Q.1 Describe how education develops an individual?

Highlight the aims of education in global

perspective?

The fact that education plays an important role in human development is often ignored. This is a
shame, because it's this value that is often most important. Education can help people develop
economically, socially, and intellectually. Further, it's not just individuals who benefit from
education. Entire communities benefit. In fact, when it comes to the value of education,
community investment is extraordinarily important. When a community doesn't value education,
the people who become educated often leave. This leads to brain drain, which can impact the
socio economic viability of entire regions.

The Economic Benefits of Education

Some people may prickle at the idea of discussing economic benefits in a piece about human
development. Yes, a high salary doesn't guarantee that someone becomes improved as a human
being, nor does a low one guarantee they won't. Still, the truth is that people who are financially
secure have more choices and more opportunities. Education, when it's accessible, is often the
one factor that allows people to improve their economic situations.

Individuals benefit from higher salaries. They have fewer economic worries. Because they aren't
constantly concerned with economic survival they can focus on personal growth, volunteerism,
civic contribution, pursuing interests, self care, and nurturing relationships.

When they stay, educated people also contribute to economic stability. They open businesses.
They hire people. They become educators and mentors. They meet the human resource needs of
employers. They contribute to the research and other initiatives that increase the wellbeing of the
area. They make communities attractive to businesses and investors. They drive wages up.

The Intellectual Benefits of Education

The intellectual benefits of education extend far beyond subject matter expertise. Although, the
importance of that should never be diminished. In order for society to progress, we need people
with deep expertise in a variety of disciplines. These are the people who use their knowledge to
research, innovate, create policies, and make and execute decisions that can have a huge and long
lasting impact. Still, there are other important factors to consider:

Education And Critical Thinking Skills

Educated people don't just know about things. They are better able to process information,
because they have better critical thinking skills. People use critical thinking to analyze issues,
and the information available to them as it relates to that issue. It helps them to:

 Discern good information from bad.

 Identify reliable information sources.
 Conduct research.
 Identify bias.
  Draw conclusions and make inferences.
 Develop curiosity.

Discovery of Talents And Abilities

Education leads to exposure. It's how people are introduced to science, mathematics, literature,
philosophy, fine arts, and more. When they spend time immersed in these subjects have the
opportunity to discover where their talents and abilities lie. For example, very few talented artists
would know the depth of their abilities without spending time in an art classroom.

Of course, it takes more than exposure to make a difference. It requires support and mentorship.
It's the students who have access to tutoring, academic writing help from sources
like Studicus.com, economic assistance, and family support who are in the best position to
identify and pursue their talents.

Identification of Deficits

On the other side of the spectrum, a good educational system also provides students and
educators with the tools they need to identify areas of deficit. This includes learning disabilities,
mental and emotional health concerns, physical disabilities, and gaps in education. When these
are identified, appropriate action can be taken to assist students and provide support.

Improved Memory Cognition And Processing

The phrase, 'the brain is like a muscle' has some pretty solid science behind it. The more people
use their brains through studying, researching, discussing ideas, debating, conducting
experiments, and testing their knowledge the stronger their brains become. It leads to better
memory and recall, improved ability to process information, and leads to faster and better
understanding.

Better Communication Skills

When people are learning, they are often called upon to express themselves verbally and in
writing. Through this, they pick up better communication skills. They improve their spelling and
grammar. Their vocabulary grows. They learn to use language effectively in order to
communicate ideas, defend their opinions, and ask questions.

The Social Benefits of Education

There are social benefits to education that impact individuals and communities. The more
education is valued and made available, the more these benefits are realized. These include:

Decreases Poverty

If every child in the world simply had basic literacy skills, poverty would be decreased by 12%
worldwide. Economic disparities between the rich and poor could be reduced by 39% if there
was educational equality. Finally, each additional year of education leads to an average increase
in annual income of 10%.

Lowered Crime Rates

A 5% increase in college graduation rates can lead to an 18.7% decrease in homicides. In fact, it
is shown in the paper linked that it is education, not employment that seems to have the biggest
impact on crime reduction overall. This can be attributed to many factors including, better
opportunities, and access to services.

Global education, or global studies, is an interdisciplinary approach to learning concepts and

skills necessary to function in a world that is increasingly interconnected and multicultural. The
curricula based on this approach are grounded in traditional academic disciplines but are taught
in the context of project-and problem-based inquiries. The learner examines issues from the
vantage point of the individual, the local community, the nation, and the world community. As
social conditioning, an essential component of schooling, global studies takes an international
stance that respects local allegiances and cultural diversity while adhering to the principles of
the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights.

There is, however, no standard definition among proponents of global education. Kenneth A.
Tye and Barbara Benham Tye of the Center for Human Interdependence (CHI) in Orange
County, California, an educational training program that emphasizes global awareness,
constructed the following working definition:

Global education involves learning about those problems and issues that cut across national
boundaries, and about the interconnectedness of systems—ecological, cultural, economic,
political and technological. Global education involves perspective taking—seeing things through
the eyes and minds of others—and it means the realization that while individuals and groups may
view life differently, they also have common needs and wants.

