Renvall, Elina. 2005. Silde—Mythic Texts and Stories. Helsinki: Kalevaprint Oy.
Helander-Renvall, Elina. 2009. Animism, Personhood and the Nature of Reality: Sami Perspectives. In Polar
Record. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 44–56.
Helander-Renvall, Elina. 2016. Sámi Society Matters. Rovaniemi: Lapland University Press.
Jessen, Erich, Johan. 1767. Afhandling on de Norske Finners og Lappers Hedenske Religion Meden Tegning a
fen Rune-Bomme. Incouded in one Volume Alongside Knud Leem, Beskrivelse Over Finnmarkens Lapper,
Deres Tungemaal, Levemaade og Forrige Afgudsdykelse. Copenhagen. Kongel Wäysenhuses
Bogtrykkerie.
Joy, Francis. 2018. The Disappearance of the Sacred Swedish Sámi Drum and the Protection of Sámi Cultural
Heritage. Polar Record: A Journal of Arctic and Antarctic Research 54: 255–66. Available online:
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/polar-record/article/disappearance-of-the-sacred-swedish-
sami-drum-and-the-protection-of-sami-cultural-heritage/1B84B02BDC1CC0E0F5F81B2726C02F67
(accessed on 20 March 2020).
Kåven, Elin, and Jungle, Svonni. 2018. The Sami Flag. The Sami Are the Children of the Sun. Beneath Northern
Lights. Available online: https://beneathnorthernlights.com/the-sami-flag/ (accessed on 11 December 2019)
Kharuzin, Nikolay. 1890. Russkiye Lopari. Izvestiya Russkogo Imperatorskogo Obshchestva Lyubiteley
Yestestvoznaniya, Antropologii I Etnografii LXVI. Moscow: Trudy Etnograficheskogo Otdela X. Moskva.
Kraft, Siv Ennen. 2009. Sami Indigenous Spirituality: Religion and Nation-building in Norwegian Sápmi.
Temenos, The Nordic Journal of Comparative Religion 45: 179–206. Published by The Finnish Society for the
Study of Religion.
Laestadius, Lars-Levi. 2002. Fragments of Lappish Mythology. Edited by Juha Pentikäinen. Aspasia Books. Toronto,
Montreal and Whitehorse: Beaverton, pp. 1838–45.
Lehtola, Veli-Pekka. 2002. The Sámi People: Traditions in Transition. Aanaar and Inari: Kustannus-Puntsi.
Lundius, Nicolaus. A. 1905. Descriptio Lapponiae. Stockholm: Nyare Bidrag till Kannedom om de Svenska
Landsmalen och Svenskt Folkliv.
Manker, Ernst Mauritz. 1938. Die Lappische Zaubertrommel:Eeine Ethnologische Monographie. 1, Die Trommel als
Denkmal Materieller Kultur. [The Lappish Drum: as an Ethnological Monograph 1. The Drum as a Monument of
Material Culture], Acta Lapponica 1. Stockholm: Thule.
Manker, Ernst Mauritz. 1950. Die Lappische Zaubertrommel: Eine Ethnologische Monographie. 2, Die Trommel als
Urkunde Geistigen Lebens The Lappish Drum: an Ethnological Monograph. 2. The Drum as a Record of Spiritual
Life], Acta Lapponica 6. Stockholm: Gebers.
Mulk, Inga-Maria. 1985. The Wild Reindeer Hunt and Associated Ceremonial Symbols. In Honorem Evert Baudou
(Archaeology and Environment 4). Umea: Department of Archaeology, pp. 435–41.
Religions 2020, 11, 270 22 of 22

Mulk, Inga-Maria. 1994. Sirkas—ett Samiskt Fangstsamhalle i forandring Kr.f. ‐ 1600 e.Kr. Umea: Umea Univ.,
Arkeologiska Institutionen.
Mulk, Inga-Maria. 2004. Depictions in Sami Rock Art of the Mother Earth Figure. In Shamanhood and Art. Edited
by Elvira Eevr Djaltchinova-Malec and Akademiai Kiadó Budapest. Warsaw and Torun: Polish Institute of
World Art Studies & Tako Publishing House, pp. 47–72.
Pentikäinen, Juha. 1995. Saameliaset Pohjoisen Kansan Mytologia. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran
Toimituksia 596.
Pentikäinen, Juha. 2002. Beiwe—The Sun. In Laestadius, Lars‐Levi. [1838–1845] 2002. Fragments of Lappish
Mythology. Edited by Juha Pentikäinen. Beaverton: Beaverton Canada. Aspasia Books, pp. 77–78.
Rank, Gustav. 1949. Kysymys Lapin Madderakan Jahanen Tyttuariensa Alkuperasta. Kalevalaseuran Vuosikirja
29: 180–247.
Rank, Gustav. 1955. Lapp Female Deities of the Madder‐Akka Group. Studia Septentrionalia 6. Oslo: Aschehoug, pp.
7–79.
Salisbury, Ralph, Lars, Nordström, and Harald, Gaski. trans. 1997. Nils‐Aslak Valkeapää—The Sun, My Father.
English ed. Vaasa: Ykkös-Offset Oy.
Schefferus, Johannes. The History of Lapland, Wherein Are Shewed the Original, Manners, Habits &c. of that People.
Suecica rediviva 22. Facsimile ed. Stockholm: Bokforlaget Rediviva. First published 1674.
Sergejeva, Jelena. 2000. The Sun as Father of the Universe in the Kola and Skolt Sami Tradition—The Symbol of
the Sun in Language and Cultural Patterns. In Sámi Folkloristics. Edited by Juha Pentikäinen, in Cooperation
with Harald Gaski, Vuokko Hirvonen, Jelena Sergejeva and Krister Stoor. Turku: Åbo Akademi University,
pp. 233–53.
Westman, Anna. 1997. The Sun in Sámi Mythology. Acta Borealia, a Nordic Journal of Circumpolar Societies 14: 31–58.
Armstrand, Peter. 2014. Interview with a Swedish Saami Noid. Kiruna: Swedish Lapland, pp. 1–10.
Armstrand, Peter. 2019. Interview with Peter Armstrand Regarding the Sun Symbol and Áhkká Goddesses on the Healing
Drum Head: 1.
Armstrand, Peter. 2020. Interview with Peter Armstrand Regarding the Cosmological Landscapes on New Sámi Drums: 1

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).