CBCT2203 Basic Concepts of Information Technology

CBCT2203
BASIC CONCEPTS
OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
Marini Abu Bakar
Dr Sufian Idris
Nor Ieyza Jailani
Roziah Latih
Majumin Hanum
Mohd Zahari Awang
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Norlia T. Goolamally
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Marini Abu Bakar (Leader)

Dr Sufian Idris
Nor Ieyza Jailani
Roziah Latih
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Majumin Hanum
Mohd Zahari Awang
Translator: Mohd Zahari Awang
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, July 2007

Second Edition, December 2013 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2013, CBCT2203

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xiiiăxviii
Topic 1 Introduction to Information Technology 1

1.1 Information Era 2
1.2 What is Information Technology? 5
1.2.1 Brief History of Computers 8
1.2.2 Computer Classification 9
1.3 Principles of Information Technology 11
1.4 Functions and Benefits of Information Technology 12
1.5 Careers and Information Technology 14
1.6 Information Technology in Malaysia 15
1.7 Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC Malaysia) 15
1.8 Cyber Laws 17
Summary 18
Key Terms 19
Topic 2 Central Processing Unit (CPU) 20

2.1 What is Central Processing Unit? 21
2.1.1 Control Unit 22
2.1.2 Arithmetic Logic Unit 22
2.2 Microprocessor Chip 23
2.3 Memory 24
2.3.1 Random Access Memory (RAM) 26
2.3.2 Read Only Memory (ROM) 27
2.3.3 Chip Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) 28
2.4 Data Representation 28
2.5 System Unit 31
2.5.1 Power Supply 32
2.5.2 Motherboard 32
2.5.3 Read Only Memory Chip 33
2.5.4 Slot and Expansion Board 33
2.5.5 Port 35
2.5.6 Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association Card and Slot 36
2.6 System Clock 37
2.7 Bus Line 37
Summary 39
Key Terms 39

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Input and Output 40

3.1 Input and Output 40
3.2 Input Methods 41
3.2.1 Keyboard 43
3.2.2 Terminal 45
3.2.3 Pointing Device 46
3.2.4 Scanning Device 49
3.2.5 Other Input Devices 52
3.3 Input Control 54
3.4 Output Methods 55
3.5 Output Devices 56
3.5.1 Printer 57
3.5.2 Monitor 58
3.5.3 Plotter 60
3.5.4 Voice Output Device 61
Summary 62
Key Terms 62
Topic 4 Secondary Storage 63

4.1 Basic Storage 63
4.2 Magnetic Storage Devices 66
4.2.1 Magnetic Tape 66
4.2.2 Hard Disk 68
4.2.3 Optical Storage 69
4.2.4 Flash Memory Storage 71
4.2.5 Cloud Storage 72
4.2.6 Other Types of Storage 72
4.3 Data Organisation Hierarchy 74
4.4 Upgrade Performance 75
Summary 78
Key Terms 78
Topic 5 Computer Software 79

5.1 Software 80
5.2 System Software 82
5.3 Operating System 84
5.4 Functions of Operating System 86
5.5 Features of Operating System 89
5.5.1 Multitasking 90
5.5.2 Multi-User 91
5.5.3 Multi-Processor 91
5.5.4 Batch Processing 92
5.5.5 Virtual Memory 92

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
5.6 Types of Operating Systems 93

5.6.1 Personal and Server Operating System 94
5.6.2 Mobile and Embedded Operating System 96
5.7 Application Software 97
5.8 Word Processing Software 100
5.9 Spreadsheet Software 104
5.10 Database Software 107
5.10.1 Types of Databases 110
5.10.2 Database Management System Organisation 110
5.10.3 Client-Server 116
5.11 Document Processing Software 120
5.12 Graphics Software 120
5.13 Software Suite 124
5.14 Groupware Software 124
5.15 Desktop Publishing Software 124
5.16 Multimedia Software 125
Summary 126
Key Terms 126
Topic 6 Programming Language 127

6.1 Programming Language 127
6.2 Why Do We Need to Know Programming Languages? 129
6.3 Programming Language Generations and Examples 130
6.4 Approach: Classification of Programming Languages 135
6.4.1 Imperative Language 136
6.4.2 Object-Oriented Language 136
6.4.3 Logic-Based Language 137
6.4.4 Function-Based Language 138
6.4.5 Script 139
6.4.6 Visual Language 139
6.5 Common Programming Languages 139
6.5.1 C 139
6.5.2 C++ 140
6.5.3 Java 140
6.5.4 Perl 140
6.5.5 Python 140
6.6 Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter 141
Summary 142
Key Terms 144

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 The Internet 145

7.1 Definition of Internet 145
7.2 History 147
7.2.1 How Does the Internet Began? 148
7.2.2 The Internet as a Phenomenon 149
7.2.3 Development of the Internet 152
7.3 Internet Evolution 153
7.3.1 Internet Timeline 154
7.4 Computers on the Internet 156
7.5 What is the Internet Content? 159
7.6 Managing Internet Information 162
7.6.1 Search Engine 164
7.6.2 Portals 165
7.6.3 Other Methods 167
7.7 Internet Laws 168
7.8 The Internet Today and the Future 169
Summary 171
Key Terms 172
Topic 8 Software on the Internet 173

8.1 Internet Software 174
8.2 Shareware and Freeware 174
8.3 Open Source Softare 176
8.4 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 180
8.5 Telnet 181
8.6 E-mail 182
8.6.1 E-Mail Discussion 183
8.6.2 Ethics of E-Mail Discussion 184
8.6.3 Smiley 185
8.6.4 Acronyms 187
8.6.5 E-Mail Signature 188
8.6.6 Smart E-Mail 189
8.7 USENET 190
8.8 The Internet Phenomenon 192
Summary 195
Key Terms 196
Topic 9 Communication 197

9.1 Important Elements of Communication 198
9.1.1 Coder and Decoder 199
9.1.2 Message Understanding 200
9.1.3 Error Detector 200
9.1.4 Security 200

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
9.2 Basic of Data Communication 202

9.2.1 Types of Signals 203
9.3 Mode of Data Transmission 205
9.3.1 Asynchronous Transmission 207
9.3.2 Synchronous Transmission 208
9.4 Data Flow Direction 209
9.4.1 Simplex 209
9.4.2 Half-Duplex 209
9.4.3 Full-Duplex 210
9.5 Rate of Data Transmission 211
9.6 Data Transmission Media 212
9.6.1 Twisted Pair Wire 213
9.6.2 Coaxial Cable 213
9.6.3 Fibre Optic Cable 214
9.6.4 Microwave System 215
9.6.5 Satellite System 216
9.6.6 Infrared 218
9.6.7 Radio 218
9.6.8 Telephone Network 219
Summary 219
Key Terms 220
Topic 10 Information Technology Issues and Opportunities 221

10.1 Professionalism, Ethics and Society 222
10.2 Computer System Control and Security Issues 227
10.2.1 Threats to Computer Security 227
10.2.2 Controls for Computer Security 231
10.2.3 Information Privacy 234
10.3 Computer and HEALTH 237
10.3.1 Computer and Health Risks 237
10.3.2 Ergonomics 238
10.3.2 Green Computing 240
Summary 242
Key Terms 244