Global education is distinct from the concept of globalization, that is, the forces of market
capitalism, which tend to focus discussion on global economic systems and information
technologies. From a pedagogical standpoint, economic prosperity and technological progress
are part of a broader emphasis on planetary interconnectedness, interdependency, and
sustainability. Key concepts in global education include human rights, environmental
responsibility, cultural studies, and sustainable economies. Global education views national
politics and transnational economic policies with an eye toward international accountability. It
stresses the role of global ethics in shaping humane, environmentally sound attitudes toward the
world as a single ecosystem, and it teaches that a globally conscious citizenry can effectively
overcome such problems as climate change, ocean pollution, and resource depletion with
ingenuity, leadership, and cooperation.

One of the aims of global education is a shared international global ethic that would be used to
govern socioeconomic decision-making. This ethic would be based on a system of universal
values found in United Nations documents onhuman rights, agreements of the Council of
Europe Committee of Ministers, proposals of Amnesty International and other NGOs
(nongovernmental organizations) for the realization of human rights, and the Earth Chapter
project.

The value and utility of global education derives from the sense that international events require
all societies and their citizens to become knowledgeable about the world beyond their national
borders. Usually, this imperative is cast in economic terms. Business and political leaders warn
that, as the world's economies and financial systems are incredibly interconnected, our material
well-being depends on professionals and workers with sophisticated knowledge of the global
economy. In their view, family and local community can no longer define our values. Rather,
community-based values must be integrated into the large-scale social institutions that govern
our lives.

Q.2 Compare the basic philosophies e.g Ontology, Epistemology, Axiology. Apply these
philosophies to the field of education?

There are four philosophical perspectives currently used in educational settings: essentialism,
perennialism, progressivism, and social reconstructionism/critical pedagogy. Unlike the more
abstract ontology and axiology, these four perspectives focus primarily on what should be taught
and how it should be taught, i.e. the curriculum.

Essentialism

Essentialism adheres to a belief that a core set of essential skills must be taught to all students.
Essentialists tend to privilege traditional academic disciplines that will develop prescribed skills
and objectives in different content areas as well as develop a common culture. Typically,
essentialism argues for a back-to-basics approach on teaching intellectual and moral standards.
Schools should prepare all students to be productive members of society. Essentialist curricula
focuses on reading, writing, computing clearly and logically about objective facts about the
outside real world. Schools should be sites of rigor where students learn to work hard and respect
authority.  Because of this stance, essentialism tends to subscribe to tenets of Realism. 
Essentialist classrooms tend to be teacher-centered in instructional delivery with an emphasis on
lecture and teacher demonstrations.

Perennialism

Perennialism advocates for seeking, teaching, and learning universal truths that span across
historical time periods. These truths, Perennialists argue, have everlasting importance in helping
humans solve problems regardless of time and place. While Perennialism resembles essentialism
at first glance, perennialism focuses on the individual development of the student rather than
emphasizing skills. Perennialism supports liberal arts curricula that helps produces well-rounded
individuals with some knowledge across the arts and sciences. All students should take classes in
English Language Arts, foreign languages, mathematics, natural sciences, fine arts, and
philosophy. Like Essentialism, Perennialism may tend to favor teacher-centered instruction;
however, Perennialists do utilize student-centered instructional activities like Socratic Seminar,
which values and encourages students to think, rationalize, and develop their own ideas on
topics.

Progressivism

Progressivism focuses its educational stance toward experiential learning with a focus on
developing the whole child. Students learn by doing rather than being lectured to by teachers.
Curriculum is usually integrated across contents instead of siloed into different disciplines.
Progressivism’s stance is in stark contrast to both Essentialism and Perennialism in this manner.
Progressivism follows a clear pragmatic ontology where the learner focuses on solving real-
world problems through real experiences. Progressivist classrooms are student-centered where
students will work in cooperative/collaborative groups to do project-based, expeditionary,
problem-based, and/or service-learning activities. In progressivist classrooms, students have
opportunities to follow their interests and have shared authority in planning and decision making
with teachers.

Social Reconstructionism & Critical Pedagogy

Social reconstructionism was founded as a response to the atrocities of World War II and the
Holocaust to assuage human cruelty. Social reform in response to helping prepare students to
make a better world through instilling democratic values. Critical pedagogy emerged from the
foundation of the early social reconstructionist movement. Critical pedagogy is the application of
critical theory to education. For critical pedagogues, teaching and learning is inherently a
political act and they declare that knowledge and language are not neutral, nor can they be
objective. Therefore, issues involving social, environmental, or economic justice cannot be
separated from the curriculum. Critical pedagogy’s goal is to emancipate marginalized or
oppressed groups by developing, according to Paulo Freire, conscientização, or critical
consciousness in students. Critical pedagogy de-centers the traditional classroom, which
positions teacher at the center. The curriculum and classroom with a critical pedagogy stance is
student-centered and focuses its content on social critique and political action.

When psychology first emerged as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the debate
over how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began. The different schools of
psychology represent the major theories within psychology.

The first school of thought, structuralism, was advocated by the founder of the first psychology
lab, Wilhelm Wundt. Almost immediately, other theories began to emerge and vie for dominance
in psychology.
In the past, psychologists often identified themselves exclusively with one single school of
thought. Today, most psychologists have an eclectic outlook on psychology. They often draw on
ideas and theories from different schools rather than holding to any singular perspective.

