EC 8491 COMMUNICATION THEORY

UNIT II-ANGLE MODULATION

Phase and frequency modulation, narrow band and wide band FM- Modulation
index, spectra, power relations and transmission bandwidth-FM modulation-
Direct and indirect methods, FM demodulation- FM to AM conversion, FM
discriminator- PLL as FM demodulator.

ANGLE MODULATION:

The timing parameters such as phase <or> frequency of the carrier signal
are modulated according to the instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal.

Amplitude of angle modulated signal remains constant.

ANGLE MODULATION

Frequency modulation Phase

modulation.

Advantages of angle modulation over amplitude modulation:

1. Noise reduction.
2. Improved system fidelity.
3. More efficient.

Phase modulation:

Definition:

Phase modulation is defined as the process of changing the phase of

the carrier signal in accordance with instantaneous amplitude of the message
signal. Here amplitude and frequency of the carrier remain constant.

1
PM wave generation using frequency modulator:

Differentiator Frequency modulator

Modulating
wave PM wave

VCCOS2πfct

Representation of PM wave:

PM wave is obtained by varying the phase angle φ of a carrier signal in

proportion with the amplitude of the modulating signal.

PM wave representation

VPM(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+φPCOSꞷmt)

φP – Maximum phase change corresponding to the maximum amplitude

of the modulating signal.

VPM(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+mPCOSꞷmt)

mP= φP=modulation index of PM.

Modulation index mp of PM:

The modulation index is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating

signal, independent of frequency.

mP=KPVm.

KP = deviation sensitivity.

Vm.= peak modulating voltage amplitude.

Deviation sensitivity (KP) :

2
 Deviation sensitivity represents the input-output transfer function of the
modulators, which gives the relationship between what output parameters
change with respect to the specified changes in the input signal.

Frequency Modulation:

Frequency modulation can be defined as the process by which the

frequency of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal. Amplitude and phase of the carrier signal
remains constant.

FM wave generation using phase modulator:

Integrator Phase modulator

Modulating
wave FM wave

VCCOS2πfct

Representation of FM:

Vm(t)=Vmcosꞷmt

Frequency modulation takes place when the angular velocity of the

carrier wave is varied in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of
modulating signal.

ꞷi=ꞷc+kf Vm(t)

ꞷi= instantaneous angular frequency.

ꞷc= Carrier frequency.

kf=deviation sensitivity.

ꞷi=ꞷc+kf Vmcosꞷmt

Maximum frequency deviation Δf is given by

3
 kf V m
Δf = 2 π <or> Δꞷ = kf Vm

Δf 2 π = kf Vm Δf 2 π = Δꞷ

Δꞷ = kf Vm

4
Expression for phase modulation and frequency modulation:

Phase modulation:

S(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+θ(t))

θ(t)= kVm(t)

S(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+ kVm(t))

Vm(t)=Vmcosꞷmt

S(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+ k Vmcosꞷmt)

k Vm = mp= modulation index of PM.

S(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+ mp cosꞷmt)

This is the equation for phase modulated wave.

Frequency modulation:

S(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+θ(t))

θ(t)= k∫Vm(t)dt

S(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+ k∫Vm(t)dt)

S(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+ k∫Vm cosꞷmtdt)

kV m
S(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+ ꞷm sinꞷmt)

kV m
ꞷm
= mf

S(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+ mfsinꞷmt)

5
mf = modulation index for FM.

This is the expression for single frequency or single tone FM signal.

Average power of FM/PM wave:

The total power of angle modulated wave is equal to the power of an un-
modulated carrier, since in FM/PM, the carrier amplitude remains constant.

Average power of un-modulated carrier is given by,

V C2
P C=
2R

V C = Peak amplitude of the carrier.

R= Load resistance.