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

ii  PANDUAN KURSUS

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
CBCT2203 Basic Concepts of Information Technology is one of the courses
offered by Faculty of Science and Technology at Open University Malaysia
(OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15
weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Information
Technology programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please ensure that you have the right course materials, understand
the course requirements, as well as know how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Describe the meanings of Information Technology (IT) and information era;
2. Discuss the use of IT in daily lives which has affected the society,
organisations and individuals in many aspects;
3. Describe the components of IT;
4. Explain the components of computer, computer hardware, software and

communication networks;
5. Discuss the development of the Internet; and
6. Discuss the ethical issues, opportunities and the role of information

technology in the society.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented
below:
Topic 1 gives an overview of Information Technology (IT). The focus of this topic
includes principles of IT, functions and benefits of IT, careers in IT, development
of IT in Malaysia and cyber laws.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
Topic 2 discusses the main computer hardware components, which are the
Central Processing Unit (CPU), microprocessors, main memory, etc. Specifically,
we will focus more on the CPU or the microprocessor, which is the core of all
activities responsible for changing raw data into the required information inside
a computer. Besides that, data representation and coding system will also be
discussed. Towards the end of the topic, you will be introduced to some tools
and hardware inside a computer system unit.
Topic 3 introduces various methods of input and output. The keyboard is the
most popular and frequently used input device. Besides the keyboard, there are
also many latest input and output devices in the market, which will also be
discussed in this topic.
Topic 4 introduces another computer component, that is, the secondary storage.
Here, you will learn the various types of secondary storage available in the
market and the comparison of storage types. This topic also explains the types of
magnetic storage, optic storage and advantages of secondary storage.
Topic 5 introduces the software used in the computer system. There are two
types of main software, that is, the system software and application software.
The system software is used to switch on (start) the computer and to coordinate
the hardware components and the application software. There are three
categories of software inside the system software, namely the operating system,
utility programs and language translators. This topic discusses the concept and
types of operating systems being used. Language translators are explained
through programming languages. Programming languages will be discussed
from the perspectives of generation, approach and compilation. At the end of this
topic, you will discuss various types of application software that are commonly
used such as word processing, spreadsheet and graphic software.
Topic 6 discusses programming language. Computer programs are developed by

using programming languages. A program is simply a list of instructions to be
followed by the computer so that data can be processed. The process of
producing a programme is called programming. Programming is also known as
software development and it consists of steps in producing a list of instructions.
Steps in programming consist of program specification, program design,
program coding, program testing, program documentation and program
maintenance.
Topic 7 focuses on the development and history of the Internet. In this topic, we
will learn about the elements of the Internet and the activities that can be
performed on the Internet. Besides that, you will also identify the process of
searching and manipulating information effectively over the Internet.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 8 describes the present softwares on the internet. Some of the softwares can
be obtained for free, while some have to be paid for. Open source softwares will
also be discussed here. This topic will also discuss a popular method of
communication over the Internet, that is, e-mail. Initially, e-mail was merely
based on text, but now you can send (attach) various types of data together with
e-mails such as text document, graphic, audio and Power Point presentation. At
the end of this topic, we will touch briefly on the Internet scripting languages
such as HTML and XML.
Topic 9 explains the important component in the development of information

technology, that is, communication. There are four important elements to be
known before any form of communication can happen. These elements are
message, sender, receiver and media. In this topic, you will realise that
communication is a very important component of information technology. You
will then focus more on data communication signals, that is, the analogue and
digital signals, synchronous and asynchronous transmissions, simplex, half
duplex, full duplex lines, etc. At the end of this topic, you will be introduced on
the various media for data transmission.
Topic 10 discusses how the human element creates various issues in this field
and the opportunities offered by technology for a competitive advantage. You
will be asked to evaluate and understand an issue on the importance of ethics in
IT. You will also be exposed to the concept of the end-user who will need to
realise the potential effects of technology on them. They must act quickly and
know the importance of privacy, organisational security, ergonomics and the
effects of technology on the environment.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
COURSE GUIDE  xvii
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
This is an introductory course on information technology. Hence, there is no
specific pre-requisite for this course. However, the ability to use computers,
especially the productivity software like word processing, spreadsheet and
browser will help you to perform activities and complete the assignment.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.

xviii  COURSE GUIDE
REFERENCES
Shelly, G. B. & Vermaat, M. F. (2009). Discovering computer 2009: Complete.
Boston, USA: Cengage Learning.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

Topic  Introduction to
1 Information
Technology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Define information technology;
2. State six differences between information era and previous eras;
3. Identify five components of information technology;
4. Discuss a brief history of computers;
5. Restate five classifications of computers; and
6. Explain about Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC
Malaysia).
 INTRODUCTION
Information technology (IT) which has been around for more than half a century
had its beginnings in a laboratory. Now, IT is taught in schools and considered
one of the major resources in business organisation. IT has even be used in the
latest IT and information and communication technology (ICT) gadgets, such as
smart phone and tablet (refer to Figure 1.1).

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Figure 1.1: Smart phone (Samsung Galaxy S4) and tablet (ipad3)
Source: http://jailbreakhow.net
In this topic, you will be introduced to the IT era. You will also familiarise
yourself with the concept of IT and its characteristics. Other important issues
discussed are the principles, functions and benefits of IT. Towards the end of this
topic, the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC Malaysia) and Cyber Laws
will also be presented.
1.1 INFORMATION ERA

The 21st century has brought the information era, where it is continuing
with rapid pace computerised systems being used in almost all types of areas,
from medical and space exploration to education, as well as banking and
manufacturing sectors. The demand by these fields has increased the usage and
development of many types of complex systems. Prior to the information era,
there was the agricultural era and industrial era, as shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Descriptions of Agricultural, Industrial and Information Eras
Era Description
Agricultural Most workers are peasant farmers, where their lives depend on
Era agriculture Figure 1.2 illustrates the environment.
Industrial Work processes are simplified through mechanisation and automation,

Era while the number of factory workers continues to grow as illustrated in
Figure 1.3.
To see more images on the industrial era, please visit
http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/ind_rev/images/images-
ind-era.html
Information Most workers get involved in the creation, distribution and use of
Era information.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY  3
Figure 1.2: The environment during agricultural era

Source: http://www.ckrumlov.info
Figure 1.3: The environment during industrial era

Source: http://www.industrial-revolution.org

In order to understand the evolution of the three eras, please refer to Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Evolution of Agricultural, Industrial and Information Era
Evolution Agricultural Era Industrial Era Information Era

Mostly Peasants/farmers Factory workers Knowledge workers
Workers/ Man and land Man and machine Man and brain
partners
Tools Hand-based tools Machineries Computers/telecommunications
Source: Adapted from Senn (1998)
The technologies used in the agricultural, industrial and information era are all
different. For example, the technologies used in the industrial era (such as bull-
dozers and cranes) are meant for increasing the physical capability, while the
technologies of the information era (such as computers) are meant for enhancing
workersÊ productivity. Furthermore, the information era links people together by
communication tools that uses IT. Despite being in the information era, both
agricultural and industrial activities are still important.
There are six features that differentiate the information era from the previous
eras (Senn, 1998):
(a) Emergence of an Information-Based Society

In an informative society, more workers are manipulating information,
rather than working in the combined fields of agriculture and
manufacturing.
(b) Success of Business and Management Jobs Depends on IT

For example, the banking business depends very much on IT by simplifying
daily transactions, fast and efficient.
(c) Work Processes are Changed and Transformed to Upgrade Productivity

For example, in the agricultural era, tractors and ploughs are used to speed
up work in the farms. However, in the information era, knowledge gained
in agricultural research plays an important role in determining how and
when to grow, and how to look after crops.
(d) IT Provides Basis for Optimisation

Efficient use of IT does not only speed up routine activities, but also allows
opportunities for a company to study and re-organise work processes for
optimising the use of resources and to raise productivity such as in business
process re-engineering.