The following are some of the major schools of thought that have influenced our knowledge and
understanding of psychology:
Structuralism and Functionalism: Early Schools of Thought
Structuralism is widely regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. This outlook
focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Major thinkers
associated with structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. The focus of
structuralism was on reducing mental processes down into their most basic elements. The
structuralists used techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner processes of the human
mind.
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was
heavily influenced by the work of William James. It functioned on the mind's functions and
adaptations. Unlike some of the other well-known schools of thought in psychology,
functionalism is not associated with a single dominant theorist. Instead, there are some different
functionalist thinkers associated with this outlook including John Dewey, James Rowland
Angell, and Harvey Carr.
Author David Hothersall notes, however, that some historians even question whether
functionalism should be considered a formal school of psychology at all given its lack of a
central leader or formalized set of ideas.1

Instead of focusing on the mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were instead
interested in the role that these processes play.

Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology based upon the idea that we experience things as
unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th
century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism.

Instead of breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest elements, the gestalt
psychologists believed that you must look at the whole of experience. According to the Gestalt
thinkers, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

The Behaviorist School of Thought in Psychology

Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon the work
of thinkers such as:

 John B. Watson
 Ivan Pavlov
 B. F. Skinner

Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by
internal forces. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. Theories of learning
including classical conditioning and operant conditioning were the focus of a great deal of
research.

The behavioral school of psychology had a significant influence on the course of psychology,
and many of the ideas and techniques that emerged from this school of thought are still widely
used today. Behavioral training, token economies, aversion therapy, and other techniques are
frequently used in psychotherapy and behavior modification programs.
The Psychoanalytic School of Thought
Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of thought
emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.
Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, ego, and superego.
The id consists of primal urges while the ego is the component of personality charged with
dealing with reality. The superego is the part of the personality that holds all of the ideals and
values we internalize from our parents and culture. Freud believed that the interaction of these
three elements was what led to all of the complex human behaviors.
Freud's school of thought was enormously influential, but also generated considerable debate.
This controversy existed not only in his time but also in modern discussions of Freud's theories.

Other major psychoanalytic thinkers include:

 Anna Freud
 Carl Jung
 Erik Erikson

The Humanistic School of Thought

Humanistic psychology developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic
psychology instead focused on individual free will, personal growth and the concept of self-
actualization. While early schools of thought were primarily centered on abnormal human
behavior, humanistic psychology differed considerably in its emphasis on helping people achieve
and fulfill their potential.

Major humanist thinkers include:

 Abraham Maslow
 Carl Rogers

Humanistic psychology remains quite popular today and has had a significant influence on other
areas of psychology including positive psychology. This particular branch of psychology is
centered on helping people living happier, more fulfilling lives.
Cognitive School of Psychology
Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that studies mental processes including how
people think, perceive, remember and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this
branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and
linguistics.

Cognitive psychology began to emerge during the 1950s, partly as a response to behaviorism.
Critics of behaviorism noted that it failed to account for how internal processes impacted
behavior. This period is sometimes referred to as the "cognitive revolution" as a wealth of
research on topics such as information processing, language, memory, and perception that began
to emerge.

One of the most influential theories of this school of thought was the stages of cognitive
development theory proposed by Jean Piaget.
Q.3 explain the Islamic philosophy of education and discuss its application in our educational
system?

Pious and learned Muslims (mu'allim or mudarris). dedicated to making the

teachings of the Koran more accessible to the Islamic community, taught the faithful
in what came to be known as the kuttab (plural, katatib). The kuttab could be located in a
variety of venues: mosques, private homes, shops, tents, or even outin the open. Historians
are uncertain as to when the katatib were first established, but with the widespread desire
of the faithful to study the Koran, katatib could be found in virtually every part of the
Islamic empire by the middle of the eighth century. The kuttab served a vital social function
as the only vehicle for formal public instruction for primary-age children and continued so until
Western models of education were introduced in the modem period. Even al present, ithas
exhibited remarkable durability and continues to be an important means of
religious instruction in many Islamic countries. The curriculum of the kuttab was primarily
directed to young male children, beginning asearly as age four, and as centered on Koranic
studies and on religious obligations such as ritualablutions, fasting and prayer. The focus
during the early history of Islam on the education ofyouth reflected the belief that raising
children with correct principles was a holy obligation forparents and society. Asa Abdul
Tibawi wrote in 1972, the mind of the child was believed to be"like a white clean paper once
anything is written on it right or wrong, it will be difficult to eraseit or superimpose new writing
upon it" (p. 38). The approach to teaching children was strict, andthe conditions in which
young students learned could de quite harsh. Corporal punishment wasoften used to correct
haziness or imprecision: Memorization of the Koran was central to the curriculum of the
kuttab, but little or no attempt was made to analyze and discuss the meaning of the text. Once
students had memorized the greater part of the Koran, they could advance to higher
stages of education, with increased complexity of instruction. Western analysts of
the kuttāb system usually criticize two areas of its pedagogy: the limited range of subjects taught
and the exclusive reliance on memorization. The contemporary kuttāb system still emphasizes
memorization and recitation as important means of learning. The value placed on memorization
during students' early religious training directly influences their approaches to learning when
they enter formal education offered by the modern state. A common frustration of modern
educators in the Islamic world is that while their students can memorize copious volumes of
notes and textbook pages, they often lack competence in critical analysis and independent
thinking.