Instantaneous power in FM/PM wave is,

S (t)2
Pt =
R

S(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+ mfsinꞷmt)
2 2
S(t )2=V C cos( ꞷc t+ m f sin ꞷm t )

1
cosθ 2= [1+cos2θ]
2

1
S(t )2= ¿]
2

1
[V 2 cos 2(ꞷc t+ mf sin ꞷm t )]
Pt = 2 C
R

Average value of cosine term is zero.

V C2
Pt =
2R
6
Total power of the modulated wave is equal to sum of powers of the carrier and
side frequency components.

Pt=PC+P1+P2+……………+Pn

PC=un-modulated carrier power

P1= power in first set of side bands.

P2=power in second set of side bands.

V C2 V 2 2V 2 V 2
Pt = + 2 1 + 2 +………….+ 2 n
2R 2R 2R 2R

Since PC has only one component and P1, P2,……….Pn have two components.

V C 2 V 12 V 22 V n2
Pt = + + +………….+
2R R R R

1
Pt= R ¿ +V 12+ V 22 +………….+ V n2]

V1 , V2, ……….Vn are amplitudes of side frequency components.

VC = Carrier amplitude.

Types of frequency modulation:

If modulation index is high, then the bandwidth is large and vice versa.
Modulation index mf decides, whether FM wave is narrow band or wide band.

Narrow band FM:

1. When modulation index mf is small, the bandwidth of FM is narrow.

2. When the bandwidth of FM is narrow, it is same as that of AM, which is
twice the base band or modulating signal.

Wideband FM:

1. When the modulation index mf has a appreciable value, then the FM

signal has a wide bandwidth.
2. Band width of FM is too large.

Block diagram of method for generating NBFM signal:

NBFM

7
 Integrator Product modulator ∑

Modulating signal
Carrier signal

900 Phase shift

ACCOS2πfct

FM signal is given by,

S(t)=VCCOS(2πfCt+ mfsin2πfmt)

Cos(A+B)=CosACosB+SinASinB

S(t)=VCCOS2πfCtCos(mfsin2πfmt) - VCSin2πfCtSin(mfsin2πfmt)

Cos θ small=1

Sin θ small= θ small

If mf is small,

Cos(mfsin2πfmt) =1,

Sin(mfsin2πfmt) = mfsin2πfmt.

Wide band FM:

Wide band FM for which mf is large compared to NBFM can be obtained

by multiplying NBFM signal using suitable frequency multiplier.

FM is represented as

S(t)=VCCOS(ꞷCt+ mfsinꞷmt)

Band width is large for Wide band FM,

S(t)=Re[VCexp (ꞷCt+j mfsinꞷmt)]

ꞷ=2πf

S(t)=Re[VCexp (2πfCt+j mfsin2πfmt)]

8
S(t)=Re[S(t) exp (2πfCt)]

Comparison of narrowband FM and wide band FM:

S.N Characteristics NBFM WBFM

O
1 Modulation index Less than 1 <or> Always greater than 1
slightly greater than 1
2 Maximum deviation 5KHz 75KHz
3 Range of modulating 30Hz to 3KHz 30Hz to 15KHz
frequency
4 Bandwidth Small band width Large bandwidth
BW=2mffm BW=2fm
5 Maximum modulation Greater than 1 5 to 2500
index
6 Noise Less suppressing noise Noise is more
suppressed
7 Application FM mobile Broadcasting.
communication

Transmission bandwidth of FM:

Method 1:

BW=2fmn

N=Number of significant side bands.

When the number of significant side bands increases, there will be an

increase in the bandwidth.

Method 2:

9
Carson’s rule:

Practical bandwidth can be found by rule of thumb (Carson’s rule).

Carson states that the bandwidth of FM wave is twice the sum of deviation and
the highest modulation frequency.

BW=2(Δf+fm)

BW=2Δf+2fm
Δf
f m= m
f

Δf
BW=2Δf+2 m
f

1
BW=2Δf(1+2 m ) radian/sec
f

Carson’s rule gives correct result if modulation index is greater than 6.