(e) Success in IT Depends on the Effectiveness in Using It

For example, in the agricultural era, farmers need to know the methods of
taking care of buffaloes, cows and land. The industrial era requires industry
workers to know and be able to deal with machines effectively. Finally, the
information era requires people to know how IT can increase productivity
and improve product and service qualities.
(f) IT is Embedded or Integrated into Many Products and Services

In the tourism industry, IT is used in ticketing, airports, hotels and rest
houses, car rentals, etc. Indirectly, IT provides added value to product
and services. These values take the form of quality, reliability, skills,
attractiveness and other characteristics that fulfil customerÊs needs.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. According to Alvin Tofler (http://calculemus.org/lect/07pol-

gosp/arch/proby-dawne/materialy/waves.htm), we are now in
the third wave, which is known as the information wave. Discuss
in groups on what information era is and present it during your
tutorial.
2. From the three eras you have read in the text above, in which era
do you think Malaysia is currently? Explain your opinion.
1.2 WHAT IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY?

Before going deeper into this subject, it would be good to be able to differentiate
between data, information and knowledge, as shown in Table 1.3:
Table 1.3: Definitions of Data, Information and Knowledge
Element Definition
Data Raw facts, figures, diagram and other details, such as quiz marks and
the cost of computers.
Information An organised and meaningful interpretation which is useful about the
data, such as quiz performance and computer specification.
Knowledge Understanding and giving attention to a set of information and on how
the information can be used well, such as to give extra classes or to
upgrade computer performance.

The definitions in Table 1.3 explain that „data‰ which have been refined,
formatted and summarised are changed into „information‰. Information that has
been interpreted, decided and acted upon is changed into „knowledge‰. With
knowledge, users can make the best decisions and take appropriate actions.
In general, IT is the main player in the information era. This technology is used to
access, store and distribute information, especially information in digital form. IT
refers to the use and deployment of various items in the creation, storage and
distribution of information. Table 1.4 contains some definitions of IT.
Table 1.4: Definitions of Information Technology
Source Definition
Behan and IT is a term for explaining the technology that enables us to record,
Holmes (1990) store, process, retrieve, send and receive information.
Martin et al. IT consists of all forms of technology involved in the collection,
(1994) manipulation, communication, presentation and utilisation of data
(which are transformed into information).
Senn (1998) IT contains three components, which are computers,
communication and expertise. A combination of the three
components creates opportunities for people and organisations to
become more productive, effective and generally successful
without being separated.
Renolds (2010) IT includes all tools that capture, store process, exchange and use
information.
As mentioned in Table 1.4, we can define IT as a broad-based technology

required to support information systems. IT supports activities involving
creation, storage, manipulation and communication of information, together with
their related methods, management and applications. The core of IT is the
microelectronic component, i.e. the microprocessor chip, which processes data,
information, images, sound, graphics, etc. that has given birth to modern
computers. Besides the microprocessor technology ă others include the storage
technology, data capture technology and communication technology.

Today, computers are connected via telecommunication networks transcending

even the national borders. As such, IT has been taken simply as a combination of
computers and communications. In order to have a complete IT system, five
components of IT as shown in Figure 1.4, must come together.
Figure 1.4: Five components of information technology

1.2.1 Brief History of Computers

History of computers can be traced back to many thousands of years ago ă the use
of abacus in China. This device computes using sliding beads arranged on a rack.
In 1642, Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator called the Pascaline.
Charles BabbageÊs difference engine, an automatic calculator was built 1812 and
later, Hermann Hollerith in 1890, used punched cards to read and store data.
The history of computers is best explained in terms of generations. The first

generation was about 65 years ago and we are currently in the fifth generation.
Table 1.5 describes five generations of computers.
Table 1.5: Five Generations of Computers
Generation Years Description

1st 1951ă1958 Basically used vacuum tubes, which are electronic tubes,
about the size of light bulbs. Example: Universal Automatic
Computer (UNIVAC) ă a large but fastest machine that
counted the US 1890 census. Not successful as tubes were
frequently burnt out when overheated.
2nd 1959ă1964 1959 marks the start of the 2nd generation with the invention
of transistors. Transistor is a three legged component which
occupies 1/100th of the space occupied by 1st generation
computers. It is more reliable and has greater computational
power than the earlier generation.
3rd 1965ă1970 With the invention of integrated circuits made of silicon chips
in 1965, computers were smaller, inexpensive and can
perform functions of hundreds of transistors.
4th 1971ă The use of the microprocessor, which is a silicon chip that
present contains central processing unit (CPU) where all the
processing takes place, is the standard in all computers
currently. Computers moved into peopleÊs homes rather
than large business corporations only. Not only for use in
computers, microprocessors are also used in digital watches,
pocket calculators, cars, telephones, television sets, etc.
Portable computers were possible, and there is greater
development in data communications.
5th Mid „Artificial Intelligence‰ based computers that could carry
1990Êsă out certain tasks mimicking human characteristics such as
future problem solving. For example, Expert Systems help doctors
diagnose patients, robots carrying out routine or dangerous
jobs, etc. Humans are able to communicate with computers
using natural language.

In the beginning years of computer technology, computers were used only by the
scientists and engineers. They used computers to do research and development.
Later, computers were used by the business and governmental organisations.
Computers were used to support the running of businesses, large and small.
Now, computers are being used by professionals, students and the homes.
In general, microchips have become more powerful, bigger memory in capacity

and other hardware components too have increased tremendously, without
much increase in their physical sizes. Therefore, computers have become smaller
and cheaper with bigger capacity and more capability.
1.2.2 Computer Classification

In the field of IT, there are various types of computers that you can use,
depending on the job you want to do. There are small computers as well as very
large ones. They are specialised in catering for the types of jobs on the basis of
processing power, speed, cost, security and various other criteria. You will see
many of these terms used in the following topics.
There has never been a rigid definition of the various classes of computers.
Indeed, their functions and capabilities keep on expanding and as such, the
number of classes is even debatable. However, there is a broad spectrum of
computing hardware ranging from supercomputers to microcomputers, with no
sharp line dividing the classes. In general, computers decrease in size and cost as
you go down from the large supercomputers and mainframes to the small
microcomputers. The five classifications are shown in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6: Five Generations of Computers
Computer Description
Classification
Microcomputer It is a desktop computer, as well as a personal computer (PC). The
label personal computer is associated with microcomputers because
they are designed for use by one person at a time. It is not to be
confused with the microprocessor, which is literally a computer on a
chip. In a microcomputer, the microprocessor, electronic circuitry
and memory chips are mounted on a single circuit board called
the motherboard. It is the motherboard that distinguishes one
microcomputer from another. Important hardware components will
be discussed in detail in the next few topics.
Mainframe This computer is defined as the big sized commercial computer
designed specifically for a multi-user environment and it is used by a
whole corporate body. It normally has more than 100 remote
terminals. The mainframe is very strong in terms of security,
connectivity and data management capabilities. It must reside in a
specially controlled environment ă with special heating, ventilation
and air-conditioning equipment to control the temperature, humidity
and dust level around the computer.
Minicomputer Until the late 1960Ês, all computers were mainframes only. They were
just called computers. Later, computer vendors began to introduce
smaller machines to make them affordable to the smaller companies.
This gave birth to the minicomputers. Today, a minicomputer can be
defined as the smallest computer designed specifically for a multi-
user environment. The system must be able to service between two
and 100 remote terminals at one time.
Supercomputer This is the largest, fastest and most expensive computer available.
It is extremely powerful and especially designed for high-speed
numerical computations needed in complex engineering
applications. Supercomputers are processor intensive, whereas the
mainframes are input-output intensive. Supercomputers can perform
arithmetic calculations at a speed of billions of floating-point
operations per second (gigaflops). Cray Research, NEC and Fujitsu
are the leading manufacturers of supercomputers.
Workstation There are other classifications of computers like super-minis, super-
micros, mini computers, etc. ă they are the intermediate stages of an
earlier classification. Some computers are called servers and clients.
The workstation is a network terminal (intelligent but without disc).
It often refers to a terminal with RISC processors, instead of Intel. In
general, a workstation is simply a high-end personal computer.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Differentiate the terms data, information and knowledge. Then

give one example for each term.
2. Briefly explain the history of computers.
ACTIVITY 1.1
As a learner, which type of computer classified in Table 1.6 is suitable

for you? Explain.
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY
We can appreciate how IT helps organisations and people. We have heard and
read how IT can increase profitability of companies and businesses. People too
have gained a lot by using the computer to work and for entertainment. On the
other hand, we also know the bad effects of computer viruses such as Nimda,
Love Bug and Chernobyl, which have caused computer system failures at many
organisations and individual users.