During the golden age of the Islamic empire (usually defined as a period between the tenth and
thirteenth centuries), when western Europe was intellectually backward and stagnant, Islamic
scholarship flourished with an impressive openness to the rational sciences, art, and even
literature. It was during this period that the Islamic world made most of its contributions to the
scientific and artistic world. Ironically, Islamic scholars preserved much of the knowledge of the
Greeks that had been prohibited by the Christian world. Other outstanding contributions were
made in areas of chemistry, botany, physics, mineralogy, mathematics, and astronomy, as many
Muslim thinkers regarded scientific truths as tools for accessing religious truth.
Gradually the open and vigorous spirit of enquiry and individual judgment (ijtihād) that
characterized the golden age gave way to a more insular, unquestioning acceptance (taqlīd) of
the traditional corpus of authoritative knowledge. By the thirteenth century, according to Aziz
Talbani, the 'ulama' (religious scholars) had become "self-appointed interpreters and guardians
of religious knowledge.… learning was confined to the transmission of traditions and dogma,
and [was] hostile to research and scientific inquiry" (p. 70). The mentality of taqlīd reigned
supreme in all matters, and religious scholars condemned all other forms of inquiry and research.
Exemplifying the taqlīd mentality, Burhän al-Din al-Zarnüji wrote during the thirteenth century,
"Stick to ancient things while avoiding new things" and "Beware of becoming engrossed in those
disputes which come about after one has cut loose from the ancient authorities" (pp. 28, 58).
Much of what was written after the thirteenth century lacked originality, and it consisted mostly
of commentaries on existing canonical works without adding any substantive new ideas. The
lethal combination of taqlīd and foreign invasion beginning in the thirteenth century served to
dim Islam's preeminence in both the artistic and scientific worlds.

Despite its glorious legacy of earlier periods, the Islamic world seemed unable to respond either
culturally or educationally to the onslaught of Western advancement by the eighteenth century.
One of the most damaging aspects of European colonialism was the deterioration of indigenous
cultural norms through secularism. With its veneration of human reason over divine revelation
and its insistence on separation of religion and state, secularism is anathema to Islam, in which
all aspects of life, spiritual or temporal, are interrelated as a harmonious whole. At the same time,
Western institutions of education, with their pronounced secular/religious dichotomy, were
infused into Islamic countries in order to produce functionaries to feed the bureaucratic and
administrative needs of the state. The early modernizers did not fully realize the extent to which
secularized education fundamentally conflicted with Islamic thought and traditional lifestyle.
Religious education was to remain a separate and personal responsibility, having no place in
public education. If Muslim students desired religious training, they could supplement their
existing education with moral instruction in traditional religious schools–the kuttāb. As a
consequence, the two differing education systems evolved independently with little or no official
interface.

Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education

The Arabic language has three terms for education, representing the various dimensions of the
educational process as perceived by Islam. The most widely used word for education in a formal
sense is ta'līm, from the root 'alima (to know, to be aware, to perceive, to learn), which is used to
denote knowledge being sought or imparted through instruction and teaching. Tarbiyah, from the
root raba (to increase, to grow, to rear), implies a state of spiritual and ethical nurturing in
accordance with the will of God. Ta'dīb, from the root aduba (to be cultured, refined, well-
mannered), suggests a person's development of sound social behavior. What is meant
by sound requires a deeper understanding of the Islamic conception of the human being.

Education in the context of Islam is regarded as a process that involves the complete person,
including the rational, spiritual, and social dimensions. As noted by Syed Muhammad al-Naquib
al-Attas in 1979, the comprehensive and integrated approach to education in Islam is directed
toward the "balanced growth of the total personality…through training Man's spirit, intellect,
rational self, feelings and bodily senses…such that faith is infused into the whole of his
personality" (p. 158). In Islamic educational theory knowledge is gained in order to actualize and
perfect all dimensions of the human being. From an Islamic perspective the highest and most
useful model of perfection is the prophet Muhammad, and the goal of Islamic education is that
people be able to live as he lived. Seyyed Hossein Nasr wrote in 1984 that while education does
prepare humankind for happiness in this life, "its ultimate goal is the abode of permanence and
all education points to the permanent world of eternity" (p. 7). To ascertain truth by reason alone
is restrictive, according to Islam, because spiritual and temporal reality are two sides of the same
sphere. Many Muslim educationists argue that favoring reason at the expense of spirituality
interferes with balanced growth. Exclusive training of the intellect, for example, is inadequate in
developing and refining elements of love, kindness, compassion, and selflessness, which have an
altogether spiritual ambiance and can be engaged only by processes of spiritual training.

Education in Islam is twofold: acquiring intellectual knowledge (through the application of

reason and logic) and developing spiritual knowledge (derived from divine revelation and
spiritual experience). According to the worldview of Islam, provision in education must be made
equally for both. Acquiring knowledge in Islam is not intended as an end but as a means to
stimulate a more elevated moral and spiritual consciousness, leading to faith and righteous
action.

Q.4 elaborate the philosophy of idealism in the context of metaphysics. Determine the
relationship of idealism with aims and process of education?

People have both minds and bodies. Everyone knows this. Yet over the centuries, there has been
much disagreement about the exact relationship between the human mind and the human body.

Many people regard the mind as something separate from the body. This includes many religious
believers, who regard personality and self as attributes of an immortal soul. Some philosophers,
relying on logic instead of faith, also have taken the position that the mind is distinct from the
body and is not explainable in terms of bodily processes alone. The belief that a person is
composed of a mind and a body, with neither one reducible to the other, has traditionally been
called dualism.

Other thinkers, especially those influenced by scientific thought, have held that the mind is not
distinct from the body, but is in some way a product of the body. Typically, such thinkers hold
that the mental functions of a person are simply functions of that person's brain. The belief that
the mind is reducible to material things and processes is known as materialism.