Generation of FM:

The basic methods of generating FM signals are:

1. Direct FM.
2. Indirect FM (Armstrong method)

Direct FM:

In this method, the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance

witrh the input baseband signal, which is readily accomplished using a voltage
controlled oscillator.

Indirect FM (Armstrong method):

The modulating signal is first used to produce a narrow band FM signal

and frequency multiplication is done to increase the frequency deviation to the
desired level.

Direct FM:

There are two ways to generate FM signal,

1. FET reactance modulator.

10
 2. Varactor diode modulator.

FET reactance modulator:

C D id
ig

G
Z
S V

Modulating signal R Vg

Construction:

1. It behaves as reactance across terminals A-B.

2. Terminals A-B of the circuit may be connected across the tuned
circuit of the oscillator to get FM output.
3. Modulating voltage V across terminals A-B changes reactance of
the FET.
4. The change in reactance can be inductive <or> capacitive.
5. The equivalent capacitance Ceq depends on the device trans-
conductance gm.
6. This change in capacitance will change the frequency of the
oscillator.

Derivation:

11
 Assume, current through capacitor and resistor,
V
Ig= R + 1
jωC

jꞷC>>R
V
Ig= 1 = jꞷCV
jωC

Gate voltage Vg is given by,

Vg=IgR

Vg= jꞷCVR.

The drain current Id of FET is given by,

Id=gmVg

gm= trans-condactance

Id=gm jꞷCVR.

Circuit impedance of FET is,

V V 1
Z= I = g m j ꞷCV R = g m j ꞷC R
d

Ceq= gm CR
1
Z= j ꞷC eq

By varying the input voltage of FET, the operating point gm can be varied.
Hence Ceq gets raised. It will change the frequency of the oscillator.

Varactor diode modulator:

R C

+
F(t) Cd
Varactor
diode
12
 - Cd

+
L0
V0 -

Carrier oscillator tank circuit

F(t)=modulating signal.

Construction:

1. Varactor diode is specially fabricated PN junction diode.

2. It is used as a variable capacitor in reverse bias condition. The variable
capacitor is dependent upon the magnitude of reverse bias.
3. Varactor diode is connected across the resonant circuit of an oscillator
through the coupling capacitor.
4. Coupling capacitor isolates the varactor diode from the oscillator.
5. DC bias to the varactor diode is regulated. So that the oscillator frequency
is not affected by varactor supply fluctuations.

Operation:

1. The modulating signal is fed in series with this regulated supply and at
any instant; the effective bias to the varactor diode equals the sum of DC
bias voltage Vo and instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
2. The capacitance Cd of the diode is given by
Cd=K(V ¿¿ d )1/ 2 ¿
V d = total instantaneous voltage across diode.
K=¿ constant of proportionality.
3. The expression for Vd is given by
Vd=V0+modulating signal.
Vd=V0+ Vmsinꞷmt.
V0=polarizing voltage to maintain a reverse bias across the varactor
diode.

13
 4. The total capacitance of the oscillator tank circuit is C0+Cd and the
instantaneous frequency of oscillation ꞷ is given as
1
ꞷi= L (C 0+C d )
√ 0
1
ꞷi = L ¿ ¿ ¿
√ 0
Therefore the oscillator frequency is dependent on Vd, which in
turn depends on the modulating signal f(t). Hence ꞷi depends on
modulating signal f(t) and results in frequency modulation.

Application:

1. Automatic frequency control.

2. Remote tuning.

Merits:

1. Cost is inexpensive.
2. Simplicity of modulators.

Demerits:

1. It is difficult to obtain a high order stability in carrier frequency because

the modulating signal directly control the tank circuit of the carrier
generator and a stable oscillator such as crystal oscillator cannot be used.
The carrier generation cannot be of high stability which is an essential
requirement.
2. The non-linearity produces a frequency variation due to harmonics of the
modulating signal and hence the FM signal is distorted.