Certainly, the main objective of using IT is to help people and organisations to

solve problems and to initiate creativity, thereby, making them work faster and
more effectively. IT can facilitate them in their daily activities. Therefore, IT frees
people from routine work, enables them to focus more attention on solving
problems and improves their daily lives. Table 1.7 describe eight IT principles.
Table 1.7: Eight Information Technology Principles
Principle Description
Reliable It is impossible to say that an IT system works 100% all the time.
Sometimes, it works 99% of the time and 1% it does not work.
However, it is important that reliability does not go below a certain
threshold.
Secure The environment in which the IT system operates must be secure
from unauthorised access or malicious destruction.
Flexible People are able to use the IT system anywhere they are and
anytime.
Foster innovation Creativity in developing new software and hardware for the new
era, such as early warning systems for bad weather.
Responsive IT system is able to provide a range of services.
Easy and All the tools and facilities should be easy to learn and use.
transparent
Consistent The IT environment must be consistent, internationally accepted so
interoperability that information can be exchanged readily.
Affordable People should be able to afford the IT systems they intend to use.
1.4 FUNCTIONS AND BENEFITS OF

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Senn (1998) says that IT performs six functions of information works ă collecting,
processing, generating, storing, retrieving and delivering. In most cases, two or
more functions are done simultaneously. These are mentioned in Table 1.8,
which illustrates the functions, definitions and examples of IT.

Table 1.8: Six Functions of Information Technology
Function Definition Example

Collecting Collecting records of activities to be Reading voter information, reading
used later electricity meters
Processing The process of changing, analysing, Counting votes, processing of
calculating and synthesising all electricity bills, word processing,
forms of data or information processing of taxes
Generating Assembling information into useful Electricity bills, tables, graphs,
forms, whether as text, audio or charts on discs, tapes, CD-ROM
image files
Storing The computing process of storing Income tax records, society
data and information to be used membership records, traffic offence
later records
Retrieving Locating data and obtaining them Faxes, e-mails, voice mails, reports
again
Delivering Taking/sending/presenting to E-mails, voice mails
Table 1.9: Four Benefits of Information Technology
Benefit Definition
Speed A relative value ă computers can perform within seconds, at speeds that
are much faster than humans.
Consistency Computers are efficient in doing repetitive jobs consistently, i.e.
producing the same results for the same jobs.
Accuracy Computers work very accurately ă tracking even small differences.
Reliability With their speed, consistency and accuracy, we can trust and rely on
computers in producing the same results again and again.
With four benefits that can be gained from the use of IT as listed in Table 1.9, we
cannot ignore the opportunities offered by it. In general, there are two categories
of opportunities:
(a) Helping People ă For example, assisting special people (the disabled),
increasing human productivity and helping people towards having better
lives; and
(b) Helping to Solve Problems ă For example, assisting in the process of

problem identification, exploring a number of alternative solutions and
implementing the solution with success.

IT has been used in various fields with the objective of solving problems and
helping people. Hence, we should know three basic responsibilities of IT users as
follows:
(a) Knowing the capabilities and limitations of IT;
(b) Using IT ethically and correctly; and
(c) Ensuring data and information security against various threats.
1.5 CAREERS AND INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY
IT is closely linked with most careers today. In general, two categories that are
related to IT and careers are:
(a) Information Technology as a Career

Technical knowledge and skills in IT provide job opportunities in the field
of IT. Among careers in IT are system analyst, IT officer, network
administrator, network specialist, software engineer, knowledge engineer,
programmer, data processing manager, project manager, computer system
consultant, system integrator, system administrator, chief information
officer, system engineer, website manager, etc. They are called IT
professionals. Sometimes, they are also considered as important players
behind the computer, i.e. those who develop and maintain software and IT
tools.
(b) Information Technology Users

IT users are generally known as end-users. End-users get involved in the
use of IT but they are not required to have technical knowledge of IT.
Indeed, they know better about the use of a particular software or specific
hardware. For example, doctors use computers to access patient
information but they do not need know how the system is developed. In
general, users can be divided into three types ă novice users, semi-skilled
users and skilled users. IT applications are created for them to use.
Both IT professionals and IT users need to communicate with each other for the
increasing use of IT, for creating new ideas and for getting the desired benefits.

SELF-CHECK 1.2
State six types of careers in the field of information technology.
1.6 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN

MALAYSIA
Multimedia Super Corridor is one of the latest IT developments in Malaysia. It is
a Malaysian agenda for achieving Vision 2020 and the main strategy for
achieving competitive advantage in an economy based on knowledge. As users
of IT, we need to equip ourselves in order to acquire the full benefits of this
technology.
Where are we in the utilisation of IT? As of now, there are still very few factories
or manufacturers that use IT, not to mention the robotic systems. Industries that
do utilise IT, do not fully exploit the potential of this technology. The results of a
review by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) and National Productivity
Corporation (NPC) as reported in the Seventh Malaysia Plan show that most
manufacturers utilise IT for administration rather the manufacturing process.
However, there are signs of an increase in the use of IT in the manufacturing
processes of small and medium-sized industries.
1.7 MULTIMEDIA SUPER CORRIDOR

MALAYSIA (MSC MALAYSIA)
One of the national IT development projects that have been hotly debated is the
Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC Malaysia). Multimedia Super
Corridor Malaysia was initially an area covering 15 × 50 km, spanning Kuala
Lumpur City Centre (KLCC) in the north until the Kuala Lumpur International
Airport (KLIA) in the south. This has converted the oil palm estates into an
information valley. Two intelligent cities have been built inside the Multimedia
Super Corridor Malaysia area, i.e. Cyberjaya and Putrajaya. Cyberjaya houses the
information and multimedia technology industries, while Putrajaya is the new
administrative centre of the federal government. A corporation has been set
up, that is Multimedia Development Corporation (MDeC) to oversee the
development of MSC Malaysia.

This project has proven to be a success with the number of well-known

international IT companies coming to the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia
area far exceeding the original targeted numbers. It was also planned that
Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia area would finally expand to cover the
entire country. Please visit www.mdec.com.my to know more about the
development of Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia).
The Bill of Guarantees has been provided by the government to attract

companies operating in the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia area, which
includes the provision of world-class physical and information infrastructure to
companies with Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia status. These are:
(a) Provision of world-class physical and information infrastructures;
(b) Unrestricted permission for local and foreign knowledge workers;
(c) Ensuring freedom of ownership, by giving Multimedia Super Corridor

Malaysia status companies exceptions from the need to have local
ownership;
(d) Giving freedom to Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia status companies

to obtain capital from local and international loans for setting up
Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia infrastructures;
(e) Provision of attractive financial incentives;
(f) Being a regional leader in Intellectual Property Rights and Cyber Laws;
(g) Ensuring that there is no censorship of the Internet;
(h) Provision of a telecommunication tariff that is globally competitive;
(i) Issuing a tendered contract of Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia

infrastructure to companies that intend to make Multimedia Super Corridor
Malaysia their regional hub; and
(j) Provision of an agency with authority to act as a one-stop super shop to

ensure Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia can fulfil the needs of
companies.
Multimedia Development Corporation also acts as a one-stop centre to fulfil the