Still other thinkers, influenced by logical arguments and reflective thought, have maintained that
the mind is not really separate from the body, but that the physical world is in some sense a
product of minds. This viewpoint is known as idealism.

Idealism, then, is the philosophical view that material things owe their existence to minds.
Actually, there are other philosophical positions called "idealism" which are different from the
position I just described. The view that material things owe their existence to minds is sometimes
called metaphysical idealism to distinguish it from other viewpoints called "idealism." I won't
go into these other ideas here, but I will name a few of them: epistemological idealism (a
hypothesis about what we can know); ethical idealism (the belief that moral ideals are worth
striving for); and political idealism (the belief that one should strive for an ideal form of
government). The words "dualism" and "materialism" also have other meanings, but I won't go
into these here, either.

What Idealism Is Not

First, let me dispel one of the greatest myths about idealism: Idealism does not deny the reality
of the observable world.

No idealist (at least no sensible idealist) has believed that there is no observable world - that the
world we see, hear, touch, smell and taste is not there at all.

Idealists typically believe in the existence of the observable world, just like everyone else. They
do not regard the observable world as a figment of anyone's imagination. What makes idealists
different is their understanding of the nature of the observable world. Most people think of the
observable world as something independent of minds - something that could continue to exist
even if all minds were to disappear from the universe. Idealists go beyond this view; they think
of the observable world as depending, in some way or other, on minds and the activities of
minds. According to the idealist view of reality, if there had never been any minds of any sort in
the universe, then there would not have been a universe at all. But the observable world is not
merely something that people dream up. Some idealists (especially Berkeley, whom I discuss
below) even have claimed that there is no matter - but by "matter" these idealists generally mean
a non-mental, mind-independent substance. Claiming that the world is dependent on minds isn't
the same as claiming that the world isn't really there!

Another common belief about idealism is that it is contrary to reason - or, as some people put it,
"crazy." This too is a myth that needs to be put to rest. Most idealistic thought, particularly in the
West, is based on logical arguments of various sorts. In itself, idealism isn't contrary to reason or
logic. The worst that might be said is that it's contrary to common sense. But this same charge
can be leveled at many of our beliefs about the world - such as the true belief that the Sun is a
star, which contradicts the common-sense observation that the Sun is just too big to be a star!

Still another myth about idealism is that idealism is contrary to science. Actually, the idealistic
concept of the material world is logically compatible with the scientific view of matter. Idealism
does not say that the natural world is unreal; it does not say that the laws of nature are mere
inventions of the human mind; it does not say we can change the world magically by thinking
differently. Nor does idealism place humanity at the center of the universe; it merely assigns
conscious minds (of any kind, human or nonhuman) to a rather important role in the universe.
Most of the best-known idealists of the western world have been either scientists or scientifically
oriented philosophers. And as anyone knows who follows the popular scientific literature, some
scientists start sounding like idealists when they discuss the picture of reality provided by
quantum physics.

Also, idealism does not have any direct relation to the idea of "mind over matter." Although
idealism affirms that matter depends on mind, idealism does NOT require you to believe that
your own mental processes (or even everyone's mental processes together) can affect the actual
course of material events. Some individuals who regard themselves as skeptics have associated
idealism with belief in paranormal phenomena, and have tried to tar both beliefs with the same
brush. Actually this is silly, since idealism neither supports nor contradicts belief in the
paranormal.

Idealism Comes in Several Flavors

All idealists agree that matter somehow depends on mind. However, different idealists have held
different views on exactly how matter depends on mind. Thus, there are several different kinds
of idealism. A few of these are discussed below.

(Warning: To keep these summaries brief, I may gloss over some of the fine points of the
theories I am describing. The summaries given here are meant only to provide a thumbnail
summary of idealistic thought. Do not rely on any information in this document for school
papers or for any other purpose; consult appropriate research sources instead.)

Idealistic Theory No. 1: Subjective Idealism

The most straightforward kind of idealism - and possibly the most famous kind as well - is
known as subjective idealism. This is the view that matter is a construct built up from the
mental contents of the mind which observes it. In other words, the sensations that observers have
when they experience a brick are all there really is to the brick. A brick is simply an aggregate or
system of sensations. When you experience a brick (by seeing it, feeling it, etc.), the sum total of
these sensations, and other sensations like them, are all that you really can find there. The brick
exists, but there is nothing else to the brick besides these sensations.

Of course, this doesn't mean that the brick isn't made of atoms, electrons, etc., as science says it
is. A subjective idealist might argue that the atoms and electrons also are systems of sensations -
perhaps including the sights and sounds that scientists experience when they read instruments
that detect atoms and electrons. These systems of sensations could be parts of a greater system of
sensations, namely the brick.

Subjective idealism may seem weird, but it has a certain logic behind it. After all, what do you
really know of the brick besides the sensations you get when you experience it? When you think
about it, it seems as though the sensations are all you really find there. Normally, people assume
that along with the sensations of a brick, there also is a non-mental brick which causes the
sensations. But if the non-mental brick vanished - and only the sensations were there - how
would you know the difference?

Could you know the difference, if all the sensations remained exactly the same?
So how do you know that there's anything behind the sensations, even as things are now?

Even if you don't believe subjective idealism, these three questions are worth thinking about!

