FREQUENCY MODULATION

type of angle modulation

wherein the frequency of the
carrier is varied relative to
the amplitude of modulating
frequency (signal)

General Equation of the FM Wave

νFM (t) = Vc sin (ωc t + mf sin ωm t )

where
Vc = carrier signal peak voltage
ωc = 2Πfc = carrier signal angular frequency
ωm = 2Πfm = modulating signal angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
mf = modulation index
 Frequency Domain of Standard FM

νFM(t)

fc

fc + nfm
fc - nfm
Time Domain of Standard FM
 Frequency Deviation (δ)

▪ the amount of change in carrier frequency produced by

modulating signal
▪ the maximum frequency deviation occurs at the
maximum amplitude of the modulating signal

δ = fmax - fc
δ = fc - fmin

where δ = fmax + fc
δ
fc = carrier frequency CS
fmax = maximum frequency δ δ = fc - fmin
change of the carrier
fmin = minimum frequency
change of the carrier CS (Carrier Swing)
NOTE
The intelligence amplitude determines the a mount of carrier
frequency deviation. The intelligence frequency determines the rate of
carrier frequency deviation.

δ α Em
δ = k Em

k=
Example
Find the carrier and modulating frequencies , the modulation index and
the maximum deviation of the FM wave represented by the voltage
equation νFM(t) = 12 sin (6 x 108 + 5 sin 1250t). What power will this FM
wave dissipate in a 10Ω resistor?

Given
νFM(t) = 12 sin (6 x 108 + 5 sin 1250t)

Solution
ωc = 6 x 108 ωm = 1250

fc = 95. 49 MHz fc = 198.94 Hz

mf = 5
Solution
δ = mf fm
= (5 x 198.94)
δ = 994.72 Hz

P = 7.2 W
 Carrier Swing

the total variation in

frequency of the carrier

Modulation Index

NOTE
The modulation index determines the number of significant
sidebands in an FM signal. The modulation index for FM is directly
proportional to the modulating voltage and at the same time
inversely proportional to the modulating signal frequency.
Example
A modulation frequency range from 30 to 15000 Hz is permitted in an
FM system, together with a maximum deviation of 50 kHz. What will be
the minimum and maximum possible values
of modulation index in the system.
Given
fm = 30 – 15000 Hz
δmax = 50 kHz
Solution

mf max = 1666.67 mf min = 3.33

Deviation Ratio

The ratio of the maximum permissible frequency

deviation to the maximum permissible modulating
frequency.

Percentage of Modulation
 Wideband FM vs. Narrowband FM

Descriptions Wideband FM Narrowband FM

Applications FM broadcast and Mobile
entertainment communications
Modulation index 5 – 2500 ≈1
(mf)
Maximum 75 kHz 5 kHz
deviation (δmax)
Modulating 30 Hz – 15 kHz 3 kHz (max)
frequency (fm)
Example
For an FM signal in the 88 – 108 MHz broadcast band with a
frequency deviation of 15 kHz, determine the percent modulation.

Given
fm = 88 – 108 Mhz
δmax = 15 kHz

Solution

mf = 20%
 Frequency Spectrum of the FM Wave

νFM = J0 (mf) sin ωc t + J1 (mf ) [ sin (ωc + ωm)t – sin (ωc - ωm)t ]

amplitude of sidebands
the carrier with
signal frequencies

NOTE
For a single fm , you can produce an infinite number of
sidebands, in pairs, but most of them would be of negligible
amounts.
Transmitted Power

In FM, PT is constant.

NOTE
In FM, the total transmitted power always remains
constant, but with increased depth of modulation the
required bandwidth is increased.
Bandwidth Formulas for FM

a. Theoretical BW for FM

BW = 2 x fm x no. of highest needed sideband

b. Approximate BW

BW = 2(fm + δ) John Carsons Formula

c. NBFM

BW ≈ 2fm

d. WBFM
BW ≈ 2δ
Advantages of FM over AM

1.The amplitude of the FM carrier remains constant.

2. Increase in the S/N ratio (less noise)
3. It is possible to reduce noise still further by
increasing deviation and fitting with
amplitude limiters.
4. Less adjacent channel interference because there
are guard bands between FM stations provided
by the FCC and CCIR.
5. It is possible to operate several independent
transmitters on the same frequency with
considerably less interference.
Disadvantages of FM

1. A much wider channel is required by FM, 7 to 15

times as large as that needed by AM.

2. FM transmitting and receiving equipment tends

to be more complex, particularly for
modulation and demodulation, therefore more
expensive.