10 guarantees, especially for speeding up visa, licence and permit applications.
The telecommunication infrastructure to be provided in MSC Malaysia is to be of
2.5G bps up to 10G bps. Besides that, an international advisory panel (IAP) for
MSC Malaysia was also formed. Its members included people in the field of

information and communication technology, such as Bill Gates (Microsoft chief

executive officer), Scott McNealy (Sun Microsystems chief executive officer), Stan
Sheah (Acer chief executive officer) and James Barkdale (Netscape chief executive
officer).
ACTIVITY 1.3
1. Seven flagship applications of Multimedia Super Corridor

Malaysia have been identified. They can be divided into two
categories, i.e. multimedia development and multimedia
environment. The first four applications come under multimedia
development, while the last three applications come under
multimedia environment. Please state the seven applications (to
help you answer this question, please visit the following website ă
www.mdec.com.my).
2. A number of government and private sector departments have

developed their own websites and info kiosks. This shows a rise in
the realisation of the concept of information distribution via the
Internet. You are required to give seven other examples of various
government department websites or info-kiosks that are available
over the Internet. (To answer this question, you need to browse
through the websites in the Internet).
1.8 CYBER LAWS

Among the guarantees provided for Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia status
companies are the enactment and implementation of six Cyber Laws, which have
now been passed by the Parliament. Among the laws are:
(a) Digital Signature Act 1997;
(b) Copyright Act (amendment) 1997;
(c) Computer Crime Act 1997;
(d) Telemedicine Act 1997;
(e) Communications and Multimedia Act 1998; and
(f) Communications and Multimedia Commission of Malaysia Act 1998.

ACTIVITY 1.4
There are six Cyber Laws that have been passed by Parliament. In pairs,
visit this website ă www.mdec.com.my and please state all six Cyber
Laws, together with their explanations.
 Information technology is defined as a broad-based technology required to

support information systems.
 There are six differences between information era and previous eras:
emergence of an information-based society, success of business and
management jobs depends on IT, work processes are changed and
transformed to upgrade productivity, IT provides basis for optimisation,
success in IT depends on the effectiveness in using it, and IT is embedded or
integrated into many products and services.
 The five components of IT are data, software, hardware, people and

procedures.
 We have looked at brief histories of computers (five generations) and

five computers classifications, which are microcomputer, mainframe,
minicomputer, supercomputer and workstation.
 We have learned about eight IT principles (reliable, secure, flexible, foster

innovation, responsive, easy and transparent, consistent interoperability, and
affordable).
 There are six IT functions (collecting, processing, generating, storing,

retrieving and delivering) and four benefits of IT (speed, consistency,
accuracy and reliability) in our daily lives.
 Latest developments and opportunities in Malaysia created by the progress

of IT should not be ignored.

 We need to share experiences, manpower, expertise, wisdom ă and all these

are also termed as „smart partnership‰ ă to grab the opportunities offered by
IT.
 We may not be the first nation to invent IT, but we can use IT as a platform to
make Malaysia a developed nation.
Communication Know how

Computers Multimedia Development
Corporation (MDeC)
Cyber Laws
Multimedia Super Corridor
Flagship applications
Malaysia (MSC Malaysia)
Information era
Personal computer (PC)
Information technology (IT)
Information and communication
technology (ICT)

Topic  Central
2 Processing
Unit (CPU)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain what are Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory;
2. Define data representation and coding scheme; and
3. State various tools and hardware inside the System Unit.
 INTRODUCTION
A computer system is the combination of hardware and software. Hardware is
the physical manifestation of the computer, while software consists of the
programs that command the hardware.
In this topic, we will discuss the most important component of the computer
hardware is the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The Central Processing Unit
or processor is the centre of all activities responsible for changing raw data into
the required information inside the computer. Then, we will move on to the
next most important computer hardware ă the memory. This is the hardware
component that works closely with the Central Processing Unit. While the
Central Processing Unit performs the complexity of processing, memory lends
itself for storing data, intermediate data and results for the Central Processing
Unit. Besides the data being processed, the program codes are also stored inside
the memory. The processor and memory work hand in hand while the computer
is on. Toward the end of this topic, the System Unit and the System Clock will
also be presented.

TOPIC 2 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)  21
2.1 WHAT IS CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT?

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor is designed and built in various
forms. It is a collection of complex electrical circuits containing thousands or
millions
of transistors, which are placed or installed over an integrated circuit. The
integrated circuit is also called the chip, or microchip, because all the transistors
are designed or placed on a very small silicon chip.
In a personal computer (PC), a processor is a microprocessor chip. In a bigger

system, such as the mainframes and the supercomputers, a few circuit boards are
used. The Central Processing Unit can be present in various forms and is placed
on the motherboard. The function of a Central Processing Unit is to execute the
stored software instructions, turning data into information. These instructions
are executed in machine language, as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Functions of Central Processing Unit
There are two sections in a CPU: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit. Let us
now learn about these sections.

22  TOPIC 2 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
2.1.1 Control Unit

The Control Unit of the processor can be compared with the „human brain‰. It
informs the entire computer on how to execute program instructions. The three
jobs of the Control Unit are shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Functions of Control Unit
In other words, the Control Unit manages the taking of an instruction, decodes
the instruction to know its aim, instructs the Arithmetic Logic Unit execute the
instruction, and then directs storing of results to the memory (primary storage),
register or cache.
2.1.2 Arithmetic Logic Unit

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) executes two types of operations, which are basic
arithmetic operation and logical operation, as shown in Figure 2.3:
Figure 2.3: Functions of Arithmetic Logic Unit

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. State two sections of Central Processing Unit.
2. Explain the functions of the Control Unit.
3. What are two types of operations carried out in Arithmatic Logic

Unit?
ACTIVITY 2.1
In every computer, the Central Processing Unit is like the „brain‰ of a

computer. Why is CPU compared to brain? Explain. Post your answer
in the forum and compare it with your coursemates.
2.2 MICROPROCESSOR CHIP

Inside bigger computers, such as the mainframes and supercomputers, various
Central Processing Unit functions are carried out by chips on different circuit
boards. However, for microcomputers, the Central Processing Unit is usually
located on one chip only, which is termed as the microprocessor. Besides
containing the Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit, the microprocessor also
contains registers and a System Clock.
Most new microprocessors have been integrated with multimedia technology

or 3D (three-dimensional) graphics. Specific microprocessors for notebooks and
servers are also produced and sold by manufacturers.
The two types of microprocessor chips are:
(a) Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) Chip ă Microprocessors that

are commonly used are the complex instruction set computing chip. This
technology has been popularised by Intel and has become the basis of its
microprocessors. This chip design has been used very widely and many
programs have been written specifically for this type; and

(b) Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) Chip ă This type of computer
chip uses the approach of reduced instruction set computing, which
involves less instruction. Its design is simpler and cheaper than the complex
instruction set computing chip. This chip is used mostly inside high-
powered microcomputers. Refer to Table 2.1 for the most popular
microprocessors.
Table 2.1: Popular Microprocessors
Microprocessor Type of Chip Normal Use

Pentium Complex instruction set computing Microcomputers
PowerPC Reduced instruction set computing Apple Macintosh computer
Alpha Reduced instruction set computing Supercomputers, workstations
MIPS Reduced instruction set computing Workstations, video players
SELF-CHECK 2.2
State two types of microprocessor chips and their uses.
2.3 MEMORY
The memory is separated from the Central Processing Unit but is normally
integrated with it and is accessed by it. Data and instructions need to be present
inside the memory before being accessed by the Central Processing Unit. The
memory simply holds the data and instructions temporarily, as long as the
program being used is operational. In general, the storage space for the memory
can be used in five different forms for:
(a) Storing the operating system and other system software programs that act
as interfaces between hardware and application programs and controlling
computer resources;
(b) Storing application programs like word processors, spreadsheets and

databases;

(c) Storing data temporarily, i.e. data received from input devices or secondary
storage to be processed or to be sent to output devices or secondary storage
after processing;
(d) Storing data required during processing inside an area of storage work; and
(e) Providing additional storage space to programs or data, if required. If the

computer has excessive storage space for memory, the excess space is not to
be used, but it can or is ready to be used. The total memory utilisation
changes during processing.
Figure 2.4 illustrates how the memory communicates with the processor.
Figure 2.4: Methods of how the memory communicates with the processor
There are three types of memory chips as shown in Figure 2.5, which
are Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM) and
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS).