Indirect method (Armstrong method):

F
M

Integrator Narrow band phase Frequency

modulator multiplier
Modulating
signal

Crystal controlled
oscillator
14
Construction:

In indirect method of FM generation, the modulating signal is first

integrated and it is phase modulated by crystal controlled oscillator to get
narrow band FM signal. Then this narrow band FM is applied to the frequency
multiplier to get a wide band FM signal.

The crystal controlled oscillator provides frequency stability. The

maximum phase deviation or modulation index mf is kept small to minimize the
distortion and result in narrow band signal.

Implementation of phase modulator:

Crystal
oscillator

E PM
Carrier wave
Buffer ∑

Only side band at

B
900 with carrier

900 Phase D Product

shifter modulator
900 Phase
shifted carrier

Modulating signal

15
Construction:

The crystal oscillator produces a stable un-modulated carrier which is

applied to 900 Phase shifter as well as the combining network through a buffer.

The 900 Phase shifter produces a 900 phase shifted carrier. It is applied to
the balanced modulator along with the modulating signal. Thus the carrier used
for modulation is 900 phase shifted with respect to the original carrier.

At the output of the product modulator, we get DSB-SC signal. This

signal consists of only two side bands with their resultant in phase with 900
phase shifted carrier. The two side bands and the original carrier without any
phase shift are applied to the combining network.

Phasor explanation: Balanced

900 phase shifted output modulator output

At A, B, C
At D
At E

USB

Suppressed
900 phase shifted LSB
carrier
Un-modulated carrier
carrier Resultant of
side bands

At F
Combining network output

Resultant of side
bands

USB

Resultant at the Un-modulated carrier

LSB
output of combining
16 φ
network
 Phase modulators: L1

To amplifiers and
C1 multipliers
R3

C2
R2

R1

C3

Varactor diode modulator.

There are two types of direct phase modulators,

1. Varactor diode direct phase modulator.

2. Transistor direct phase modulator.

17
Varactor diode and direct PM modulator:

Direct PM ( indirect FM) is an angle modulation in which the

frequency of the carrier is derived indirectly by the modulating signal. It is
achieved by directly changing the phase of the carrier signal.

Construction:

The modulator contains a varactor diode VD, in series with an

inductive network. The combined series parallel network appears as a series
resonant circuit for the output frequency from the crystal oscillator.

Operation:

The modulating signal is applied to the varactor diode VD, which

changes its capacitance consequently the phase angle of the impedance seen by
the carrier, varies and results in a corresponding phase shift in the carrier. This
phase shift depends on amplitude of modulating signal.

Advantages:

1. Buffered crystal oscillator is used for the source of the carrier signal.
2. More stable than direct FM transmitter.

Disadvantages:

Capacitor versus voltage characteristics of a varactor diode is

non-linear.

Application:

It is used in low index narrow band applications.

Transistor direct PM modulator:

VCC

18
 R1 RC
Carrier input

Direct PM
C1
output

x
Modulating signal
Rt
Rt+RE
C RFC

R2 RE
C3

Construction:

The circuit is a class A common-emitter amplifier with two external inputs, a

modulating signal and carrier signal. The quiescent operating conditions makes
the transistor to act as a resistor from point x to ground. The transistor emitter-
to-collector resistance is a part of phase shifter, which consists of C1 in series
combination of RT and RE.

Operation:

When the modulating signal is applied, its voltage adds to and subtracts from
the DC base bias, producing corresponding changes in the collector current. The
changes in the collector current dynamically change the value of Rt, resulting in
changes in phase shift, that the carrier undergoes it passes through the phase
shift network. The phase shift is directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal. The phase shift occurs at a rate equal to the frequency of the
modulating signal. For the higher amplitude modulating signal, greater the
change in emitter-to collector resistance and results in greater phase shift.

FM demodulation:

Demodulation:

19
The process of extracting a modulating signal from a modulated carrier signal is
called demodulation or detection. The electronic circuit which performs FM
demodulation process is called FM detector.