3. Since reception is limited to line of sight, the

area of reception for FM is much smaller
than AM.
Capture Effect

The inherent ability of FM to minimize the effect of

undesired signals (noise), also applies to the
reception of a strongest signal or stations and
minimizing other signals operating on the same
frequency.
Block Diagram of an FM Transmitter

Exciter
RF (the means of Power
oscillator providing an FM amplifier
RF signal )

Audio Pre-emphasis
amplifier network
 Pre -emphasis

The boosting of the higher

modulating frequencies at
the transmitter, in
accordance with the
pre –arranged curve to
improve noise immunity at
FM and prevent the higher
frequency component of
the transmitted
intelligence being
degraded.
 De -emphasis

Reducing the
amplitude of the higher
modulating frequencies
at the receiver to the
same amount as it was
before the
pre – emphasis circuit.

NOTE
The pre –emphasis and de – emphasis networks have a time constant
of 75 μs (150 μs for Europe , 25 μs for Dolby) and a cut – off frequency of
2122 Hz.
NOTE
If two modulating signals have the same initial amplitude and one
of them is pre – emphasized to twice this amplitude, whereas the other is
unaffected, being at a much lower frequency , then the receiver will
naturally have to de –emphasize the first signal by a factor of 2 to
ensure that both signals have the same amplitude in the output of
the receiver.
Forms of Interference in FM

1. Image Frequency
▪ effect of two stations being received
simultaneously

2. Co – channel Interference

▪ true to mobile receivers; when travelling from

one transmitter toward another. This
minimizes by capture effect.

3. Adjacent Channel Interference

▪ created between tuning two adjacent stations
due the imperfection of filter circuits like
channel 2 and 3.
 Stereophonic FM Multiplex System (1961)

modulation system in which two – channel

system with left channel and a right channel
transmitted simultaneously and independently

NOTE
Stereophonic uses 38 kHz subcarrier from a pilot carrier of 19 kHz to
produce sum and difference of the two channels. Also, a 67 kHz
subsidiary communications authorization (SCA) is added for optional
transmission in FM broadcasting.
Optional SCA
transmission
sum channel (L + sub – difference channel (L -
R) carrier R)

0 15 19 23 38 53 59.5 67 74.5
audio DSBSC AM FM
 Generation of FM Signals
A. Direct Method

▪ Varying the frequency of the

carrier oscillator directly

1. Reactance Modulator
Reactance of the capacitive or
inductive components of the
tank circuit vary in direct
relationship to the audio signal
which causes the oscillator
frequency to vary thereby
directly producing AM.
▪ The equivalent capacitance depends on the device
transconductance. The capacitance can be originally
adjusted to any value, within reason, by varying the
components R and C

Ceq = gm RC
Since

▪ The expression gmRC has the correct dimensions of

capacitance; R, measured in ohms, and gm measured in
siemens (S).

Therefore
Example
Determine the value of the capacitive reactance obtainable from a
reactance FET whose gm is 12 millisiemens (12 mS). Assume that the gate
– to – source resistance is 1/9 of the reactance of the gate – to – drain
capacitor and that frequency is 5 MHz.

Given n
gm = 12 mS
R = 1/9 Xc Xc = 9R

Solution

Xc eq = 750 Ω
2. Varactor Diode Modulator

Uses a varactor (voltage

variable capacitor) diode
that when reversed biased
exhibits a junction
capacitance that varies
inversely with the amount
of reverse voltage.
B. Indirect Method

▪ Armstrong Method
The modulating signal is modulated using
balanced modulator then fed to a summing device
together with a crystal that is shifted 90°. Wideband
FM then obtain by successive frequency multiplication
of the output.
 high fc
and mf
Crystal carrier only
oscillator medium fc low fc high fc
and low mf and mf and mf
FM wave(very low fc
and mf )
Combining 1st group of Mixer 2nd group of Class C
Buffer
network multipliers multipliers power
amplifiers

sidebands only

90° Phase Balanced Crystal

shifter Modulator oscillator

equalized audio

Audio
carrier at equalizer
90°
Phase Modulation

modulation wherein the phase of the carrier is

made proportional to the instantaneous value of
the modulating signal
General Equation of the PM Wave

ѵPM(t) = Vc sin(ωc t + mp sin ωm t)

where
mp = kpVm
mp = modulation index
kp = proportionality constant

Under identical conditions:

mp = mf but when fm is changed
mp k
mf changed
Example
The equation of an angle modulated wave is
ν(t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 2000t). Calculate the maximum deviation.
Rewrite this equation if the modulating frequency is halved, but all else
remains constant, assuming that the wave is:
a. frequency modulated
b. phase modulated