The philosopher usually regarded as the founder of subjective idealism is George Berkeley, who
lived in the 17th and 18th centuries. Using arguments rather like the one I just used (but much
more complete and precise), Berkeley argued that physical objects, though quite real, actually are
collections of sensations. He expounded his views in two books, The Principles of Human
Knowledge and Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous. Berkeley tried to show that the
concept of "matter" as a non-mental substance is a mistaken idea.

One of the big problems facing subjective idealism is the problem of why the same objects
should exist for everyone even though everyone has different mental contents. If you and I both
see a brick, then you and I will have slightly different experiences, depending on our positions,
the lighting, etc. The brick as I see it is constructed from my mental contents, and the brick as
you see it is constructed from your mental contents. So how can we say we're seeing the same
brick? How can I even know that you are seeing a brick at all? Berkeley recognized a problem
much like this, and thought he could solve it without abandoning subjective idealism. Other
idealists abandoned subjective idealism and devised idealistic theories which seemed to avoid
such problems. I will mention some of these theories below.

Idealistic Theory No. 2: Absolute Idealism

Absolute idealism is the view that the existence of material things depends upon one underlying
mental reality rather than upon the mental contents of individual observers. It differs from
subjective idealism mainly in its picture of the "mind" that underlies matter. According to
subjective idealism, matter is a construct based on the mental contents of individual observers,
like you and me. According to absolute idealism, there is a single underlying mental or spiritual
thing, or principle, whose mental activity and content underpins the existence of the entire
material world.

In Western philosophy, the best-known absolute idealist is the 18th/19th-century philosopher G.

W. F. Hegel. Hegel regarded the universe as a manifestation of what he called "the Absolute."
The Absolute, as Hegel conceived of it, is a spiritual principle which encompasses minds and
material objects alike and is the ground of all existence. Hegel thought of the evolution of the
universe, from atoms to galaxies, as an image of the process of unfoldment or development of
the Absolute. He wrote a number of books, including one known in English as Science of Logic.

The idea that there is one mental or spiritual reality behind everything may sound religious or
mystical. One can interpret it that way if one likes; certainly, some idealists with religious or
mystical inclinations have equated the Absolute with God. But absolute idealism, in and of itself,
does not require one to believe in any particular religion or to be a mystic.

Idealistic Theory No. 3: Pluralistic Idealism

Pluralistic idealism is the view that there are many individual minds which together underlie the
existence of the observed world. Unlike absolute idealism, pluralistic idealism does not assume
the existence of a single ultimate mental reality or Absolute. According to pluralistic idealism, it
is individual minds which make possible the existence of the physical universe.

Pluralistic idealism differs from absolute idealism by denying that all minds are encompassed by
one absolute mind. According to the pluralistic idealist view, individual minds are the sources of
reality; it is the individual minds, not the Absolute, that do all the work. Pluralistic idealism also
should be distinguished from subjective idealism. Although it is possible to be a subjective
idealist and also a pluralistic idealist, most pluralistic idealists have regarded matter as the
resultant of the activity of interrelated minds acting together, rather than as constructs built up
from the contents of single minds.

Pluralistic Idealism, Version 1: Monadism

One form of pluralistic idealism is monadism. According to monadism, the minds that underlie
the material world are not limited to human and animal minds. They also include rudimentary
minds that exist within all material things. In modern terms, one might state this form of idealism
as follows: The ultimate particles which make up matter are not merely material; they have some
slight degree of consciousness. It is these primitive consciousnesses, together with more complex
minds such as human minds, that underpin the existence of the world.

According to monadism, matter is not a construct of mind, but is made of minds - very simple
minds, which perhaps don't have thoughts and feelings as we do, but which nevertheless have
some degree of consciousness.

Monadism is the creation of the 17th/18th-century philosopher G. W. Leibniz, who also co-
invented calculus. Leibniz used the term "monad" to refer to any of the different minds in his
theory - human and animal minds, the primitive minds within matter, and some other minds as
well. Leibniz also held other views about monads that I won't discuss here because they aren't
directly relevant to my discussion of idealism.

Leibniz's idealism is presented in a straightforward way in his short book, Monadology.

Pluralistic Idealism, Version 2: Personal Idealism

Another form of pluralistic idealism is personal idealism. This is the view that the minds which
underlie reality are the minds of persons. According to personal idealism, the world is at heart a
world of conscious, personal beings, including ourselves. The interactions or relationships
among these beings give rise to the system of experiences that we call experiences of the
observable world.

Like other types of idealism, personal idealism acknowledges the existence of the observable
world, and regards that world as dependent upon the activity of minds. Personal idealism denies
that there is a single absolute mind behind the world. It also denies that things are merely
constructs of the mental contents of single minds. Instead, personal idealism regards things as
resultants of the interrelated mental activities of persons. For example, if you and I both see a
brick, the existence of the brick depends upon your experiences and upon my experiences, and
perhaps upon the experiences of other observers as well. If you hand me a brick, your experience
of handing it and my experience of receiving it both contribute to the existence of the brick.

One of the leading personal idealists (and the one who used the term "Personal Idealism" most
specifically for his ideas) was the 19th/20th century philosopher George H. Howison. Howison
put particular emphasis on the role of purpose and values in idealism. He argued that the flow of
time is a result of the activity of personal minds, and that for this reason, persons must be
regarded as beings who transcend the flow of time. Howison's ideas are expounded in his
book The Limits of Evolution and Other Essays.

