Agriculture Is The Backbone of Nepalese Economy

Agriculture is the backbone of Nepalese economy, means of livelihood for the majority of the
Nepalese population and the source of income and employment. Agriculture contributes about
25.7% of the GDP and 65.6% for the employment (MOALD,2020)
Maize ( Zea mays L) commonly known as corn in the USA and Canada, considered as the third
most important cereal grain worldwide after wheat and rice.(Golob et al.) Maize was considered
as the future cereal for its nutritional value and utilization of its products and by-products (lee,
1999). Due to diverse uses of the corn from human food and animal fed to ethanol production,
there has been significant increase of demand of maize throughout the world (FA0,2016). Maize
per capita consumption in Nepal was 98 g/person/day (Ranum et al., 2014). Along with serving
as human food and animal feed, maize was found to be applied for industrial applications. In
addition to staple food, maize also served as a basic raw material as an ingredient to thousands of
industrial products starch, oil, protein, alcoholic beverages, food sweeteners, pharmaceuticals,
cosmetic, film, textile, gum, package and paper industries etc. (Masood, et al., 2011).
2.1) Weed flora and their effects on maize yield

There are several factors that results in the yield losses in crops due to weeds such as weed
emergence time, weed density, type of weeds, and crops, etc. Weed can result up to 100% yield
loss if left uncontrolled and unchecked. In Australia, around AUD 3.3 billion is estimated for the
overall cost of weeds for the farmers (Llewellyn et al., 2016). Weeds amounted to 2.7 million
tons of grain at a national level in the terms of the yield loss. Over 11 billion USD annually
hampers to agriculture production system due to weeds. (Gharde et al., 2018). As the weed
compete for light, water, nutrients and carbon dioxide that ultimately reduce the crop yield and
interfere with harvesting and increase the cost involved in crop production depending on the type
of weed flora, intensity and duration of crop weed competition (Oekre, 2005). There is no
significant or gain of weeding in maize after the critical period of weed removal as it can result
in up to 83% losses in grain yield (Ehsas et al., 2016). First six weeks DAS of maize is the most
critical period for crop-weed competition which may reduce the yield up to 28-100% (Daas et
al.,2012). Gopinath and Kundu (2008) reported that in order to achieve the higher yields the
weed competition during the early crop growth stages should be low. During this period,
weeding is essentially required. Physical and mechanical means of the weeding are not cost
effective i.e expensive and many times timely operations are not possible due to continuous rains
in monsoon season [Chopra and Angiras 2008)]. Density, competitiveness and emergence
periodicity of the weed population determines the critical period of the crop weed competition.
(Evans et al.,2003) ( Bystro JP et al.,2012)
Porwal (2000) observed that the winter season maize was dominated by broad leaf weeds
like Chenopodium album, C. murale, Melilotus indicia, Anagallis arvensis, Convolvulus
arvensis and Euphorbia hirta, sedges like Cyperus rotundus and grass like Cynodon dactylon.
Malvaiya and Singh (2007) observed the Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon, Eclipta alba,
Solanum nigrum, Digeria arvensis, Phyllanthus niruri, Echinochloa colonum and Commelina
benghalensis as the predominant weed species that infest the maize fields. However at 90 days
after sowing the weed species found were: Cyperus rotundus (55.08 % and 54.99%), Cynodon
dactylon (36.91% and 37.05%), Echinochloa colonum (3.91% and 4.05%) and Commelina
benghalensis (3.92% and 4.05%).Similarly, Tahir et al. (2009) observed that the major weeds in
the field of spring maize were Cyperus rotundus, Tribulus terrestris, Dactyloctenium aegyptium,
Cynodon dactylon, Fumaria indica, Chenopodium album, Convolvulus arvensis, Rumex dentatus
and Portulaca oleracea.
Sharma et al. (2000) observed that the loss in grain yield up to 42.3% in one year and 32.4%
in the succeeding year due to the uncheck weed growth of the rainfed maize. Pandey et al.,
(2001), found a serious negative impact in the crop production and the losses varying from the
28 to 100% due to kharif season maize weeds. Dangwal et al., (2011) observed that weeds
caused the devastating damaged to the producers i.e farmer which reduce the yield of maize crop
by 30.61%.
2.2) Effect of weed management on maize yield