Figure 2.5: Three types of memory chips
SELF-CHECK 2.3
There are many types of memory inside a computer. What are the main
functions of memory?
2.3.1 Random Access Memory (RAM)

The Random Access Memory stores the programs and data being processed by
the Central Processing Unit. It is a temporary storage because as soon as the
electrical switch is turned off, all that has been saved inside the random access
memory will be lost. However, there is a new type of random access memory
that can store programs and data permanently. The Flash Random Access
Memory or Flash Memory Chip can store data even when there is an electrical
failure. This type of memory is more expensive than the normal random access
memory and is mostly used in portable computers. The capability or content of
the random access memory is measured in bytes. Four units of measurement that
are normally used to describe memory capability are as shown in Table 2.2:

Table 2.2: Memory Capacity
Unit Capacity (bytes)

Kilobyte (KB) 1,024
Megabyte (MB) 1,024,000
Gigabyte (GB) 1,024,000,000
Terabyte (TB) 1,024,000,000,000
Two types of random access memory chips that are normally used are:
(a) Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) ă Memory that holds data in a
dynamic manner. Data is not stored continuously. Instead, the computer
will refresh the data hundreds of times every second. It is normally used in
personal computers; and
(b) Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) ă Memory that holds data
continuously, for as long as there is electricity, without any refresh process.
It is faster than Dynamic Random Access Memory but its design is more
complex.
ACTIVITY 2.2
To know in detail about computer memory, please visit

http://www.howstuffworks.com/computer-memory.htm
2.3.2 Read Only Memory (ROM)

The Read Only Memory chip contains a program that is loaded in the factory.
The Read Only Memory chip does not evaporate and cannot be changed by
users. „Read Only‰ means that the Central Processing Unit can read or access the
program written inside the Read Only Memory chip. Computers cannot write or
code or change any data or instruction inside the Read Only Memory. There are
four types of normally used Read Only Memory, as shown in Table 2.3:

Table 2.3: Types of Read Only Memory
Type of Read Only Memory Functions

Programmable Read Only Program that can only read memory.
Memory (PROM)
Erasable Programmable Read The content of which can be erased by using the
Only Memory (EPROM) ultra-violet ray method.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory that can be erased
Programmable Read Only by electricity, the content of which can be changed or
Memory (EEPROM) program electronically.
Flash Memory Also known as Flash Read Only Memory ă Flash
Memory can be erased and program electronically.
2.3.3 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

(CMOS)
The Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor chip provides flexibility and
expandability to the computer system. It contains important information that is
required every time the computer system started. This chip provides information
such as the total random access memory size, types of keyboard, mouse, monitor
and disc drive. It uses battery power and its content remains permanent even
after the electricity supply is disconnected. Its content changes according to
changes inside the computer system, such as the addition of new hardware and
random access memory.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
What do you know about Flash Memory? State the differences and
similarities between Flash Memory and Read Only Memory or
Random Access Memory.
2.4 DATA REPRESENTATION

Computers consider all data, numbers, alphabets and symbols as numbers. Even
computer instructions are also in numerical form (machine language). The
numbering systems used by computers are the binary numbers, hexadecimal
numbers and octal numbers, as shown in Table 2.4. Computers use binary digits
ă zero (0) and one (1) ă normally called bit, to represent data.

Table 2.4: Numbering System Symbols
Numbering System Number of Symbol Symbols Used

Binary 2 0, 1
Octal 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Decimal 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
There are three binary coding schemes ă the most popular one uses eight bits to
form one byte. These codes are ASCII, EBCDIC and Unicode, as explained in
Figure 2.5.
Table 2.5: Coding Schemes
Code Definition
American Standard These codes represent text in computers, communication
Code for Information equipment and other devices that use text.
Interchange (ASCII)
Extended Binary Coded An 8-bit character encoding that is usually used in IBM
Decimal Interchange mainframe operating systems and IBM computer.
Code (EBCDIC)
Unicode A 16-bit code invented to cater for the need of the
international languages like Chinese and Japanese.
When a key is depressed on the keyboard, the character is changed automatically

to a series of electronic pulses that can be recognised by the system. For example,
when the key A is pressed, it will cause an electronic signal to be transmitted to
the Microcomputer System Unit. The System Unit will then change the signal
into ASCII code, which is, 0100 0001. Before execution, all instructions and data
need to be converted into binary form. For example, 3 + 5 requires 24 bits with
the use of ASCII coding scheme.

It would be good if we can understand the concept of converting numbers

between binary, octal and hexadecimal systems as illustrated in Table 2.6:
Table 2.6: Examples of Numbers in Various Numbering Systems
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

1 0001 01 01
2 0010 01 01
5 0101 05 05
8 1000 10 08
10 1010 12 0A
11 1011 13 0B
15 1111 17 0F
16 0001000 20 10
20 00010100 24 14
160 10100000 240 A0
Please refer to Table 2.7 to see how data is represented in ASCII and EBCDIC
codes.
Table 2.7: Binary Coding Schemas for ASCII and EBCDIC
Symbol ASCII EBCDIC Symbol ASCII EBCDIC

A 0100 0001 1100 0001 ! 0010 0001 0101 1010
B 0100 0010 1100 „ 0010 0010 0111 1111
C 0100 0011 1100 # 0010 0011 0111 1011
D 0100 0100 1100 $ 0010 0100 0101 1011
E 0100 0101 1100 % 0010 0101 0110 1100
F 0100 0110 1100 & 0010 0110 0101 0000
G 0100 0111 1100 ( 0010 1000 0100 1101
H 0100 1000 1100 ) 0010 1001 0101 1101
I 0100 1001 1100 1001 * 0010 1010 0101 1100
J 0100 1010 1101 + 0010 1011 0100 1110
K 0100 1011 1101 0 0011 0000 1111 0000
L 0100 1100 1101 1 0011 0001 1111 0001

M 0100 1101 1101 2 0011 0010 1111 0010

N 0100 1110 1101 3 0011 0011 1111 0011
O 0100 1111 1101 4 0011 0100 1111 0100
P 0101 0000 1101 5 0011 0101 1111 0101
Q 0101 0001 1101 6 0011 0110 1111 0110
R 0101 0010 1101 7 0011 0111 1111 0111
S 0101 0011 1110 8 0011 1000 1111 1000
T 0101 0100 1110 9 0011 1001 1111 1001
U 0101 0101 1110
V 0101 0110 1110
W 0101 1011 1110
X 0101 1000 1110 0111
Y 0101 1001 1110
Z 0101 1010 1110
SELF-CHECK 2.5
We know that people interact by using language. How do computers

interact? Explain.
2.5 SYSTEM UNIT

The System Unit is a hardware unit or a space where the processor, memory
chips, ports, buses, additional slots, board (hardware in which chips and related
circuits are placed) and other electrical components are located. It is also called
the „System Cabinet‰ for the mainframes or the „System Board‰ for the
microcomputers. Even though the System Unit also includes hard disks, floppy
disks, CD-ROM and others, we are not going to touch on these devices, as they
are located outside the Central Processing Unit. We are only going to focus on
the following sections.