Steps for demodulation:

1. It convert the FM signal into a corresponding AM signal by using

frequency dependent circuits such circuits are known as frequency
discriminators.
2. The original signal is recovered from this AM signal, by using linear
diode envelope detector.

Types:

FM discriminators

1. Slope detector.
2. Phase difference discriminators.

Slope detector:

1. The principle of operation depends on the slope of frequency response

characteristic or curve of frequency selective network.
2. Two main FM discriminators which use detuned resonant circuits come
under this category.
I. Single tuned discriminator circuit (or) simple slope detector.
II. Stagger tuned discriminator circuit (or) balance slope detector.

Phase difference discriminators:

1. Foster -seeley discriminator.

2. Ratio detector.

Simple slope detector (single tuned circuit):

20
Construction:

The circuit consists of a tuned circuit which is slightly detuned from the carrier
frequency ꞷc. The slope detector circuit converts FM signal into an AM signal.
Then the AM signal is demodulated by diode detector.

Operation:

A small amount of frequency variation Δꞷ in the input signal causes a change

in amplitude of VAM by an amount

VAM=α(Δꞷ)

Hence, frequency variations at the input of the discriminator cause amplitude

variations at the output. In this way, FM signal is converted into AM signal,

21
which is demodulated by the envelope detector to recover the modulating
signal.

Merits:

1. Simple circuitry.
2. Less cost.

Demerits:

1. The non-linear characteristics of this circuit cause harmonic distortion.

The non-linearity is observed from the slope, which is not the same at
every point of the characteristics.
2. This does not eliminate the amplitude variations and the output is
sensitive to any amplitude variations in the input FM signal. A good
discriminator circuit should respond only to frequency changes and not to
amplitude changes.

Balanced slope detector:

22
23
Construction:

1. Balanced slope detector consists of two slope detector circuits.

2. The input transformer has center tapped secondary.
3. Therefore the input voltages to the secondary are 1800 out of phase.
4. There are three tuned circuits.
5. One of them is primary, which is tuned to intermediate frequency fc.
6. The upper circuit of the secondary is tuned to frequency above fc by δf.
7. The lower circuit of the secondary is tuned to frequency below fc by δf.
8. C1 and C2 are the filters used to bypass the RF ripple.
9. V01 and V02 are the outputs of two slope detectors.
10.The final output voltage is obtained by taking the subtraction of
individual output voltages.(V0= V01 -V02)

Operation of the circuit:

Input frequency is divided into three ranges:

1. fin=fc
2. fc<fin<(fc+ δf)
3. (fc- δf) <fin< fc

fin=fc:

1. When the input voltage is equal to fc , the induced voltage in windings of

the secondary T1 is exactly equal to that induced in winding T2.
2. The input voltage to both the diode D1 will be equal to D2.
3. Therefore the DC output V01 and V02 will also be identical, but they will
have opposite polarities. Hence net output voltage V0=0.

fc<fin<(fc+ δf):

1. In this frequency range, the induced voltage in the winding T1 is higher

than that induced T2.
2. Therefore the input voltage to D1 is greater than D2. Hence the positive
output V01 of D1 is higher than the negative output V02 of D2.
3. Therefore the output voltage V0 is positive. As the input frequency
increases towards fc+ δf the positive output voltage increases.

24
(fc- δf) <fin< fc:

1. If the input frequency is in the range then induced voltage in T2 greater

than T1.
2. Therefore input voltage to diode D2 is greater than that to diode D1.
3. Hence the output V02 is greater than V01.
4. Therefore the output voltage V0 is negative.
5. The negative output voltage increases as fin goes close to (fc- δf).

Advantages:

1. The circuit is more efficient than simple slope detector.

2. It has good linearity than simple slope detector.

Disadvantages:

1. The amplitude limiting is not provided.

4. The circuit is difficult to tune, since three tuned circuits are to be used
with different frequencies. fin=fc, fc<fin<(fc+ δf) and (fc- δf) <fin< fc.