Joshi (2004) stated that first weeding on 14 days after emergence i.e around 21 days produced
the highest plant stand (32/7.2 m-2),plant height (190 cm), crop biomass (8.1 t ha-1),the number
of ears (38888 ha-1) and grain yield\(4.3 t ha-1). He concluded that the two weeding practices
appeared to be economical in farmer field condition i.e first weeding practice done 25-30 DAS
and second weeding practices done 50-60 DAS. During the first 4 weeks, the crop canopy of the
growth of maize is inadequate to smother the weed growth due to its wider row spacing and slow
growth so the weed competition in crop field is in variably severe in early stage of crop growth
than later stage. If weed is uncontrolled between the period 15-45 days it results in the loss of 15
to 40% grain yield reduction as these periods are the critical for the weed crop competition
(Mishra, 1997). Generally, first 35 days after sowing, field should be made weed free for the
optimum yield in a crop of 100 days duration. Intensity of infestation, time of occurrence and type
of weeds determines the extent of losses caused by the weeds. (Reedy and Reddi, 1997). Both types
of weeds (narrow/grassy and broad) infest the maize field.
2.3) Atrazine
Application: used as pre- emergence or early post emergence
Mode of action: It is mostly absorbed through roots as pre-emergence application in maize and
enters the plant parts rapidly, then accumulates in the apical meristem and in chloroplasts of
susceptible weed species. Photosynthesis and enzyme reaction are inhibited by it. At first, in
mature leaves it causes foliar chlorosis showing margin inwards. It prevents the opening of
stomata in the presence of the light by reducing thickness of cell wall. Plant and root system are
weakened by the inhibition of carbohydrate synthesis resulting in subsequent death of weeds
(Kannur, 2008).
Uses: Selective preemergence herbicide for control of many broadleaf weeds and grasses in
maize, sorghum, sugarcane, pineapple, turf and orchards. However, in non-crop areas and in
minimal or no tillage programmes in maize and sorghum it is also used as non-selective
herbicides (Rao, 2000). It is recommended at the rate of 1- 4 kg actual/ ha and 10-15 kg actual/ha
as seasonal soil sterilant.
2.4 ) 2,4-D ethyl ester

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) was the first synthetic herbicide to be commercially
developed having molecular formula C8H6Cl2O3and has commonly been used as a broadleaf
herbicide for over 60 years. It is a selective and systematic herbicide used as post emergence that
kills dicots without affecting monocots and mimics natural auxin at the molecular level.
Physiological responses of dicots sensitive to auxinic herbicides include abnormal growth,
senescence, and plant death. The identification of auxin receptors, auxin transport carriers,
transcription factors response to auxin, and cross-talk among phytohormones have shed light on
the molecular action mode of 2,4-D as a herbicide
2.5) Effects of herbicidal control on weed density and yield of maize
Shankar et al. (2015) found that the lower density and dry weight of the weeds/m 2 with the
application of atrazine (50%) @1.25 kg/ha or pendimethalin (50%) @ 2.5 lit/ha as compared to
the other chemical weed management weed treatment. Chopra and Angiras (2008) observed that
atrazine @1.5 kg ha-1 (9.8 and 13.2 no. m-2) resulted in significantly lower total weed count as
compared to unwedded check (19.4 and 21.2 no. m-2) during both (2002 and 2003, respectively)
years. Kolge et al (2004) observed that lowest weed population was with application of atrazine
@ 1kg/ha and pre emergence application of atrazine 0.5 kg/ha followed by one hand weeding at
30 DAS. Kannan and Chinnagounder [2014] reported that lower weed density was achieved
under non transgenic maize hybrid BIO 9681 and 30B11 with PE application of atrazine at 0.5
kg ha-1 fb HW at 20 DAS. Reddy et al. (2012) stated that the weed control efficiency recorded at
30 DAS was higher in atrazine + glyphosate (93%) followed by atrazine + paraquat (84%).
Glyphosate was found to be superior to atrazine in terms of cob length, number of grains/cob and
100 grains weight due to better control of weeds. The effectiveness of herbicidal control is 100%
(Mukhopadyay, 1991). A field experiment was conducted during rainy seasons (kharif) of 1998
and 1999 at the research farm at the Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur Shown that all the doses of
atrazine, i.e 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 kg/ha gave significantly lower dry weight of weeds as compared to
the weedy check. Varshney (1990) also observed Atrazine 2.0 kg/ha most effective for weed
control in maize which reduced the weed biomass by 62-70%. With delay in time of application
of atrazine commencing from pre-emergence, there was decrease in weed control efficiency and
increase in dry matter accumulation in weeds.

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Agriculture is the backbone of Nepalese economy, means of livelihood for the majority of the

2.1) Weed flora and their effects on maize yield

2.2) Effect of weed management on maize yield

2.4 ) 2,4-D ethyl ester

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