My Own Suggestions: Physioidealism and Recursive Idealism

Earlier I said that idealism is compatible with the scientific view of nature. One possible sticking
point in this compatibility is the fact that scientists are attempting to understand the human mind
in terms of the activity of the brain. Scientists have made considerable progress in explaining
mental functions in terms of brain functions. Although no complete explanation is yet available,
many people believe that such an explanation (known as a materialistic explanation of mind) is
possible.

In my opinion, the possibility of a materialistic explanation of mind is not as blatantly obvious as

many scientifically inclined philosophers might believe. There still are major open philosophical
problems about the nature of the mind. Even if every single mental function were found to be
associated with a specific physical process, we still would have trouble establishing that each
mental function really IS the corresponding physical process. Before such an identification could
be made, there would be philosophical questions to answer as well as scientific ones. Science
alone cannot do this job; both science and philosophy are necessary.

But suppose that a materialistic explanation of mind is found one day. Idealism claims that
matter depends on minds for its existence. If minds ever are shown to be reducible to matter, will
metaphysical idealism still be a tenable philosophical position?

In my opinion, the answer to this last question is a resounding YES. Even if the mind were
shown to be nothing but a set of functions of the brain, the material universe still could owe
its existence entirely to minds.

My argument for this opinion is found in my book, From Brain to Cosmos. There I describe a
version of metaphysical idealism that I call physioidealism, and a specific type of
physioidealism that I call recursive idealism. These viewpoints are not entirely new; both of
them have precedents in recent philosophy, and especially in the current thinking of some
scientists. I discuss these precedents in the book.

Q.5 compare the traditional philosophies and Islamic philosophies of education?

To seek knowledge is a sacred duty, it is obligatory on every Muslim, male and female. The first
word revealed of the Qur?an was "Iqra" READ! Seek knowledge! Educate yourselves! Be
educated.

Surah Al-Zumr, ayah 9 reveals: "Are those equal, those who know and those who do not
know?" Surah Al-Baqarah, ayah 269 reveals: "Allah grants wisdom to whom He pleases and
to whom wisdom is granted indeed he receives an overflowing benefit."

Centuries old monarchy, colonialism and the oppressive rule of their own people have brought
about moral and spiritual degeneration of Muslims throughout the world. To retrieve them from
this degeneration, it?s about time that the Muslim Ummah restructures its educational priorities
along Islamic lines, fulfilling the existing needs as well. By virtue of such an educational
program, the future generations will become the torch-bearers of Islamic values and play an
effective role in the present world. The challenges of modern times call for rebuilding the
structure of our educational program on such a foundation as to fulfil our spiritual as well as
temporary obligations. Today we need an education system which can produce, what the late
Sayyid Abul A?la Mawdudi said, "Muslim philosopher, Muslim scientist, Muslim economist,
Muslim jurist, Muslim statesman, in brief, Muslim experts in all fields of knowledge who would
reconstruct the social order in accordance with the tenets of Islam."

The Muslims today are the most humiliated community in the world. And should they persist in
following the same educational program as given by their colonial masters, they will not be able
to recover themselves from moral and spiritual decadence.

Ibn Mas?ud (Allah be pleased with him) reported that the Messenger of Allah (S) said: The
position of only two persons is enviable; the person whom Allah bestowed wealth
empowering him to spend it in the way of righteousness, and the person whom Allah gave
wisdom with which he adjudges and which he teaches to others.

According to Tirmidhi and Ibn Majah, Ibn Abbas (Allah be pleased with him) narrated that
the Messenger of Allah (S) said: A single scholar of religion is more formidable against
shaytaan than a thousand devout persons.

Islam is our greatest gift. We have to be thankful for this gift. We have to render to Allah His
due. Allah has given us so much by making us a part of the Ummah of the Prophet Muhammad
(S) so we must totally commit ourselves as followers of the Prophet (S). We must become true
Muslims.

Now how can we become Muslims in the true sense of the word? First let?s define what a
Muslim is. A Muslim is not a Muslim simply because he?s born one. A Muslim is a Muslim
because he is a follower of Islam, a submitter to the Will of Allah. We?re Muslim if we
consciously and deliberately accept what has been taught by the Prophet Muhammad (S) and act
accordingly. Otherwise we?re not true Muslims.

The first and most crucial obligation on us is to acquire knowledge and secondly to practice and
preach this knowledge. No man becomes truly a Muslim without knowing the meaning of
Islam, because he becomes a Muslim not through birth but through knowledge. Unless we
come to know the basic and necessary teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (S) how can we
believe in him, have faith in him, act according to what he taught? It is impossible for us to be a
Muslim, and at the same time live in a state of ignorance.

It is essential to understand that the greatest gift of Allah ? for which we are so over whelmed
with gratitude ? depends primarily on knowledge. Without knowledge one can?t truly receive
Allah?s gift of Islam. If our knowledge is little, then we will constantly run the risk of losing that
magnificent gift, which we have received unless we remain vigilant in our fight against
ignorance.

A person without knowledge is like someone walking along a track in complete darkness. Most
likely his steps will wander aside and he easily can be deceived by shaytaan. This shows that our
greatest danger lies in our ignorance of Islamic teachings and in our unawareness of what the
Qur?an teaches and what guidance has been given by the Prophet (S). But if we are blessed with
the light of knowledge we will be able to see plainly the clear path of Islam at every step of our
lives. We shall also be able to identify and avoid the dangerous paths of Kufr, Shirk and
immorality, which may cross it. And, whenever a false guide meets us on the way, a few words
with him will quickly establish that he is not a guide who should be followed.