25
Foster-seeley discriminator <OR> Phase shift discriminator:

Construction:

The foster-seeley discriminator circuit consists of an inductively coupled

double tuned circuit in which both primary and secondary coils are tuned to
26
the same frequency. The center of the secondary coil is connected to the top
of primary through capacitor C.

The capacitor “C” perform the following function:

1. It blocks the DC signal from primary to secondary.

2. It couples the signal frequency from primary to center tapping of the
secondary.

The primary voltage V3 appears across the inductor L. Nearly entire voltage
V3 appears across inductor L , except a small drop across the capacitor C.
However by a suitable choice of C and L, the drop across C can be kept
negligible.

The center tapping of the secondary coil has an equal and opposites voltages
across each half winding. Hence V1 and V2 are equal in magnitude but
opposite in phase. The radio frequency voltages VD1 and VD2 applied to
diodes D1 and D2 are expressed as,

VD1=V3+V1

VD2=V3-V2

Voltages VD1 and VD2 depend upon the phasor relation between the voltages
V1, V2 and V3.

V1 and V2 are always equal and are in phase opposition.

Phase position of V1 and V2 relative to V3 would depend upon the tuned

secondary coil at resonance or off the resonance.

fin at resonance (fif):

When an input voltage has a frequency equal to the resonant frequency fif of
the tuned secondary, V3 is in phase quadrature with V1 and V2.

The resultant voltages VD1 and VD2 are equal in magnitude.

fin above resonance (fif):

Let Qs be the quality factor of the tuned secondary coil. When an input signal
frequency is above the resonant frequency fif by an amount fif/2Qs the phase
difference between V3 and V1 is 450, since V2 is in phase opposition of V1 the
27
 phase difference between V3 and V2 is 1350. The phasor diagram reveals VD1
is reduced and VD2 is increased.

fin below resonance (fif):

The situation is reversed, when the input voltage has a frequency below fif.
The amplitude of voltages VD1 and VD2 will vary with the instantaneous
frequency f.

The RF voltage VD1 and VD2 are separately rectified by diodes D1 and D2
respectively, to produce voltage V01 and V02.The RF components are
bypassed by the capacitors leaving only modulating frequency component
and DC term, the voltages V01 and V02 will represent the amplitude variations
of VD1 and VD2 respectively. The diodes are arranged that the output voltage
V0 is equal to the arithmetic difference.

V0=|V 02|−|V 01|

Hence, the voltage V0 will vary with instantaneous frequency in accordance

with the difference|V 02|−|V 01|.

Disadvantages:

1. Any variations in the amplitude of the input FM signal, due to noise

modify the discriminator curve.

2. The undesired frequency component corresponding to amplitude

variations are produced in the detected output.
3. Limiter circuit is necessary to reduce the distortion.

Ratio detector:

28
Ratio detector is an improved version of foster seeley discriminator and is most
widely used. Since it does not respond to amplitude variations , limiter circuit is
not used.

Difference between foster-seeley and ratio detector:

1. Polarity of the diode D2 is reversed.

2. The output voltage V0 is taken from the center tap of a resistor R which
shunts the load impedance of the two diodes.

Operation:

The output voltage varies with the input signal frequency exactly the same way
it does in foster-seeley discriminator, but the magnitude is reduced to half. If the
two resistors and the capacitors are ignored. The voltages V01 and V02 have the
same magnitude as in case of foster-seeley discriminator, but V02 is now polarity
reversed. The voltage VR is now the sum of V01 and V02.

VR =V01 + V02.

29
 V0= V01- VR/2

V0= VR/2 - V02

V0= V01- (V01 + V02)/2……….1

V0= (V01 + V02)/2 - V02

V0= (V01 - V02)/2…………..2

1+2

2V0=V01-V02

V0= (V01-V02)/2

Advantages:

1. The ratio detector is not affected by amplitude variations on the FM

wave.
2. Phase relationship between primary and secondary of the circuit is linear.