Given
νPM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 2000t)

Solution

fm = 318.31 Hz δ = 6.37 kHz

Solution
a. frequency modulated

νFM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 40 sin 1000t)

b. phase modulated

νPM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 1000t)

Frequency Modulation vs. Phase Modulation

Comparisons Phase Modulation Frequency Modulation

deviation (δ) δp is proportional to δf is proportional to Vm
Vm, independent on fm

modulation index mp is proportional to mf is proportional to

Vm Vm
and inversely
proportional to fm

when fm is changed mp will remain mf will increase as fm is

constant reduced, vice versa
Demodulation
▪ the process by which the modulating signal is
recovered from the modulated carrier
▪ found in receivers

Functions of a Receiver
1. selects the desired signal
2. amplifies
3. demodulates / detects
4. displays

Standard AM Receivers
1. Tuned Radio Frequency
2. Superheterodyne Receiver
 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

▪ a simple “logical” receiver

▪ simplicity and high sensitivity
▪ aligned at broadcast frequencies 535 – 1640 Hz

Power
amplifier

1st RF 2nd RF AM AF
amplifier amplifier detector amplifier

ganged
RF Amplifier
It amplifies weak signal from the antenna. It has a
variable resistor that controls the RF gain and
sensitivity.

Detector
It provides rectification and detection for
modulated signals.

AF Amplifier
Volume – controlled amplifier that raises the power
level of the audio (AF) signal to a value sufficient to
drive the loudspeaker of the receiver.
NOTE
RF stage provides greater gain, prevention of re –radiation of the
local oscillator, improved rejection of adjacent unwanted signals and
better coupling of antenna with the receiver.

Problems in TRF Receivers

1. instability
2. insufficient adjacent frequency
rejection
3. bandwidth radiations
 AM Superheterodyne Receiver

RF
fo fIF 1st IF 2nd IF AM AF
Mixer
amplifier amplifier amplifier detector amplifier
fsi
fs
Crystal
oscillator
ganged

RF Amplifier
Amplifies the weak RF NOTE
The RF section provides discrimination or
signal received from selectivity against image and intermediate
the antenna. frequency signals, provide an efficient
Selectivity of the coupling between the antenna and the first
receiver depends on stage of the RF amplifier.
this section.
 Local Oscillator
A crystal oscillator whose frequency “beats” with the
incoming signal to produce the correct intermediate
frequency.

Mixer (First Detector)

Combines the incoming RF signal and the signal from the
oscillator, and produces two original frequencies, their
sum and differences, and harmonics. It produces desired
intermediate frequency (IF).

1st IF Amplifier
Tuned to 455 kHz (IF of AM), amplifies it and rejects the
remaining output frequencies
 2nd IF Amplifier
Further amplification and selectivity of the IF signal. Most
of the gain (sensitivity) of the receiver are achieved on
the IF amplifiers.

AM Detector (2nd Detector)

It demodulates the IF signal and recovers or extracts the
original audio signal.

AF Amplifier
It raises the power level of the audio signal; to a value
sufficient to drive the loudspeaker of the receiver.
 FM Superheterodyne Receiver

RF amplifier
and
preselector

IF amplifier De-emphasis Audio

Mixer (10.7 MHz) Limiter Detector network amplifier

Local oscillator
 Demodulation

The process of shifting the spectrum back to the

original baseband frequency range and
reconstructing the original form. Also known as
detection.

Sensitivity
Ability to amplify weak signals

Selectivity
Ability to reject unwanted signals(adjacent)
Image Rejection Ratio (α)
▪ Provided by tuned circuits to block fsi
▪ The ratio of the gain at desired frequency (fs)
to the gain of image frequency signal (fsi)

where
Q = quality factor provided by tuned
circuits to block fsi
fs = signal frequency
fo = oscillator frequency
fIF = intermediate frequency
fsi = image frequency signal

NOTE
fsi = fs + 2fIF ; the higher the fIF, the better the
fsi = fo + fIF image rejection
Example
In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver having loaded Q of 100 in
the antenna coupling circuit. If fIF is 455 kHz. Calculate the image
frequency and its rejection ratio of 1000 kHz.

Given
Q = 100
fIF = 455 kHz
fs = 1000 kHz

Solution
fs = fs + 2fIF
= 1000 kHz + 2(455 kHz)
fsi = 1910 kHz

α = 138.65