On this knowledge depends whether our children and we are true Muslims and remain true
Muslims. It is therefore not a trivial to be neglected. We do not neglect doing whatever is
essential to improve our trades and professions. Because we know that if we do neglect, we will
starve to death and so lose the precious gift of life. Why then should we be negligent in acquiring
that knowledge on which depends whether we become Muslims and remain Muslims? Does such
negligence not entail the danger of losing an even more precious gift ? our Iman? Is not Iman
more precious than life itself? Most of our time and labor is spent on things, which sustain our
physical existence in this life. Why can we not spend even a tenth part of our time and energy on
things, which are necessary to protect our Iman, which only can sustain us in the present life and
in the life to come? It is not necessary to study extensively to become a Muslim. We should at
least spend about one hour out of twenty-four hours of the day and night in acquiring the
knowledge of this Deen, the way of life, the Islam.

Every one of us, young or old, man or woman, should at least acquire sufficient knowledge to
enable ourselves to understand the essence of the teachings of the Qur?an and the purpose for
which it has been sent down. We should also be able to understand clearly the mission, which
our beloved Prophet (S) came into this world to fulfil. We should also recognize the corrupt
order and system, which he came to destroy. We should acquaint ourselves, too, with the way of
life which Allah has ordained for us.

No great amount of time is required to acquire this simple knowledge. If we truly value Iman, it
cannot be too difficult to find one hour every day to devote for our Iman.

Knowledge is identified in Islam as worship. The acquiring of knowledge is worship, reading the
Qur?an and pondering upon it is worship, travelling to gain knowledge is worship. The practice
of knowledge is connected with ethics and morality ? with promoting virtue and combating vice,
enjoining right and forbidding wrong. This is called in the Qur?an: amr bil-l ma?ruuf wa nah-
y ?ani-l munkar.

Not only should we seek knowledge, but when we learn it, it becomes obligatory on us to
practice it. Though we must remember that correct knowledge should come before correct
action. Knowledge without action is useless because a learned person without action will be the
worst of creatures on the Day of Resurrection. Also, action should not be based on blind
imitation for this is not the quality of a thinking, sensible human being.

Knowledge is pursued and practiced with modesty and humility and leads to beauty and dignity,
freedom and justice.

The main purpose of acquiring knowledge is to bring us closer to God. It is not simply for the
gratification of the mind or the senses. It is not knowledge for the sake of knowledge or science
for the value of sake. Knowledge accordingly must be linked with values and goals.

One of the purposes of acquiring knowledge is to gain the good of this world, not to destroy it
through wastage, arrogance and in the reckless pursuit of higher standards of material comfort.

Another purpose of knowledge is to spread freedom and dignity, truth and justice. It is not to
gain power and dominance for its own sake.

Obviously, what we may call the reservoir of knowledge is deep and profound. It is a vast and
open field that is not limited.

It is impossible for anyone to gain anything more than a fraction of what there is to know in the
short span of one?s life. We must therefore decide what is most important for us to know and
how to go about acquiring this knowledge.

The following ahadith shows how important and how rewarding knowledge is.

"He who acquires knowledge acquires a vast portion." AND "If anyone going on his way
in search of knowledge, God will, thereby make easy for him the way to Paradise."

We, the children, are the future. The future lies in our hands, but only through knowledge
because whoever neglects learning in youth, loses the past and is dead for the future.

May Allah (SWT) give us strength to behave and act just as He likes us to do and be pleased
with us, and that should be the purpose of our lives. Rabbi zidnee ilma (O Lord, increase us in
knowledge). Aameen.

Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how we
come to know, there are four major educational philosophies, each related to one or more
of the general or world philosophies just discussed. These educational philosophical
approaches are currently used in classrooms the world over. They are Perennialism,
Essentialism, Progressivism, and Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies
focus heavily on WHAT we should teach, the curriculum aspect.

Perennialism
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings
about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving
problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring
truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most
essential level, do not change. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans
are rational beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the
intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum
focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines.
The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the great works of literature
and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this educational philosophy are
Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer
Adler, who further developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of western
civilization.

Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be
transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this
conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach.
The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor.
Although this educational philosophy is similar in some ways to Perennialism,
Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change. Schooling should be
practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on
facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write,
speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence
policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline.
Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as
aggression or mindlessness. This approach was in reaction to progressivist approaches
prevalent in the 1920s and 30s. William Bagley, took progressivist approaches to task in
the journal he formed in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism are: James D. Koerner
(1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985).

Progressivism
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the
content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas
by active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise
through experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver
and thinker who makes meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical
and cultural context. Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by
doing. Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions. The scientific
method is used by progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events
systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes to know. The
Progressive education philosophy was established in America from the mid 1920s
through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets was
that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing
freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with
students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.

Reconstructionism/Critical Theory
Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social
questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy.
Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim
of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social
reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He recognized the
potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the
capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George
Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing people for
creating this new social order.

Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to
overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a
Brazilian whose experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy
as the vehicle for social change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and
not become its victims, nor oppress others. To do so requires dialog and critical
consciousness, the development of awareness to overcome domination and oppression.
Rather than "teaching as banking," in which the educator deposits information into
students' heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the
child must invent and reinvent the world.

For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student

experience and taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger,
international terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial
issues (particularly in social studies and literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple
perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and bringing the world into the
classroom are also strategies.