Disadvantages:

The ratio detector may not tolerate the long period variation in signal strength. It
requires AGC signal.

PLL as FM demodulation:
FM
input
Vd VOUT

Phase detector Low pass filter Amplifier

Voltage controlled oscillator

30
 A phase locked loop is primarily used in tracking the phase and frequency of
the carrier component of an incoming FM signal. A PLL frequency
demodulator does not require tuned circuits and automatically compensates
for changes in the carrier frequency due to instability in the transmit
oscillator.

A PLL is basically a negative feedback system. It consists of four major

components. They are,

1. Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO)

2. Phase detector.
3. Low pass filter.
4. High gain operational amplifier.

A VCO is a sine wave generator whose frequency is determined by the

voltage applied to it from an external source.

Working:

When there is no external input signal, VCO operates at a preset frequency

called its natural or free-running frequency (fn). The natural frequency is the
VCO’s output frequency when PLL is not clocked.

When external input signal (fi) is initially applied to PLL, the phase detector
comparator compares the frequency of the external input signal with frequency
of VCO output signal. The phase comparator produces the error voltage Vd
which is filtered, amplified and applied as input to VCO.

After frequency lock has occurred, the VCO would track the changes in the
input signal by maintaining a phase error at the input of the phase comparator.
Hence, if the PLL input is deviated FM signal and VCO natural frequency is
equal to the IF center frequency, the error voltage is produced at the phase
detector output and it is fed back to input of the VCO, it is proportional to the
frequency deviation and hence, demodulated message signal is obtained.

If the IF amplifier is limited before reaching the PLL and loop is properly
compensated, loop gaion is constant and equal to K. Hence demodulated output
at the output of internal buffer is mathematically given as

VOUT=ΔfKdKa.

Δf=fi-fn (Hz) Kd=Gain of phase detector. Ka= Gain of amplifier.

31
Comparison of AM and FM:

S.No Amplitude Modulation Frequency modulation

1 Amplitude of the carrier is Frequency of the carrier is varied
varied according to the according to the amplitude of the
amplitude of the modulating modulating signal
signal
2 AM has poor fidelity due to Since bandwidth is large fidelity is
narrow bandwidth. better.
3 Most of the power is in carrier, All transmitted power is useful.
hence less efficient.
4 Noise interference is more. Noise interference is minimum.
5 Adjacent channel interference Adjacent channel interference is
is present. avoided due to guard bands.
6 AM broadcast operates in high FM broadcast operates in very high
and medium frequency. and ultra high frequency range.
7 In AM only carrier and two Infinite number of side bands
side bands are present. present.
8 The transmission equipment is The transmission equipment is
simple. complex.
9 Transmission power varies Transmitted power remains constant
according to modulation index. irrespective of the modulation index.
10 Depth of modulation has Depth of modulation has no
limitations. It can be increased limitation. It can be increased by
above 1. increasing frequency deviation.

32
Comparison between FM and PM:

S.No Frequency modulation Phase modulation

1 Frequency of the carrier signal Phase of the carrier is varied in
is varied in accordance with accordance with instantaneous
instantaneous amplitude of amplitude of the modulating signal.
modulating signal
2 Modulation index is increased if Modulation index remains constant
modulating frequency is reduced if modulating frequency remains
and vice versa constant.
3 Modulation index is high. Modulation index is low.
4 The maximum frequency The maximum phase deviation
deviation depends upon depends upon amplitude of the
amplitude of the modulating modulating voltage.
voltage and modulating
frequency.
5 It has infinite number of side It has only two side bands like AM.
bands.
6 Noise immunity is better than Noise immunity is better than AM,
AM. but not than FM.
7 It is used for broadcasting radio It is used for data transmission and
signals voice.

33