2.5.1 Power Supply

The power supply plays the role of changing electrical current from Alternating
Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC). Normally, there is a fan to cool down the
transformer and other components. If the electrical power is not uniform, e.g.
there is high and low voltage or power surge; this may spoil the main board,
hard disks and others. Hence, it would be better to install special equipment like
Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS), voltage regulator and so on.
2.5.2 Motherboard
The motherboard (also known as system board, mainboard, logic board and
planar board) is a communication network for the entire computer system. Every
component of the System Unit is connected directly to the motherboard. It
functions as a data bus that enables various components to communicate with
each other. External devices like the keyboard, mouse and monitor cannot
communicate with the System Unit without the motherboard.
The motherboard is a thin circuit board that is filled up with sockets and
electronic components including various types of chips. One chip contains a very
small circuit board embedded in a stamp size piece of silicon. This chip is also
known as the silicon chip, semiconductor or integrated circuit. The chips are
packaged and inserted into the sockets of the motherboard. These electronic
components and chips are fixed to the system board as illustrated in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: Motherboard

2.5.3 Read Only Memory Chip

The Read Only Memory (ROM) chip contains a program that has been developed
or burnt at the factory, i.e. the program that is required for computers to operate,
or to start operating the computer ă such as hardware checking, Basic
Input/Output System (BIOS) and so on. The BIOS chip is normally used, and is
partly hardware and partly software.
The BIOS provides a service enabling software to communicate with the input
and output devices. The ROM BIOS contains specific instructions. When a
computer is switched on, the BIOS will perform Power-On Self-Test (POST), such
as diagnostic tests for the Central Processing Unit and memory. It will then test
communications with the hardware such as the keyboard, disk drive and others.
Finally, the BIOS will boot up the operating system and submit control to the
operating system.
2.5.4 Slot and Expansion Board

Many computers are of the open architecture, where we can open up and add-on
new devices, and then expand its capability. Expansion means adding more
memory or devices or software. This is made possible through the expansion slot
and the expansion board.
The expansion slot is a socket on the main board, which enables an expansion
card to be installed. An expansion card, or expansion board, or adapter, or
simply card, is actually a circuit board that gives more memory, or input/output
device control, or software.

An expansion card is inserted into the slot inside the System Unit. A port on the
card enables cabling to be connected from the added card to the device outside
the System Unit. We will see various functions of the boards or cards, as shown
in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8: Functions of Boards or Cards
Board or Card Functions

Network Adapter Connects one computer to other computers. This is a
Card communication network in which users can share data, programs
and hardware. This card normally connects the System Unit to a
cable that connects other devices in the network. The network
adapter card is inserted into the slot inside the System Unit.
Small Computer Most computers have limited expansion slots. The SCSI card uses
System Interface only one slot but it can connect up to seven devices to the System
(SCSI) Card Unit. This card is used to connect devices like the printer, hard
disc drive and CD-ROM to the System Unit.
TV Adjuster Card The TV board that contains the TV and video adjuster can change
the TV signals to a form that can be displayed on the monitor.
Personal Due to the size and limitations of portable computers an
Computer Card additional board of credit card size has been created. This card
can easily be slotted in and changed from the outside of portable
computers. This is called the personal computer card or the
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
(PCMCIA).
Memory It is useful for increasing memory and associating with other
Expansion computers. Enables addition of random access memory chips.
Display Adapter Enables various colour video displays for monitors being used.
Card
Control Card Enables the Central Processing Unit to work with various
software devices such as the disk control card.
Accelerator Card Increases the speed of computers.
Emulator Card Enables computers to emulate other devices like the terminals.
Fax Modem Card Receives fax/data/information via telephone lines.
Graphic Adapter Enables computers to use a certain graphic standard.
Sound Card Translates data into sound output.
Voice Card Enables voice output.

2.5.5 Port
The port is a connecting socket located outside the System Unit. The port enables
software devices or input/output devices to be plugged in for connection to the
computer, so that they can communicate with the computer system. A cable can
be used to connect input/output devices to the System Unit through the port, as
shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7: Ports
There are various types of ports and their functions are as shown in Table 2.9.
Table 2.9: Various Types of Ports
Type of Port Functions

Parallel Port It is used for connecting external devices, which sends or receives
data in a big amount at a short distance. This port normally sends
simultaneously 8-bit data via eight parallel wires. A parallel port
is used to connect a printer to the System Unit.
Serial Port It connects the mouse, keyboard, modem and other devices to the
System Unit. Serial port sends data one bit at a time, and is
suitable for sending information at long distance.
Accelerated It is used for connecting to the monitor and can support high-
Graphic Port speed graphics and other video inputs.
(AGP)
Universal Serial It is forecasted to replace serial and parallel ports. It is fast and one
Bus (USB) Port USB port can connect a few devices to the System Unit.
Electrical Wire The latest port that is faster than the USB port, and is used to
Port connect high-speed printers and video cameras to the System
Unit.

2.5.6 Personal Computer Memory Card International

Association Card and Slot
This is a new bus standard for notebook computers, handheld computers and
portable computers. The Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association card has been used widely for desktop computers. It enables devices
of credit card size like the memory card (up to 100 MB), modem and hard disk
to be plugged in. There are four types of Personal Computer Memory Card
International Association slots, as shown in Table 2.10.
Table 2.10: Personal Computer Memory Card International Association Slots
Personal Computer
Memory Card
Functions
International
Association Slot
Type I  Often used for memory card (random access memory,
flash memory, electrically erasable programmable Read
Only Memory), especially for laptop computers and
personal digital assistant (PDA).
 About 3.3 mm thick.
Type II  Fully capable input/output, used for modem/fax and
adapter for local area network (LAN).
 About 5 mm thick.
Type III  Often used for devices like moveable hard disks.
 About 10.5 mm thick.
Type IV  Used for high volume disk drive.
 About 18 mm thick.
SELF-CHECK 2.6
1. What are the functions of graphic adapter cards? Give examples.
2. What is a motherboard? Explain the contents of the motherboard

that is available on your personal computer.

2.6 SYSTEM CLOCK

The System Clock is a circuit chip, which generates electronic pulses at a fixed
rate to synchronise or control timing activities of processing. The Control Unit is
very dependent on the System Clock for doing its jobs. The System Clock
controls the speed of operation inside the computer. This speed is measured in
megahertz (MHz). One megahertz is equal to one million cycles per second. The
faster the clock speeds, the faster the computerÊs ability to process information.
2.7 BUS LINE

The bus line is also known as data bus or simply „bus‰, which connects the
Central Processing Unit components with each other. It also connects the Central
Processing Unit to various other components on the motherboard. The bus is a
data passage way along which bits move. This data passage way is similar to the
highway. The more lanes it has, the faster the traffic moves. Similarly, the bigger
the bus capacity is, the faster the speed of computer execution. Figure 2.8 shows
the bus line on the Central Processing Unit.
Figure 2.8: Bus line

When a microprocessor chip changes, the bus line also changes. Most of the
devices like the expansion board, will work with one type of bus only. There are
three types of bus lines (see Table 2.11), as follows:
Table 2.11: Three Types of Bus Lines
Types of Bus Line Description

Industrial Standard Industrial standard architecture bus was built for the IBM
Architecture (ISA) personal computer. It has a capacity of 8-bit and 16-bit.
Despite being not fast enough for most of todayÊs computer
applications, the industrial standard architecture bus is still
used widely.
Peripheral Component Peripheral component interconnect was originally built to
Interconnect (PCI) fulfil video needs as a result of using the graphical user
interface. The peripheral component interconnect bus has a
capacity of 32-bit and 64-bit, which is 20 times faster than
the Industrial standard architecture bus. The peripheral
component interconnect is used to connect the Central
Processing Unit, memory and expansion board.
Accelerated Graphics Port Accelerated graphics port is the most recent bus with twice
(AGP) the speed of the peripheral component interconnects bus.
The accelerated graphics port is used specially for
accelerating graphic performances. It is often used for
graphics, 3D animation and for replacing the peripheral
component interconnects bus in video data transfers.
SELF-CHECK 2.7
Explain three types of bus line with their characteristics and uses.
ACTIVITY 2.2
In a group, discuss how data moves inside the computer. Present it in

your tutorial.

 Central Processing Unit is divided into two sections or units, which are
Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit.
 The Control Unit of the processor can be compared with the „human brain‰.
It informs the entire computer on how to execute program instructions.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit executes two types of operations, which are arithmetic
operation and logical operation.
 Both Central Processing Unit and memory always need each other. However,
the memory is not part of the Central Processing Unit.
 The Random Access Memory stores the programs and data being processed
by the Central Processing Unit.
 The Read Only Memory chip contains a program that is loaded in the factory.
The chip does not evaporate and cannot be changed by users.
 The System Unit is a hardware unit or a space where the processor, memory
chips, ports, buses, additional slots, board (hardware in which chips and
related circuits are placed) and other electrical components are located.
 The System Clock is a circuit chip, which generates electronic pulses at a
fixed rate to synchronise or control timing activities of processing.
 The bus line is also known as data bus, or simply „bus‰, which connects the
Central Processing Unit components with each other.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) Personal Computer Memory Card

Bus line International Association (PCMCIA)
Control Unit Port
Central Processing Unit (CPU) Random Access Memory (RAM)
Complementary Metal oxide Read Only Memory (ROM)
Semiconductor (CMOS) Software
Dynamic Random Access Memory Static Random Access Memory
(DRAM) (SRAM)
Hardware
Motherboard

Topic  Input and
3 Output
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain various input methods and devices; and
2. Explain various output methods and devices.
 INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you have been introduced to the processor and memory,
two most important components of computer hardware. To enable the processor
to process data and the memory to store them, data needs to be brought into the
computer. After processing, the resulted information needs to be taken out of the
computer. These two jobs of taken in and taken out are done by the input/output
unit of the computer system.
In this topic, you will learn about various input and output methods. The
keyboard is the most popular input device used. Besides the keyboard, there are
many other latest input and output devices that are available in the market. They
will also be discussed here.
3.1 INPUT AND OUTPUT

Input is like a bridge between data and processing, which is to enable data to be
carried from users to the computer. Input may be required to answer questions
and it needs processing. Output is like a link between computer processing and
people. Output to be produced is determined by the analysis of user needs. Input
and output devices are also referred to as peripherals. We are going to see how
input and output devices work.

TOPIC 3 INPUT AND OUTPUT  41
ACTIVITY 3.1
In a group, discuss how we can interact with the computer.
3.2 INPUT METHODS

Various types of source documents require various input methods and devices
(refer to Figure 3.1). Direct data entry consists of data that can be read by the
machine (computer) and transferred as input, directly into the computer. Indirect
data entry requires various media and processing of the data source before the
actual computer processing. In general, there are three approaches to data entry,
as shown in Table 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Input devices

42  TOPIC 3 INPUT AND OUTPUT
Table 3.1: Three Approaches to Data Entry
Approach Description
Offline data entry After data has been entered, it will be changed into a suitable
form and will be verified. Data will be corrected if there are
errors. All data that has been confirmed as correct will be
processed. This method is less often used now and this is
also referred to as batch method.
Online data entry Similar to offline data entry; the difference is that the data
entered is directly examined and corrected. After all the data
has been entered, processing will then be done on them.
Interactive data entry Similar to online data entry, except that, data is examined
every time it is entered and processing on the data is done
immediately. There is no need to wait for all data to be
entered.
Input devices take data and programs that can be read or understood by humans,
and convert them into a form that can be processed by the computer. This new
form consists of electronic signals of „0‰ and „1‰, which can be read by machines
as explained in the section on data representation.
There are two types of input devices:
(a) Entry via Keyboard ă Data is transferred as input into the computer via a
keyboard that resembles the keyboard of a typewriter, but contains a few
additional keys. For this type of entry, users read the original document,
called source document. The contents of this document will be entered via
keyboard; and
(b) Direct Entry ă Data is already in a machine-readable form and

simultaneously entered into the computer, without using keyboard.
An example of an input device that uses both types of entries (entry via keyboard
and direct entry) is the point-of-sale (POS) terminal. It is a kind of electronic cash
register that is used widely in business.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. Name at least 5 input devices.
2. What is the difference between offline data entry and interactive

data entry?

3.2.1 Keyboard
Devices that are often used are keyboard for data entry and terminal for
displaying what has been entered. There are various forms, styles, sizes,
arrangements, touch or feel and the number of keys.
(a) Number of Keys ă Normally there are 101 keys, but it also depends on
types of computers, especially types of microcomputers, whether desktop
or handheld. Handheld computers provide fewer numbers of keys because
of their small size.
(b) Group/Type of Keys ă There are three types of keys, as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Three Types of Keys on Keyboard
Keys Description
Alphanumeric Consists of numbers and alphabets, similar to the typewriter.
Cursor Cursor is a symbol on the display screen, which shows the site of
Movement data to be entered; also called arrow.
Numeric Also called numeric keypad; these are separate keys for numbers
(0ă9), which have been arranged like a calculator. Sometimes, there
are two objectives, depending on the Num Lock key, i.e. cursor or
numeric movements.
(c) Functions ă Keys that are labelled as F and normally F1−F12 have their
functions defined by the software.
(d) Special Objectives ă Normally called additional keys, these are keys which
have specific tasks like Backspace, Delete, Insert, Escape, Home, Pause,
Print Screen, and others.
(e) Arrangement ă Arrangements of alphanumeric keys, which normally

follows the QWERTY order because the first five keys at the top line for
alphanumeric letters are Q, W, E, R, T and Y. A new arrangement is the
DVORAK order. This new arrangement of keys is made following the use
of keys, i.e. the keys that are always used will be placed at an easily
accessible location. As such, vowel letters A, E, I, O and U are normally
placed on the left, while D, H, N, S and T on the right. The next five keys
that are most often used are placed on the top line and so on.
(f) Touch/Feel ă Now, the softness of pressing the keys and the sound emitted
can be controlled by software.

(g) Styles (and Size or Shape) ă These are designed according to its inventor, to
be user-friendly and more ergonomic. Ergonomics is a study of how to
make something user-friendly, less danger-prone or less uncomfortable to
users.
Figure 3.2: Keyboard

Source: http://www.omgchrome.com
(h) Physical versus Virtual ă Nowadays, mobility is the top concerns of

everyone. Most people want to be able to move hassle free. With this
concern in mind, virtual projection keyboard was designed and developed.
Virtual keyboard works by projecting the keyboard image on a surface (e.g.
table). The right keystroke is captured when the user presses an area cover
by the image of the key.
Figure 3.3: Virtual keyboard

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org

The keyboard contains control and buffer keys. Whatever is typed, will be stored
inside a buffer (which can store more than one symbol) and later, will be scanned
by the computer processor after receiving interrupt signals from the control key.
3.2.2 Terminal
The terminal is an input (and output) device that connects you to a mainframe or
other types of computers, called a host computer or server. There are three types
of terminal, as shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Types of Terminals
Terminal Description
Dumb Terminals Used for input and to receive data, but cannot process data by
themselves. They are used only to access information from the
computer and are often found at airline companies, post offices and
road transport department (RTD) offices.
Intelligent They have a processing unit, memory and secondary storage like a
Terminals magnetic disk. Basically, an intelligent terminal is a microcomputer
with the communication software and modem or other
communication connectivity. This connects the terminals to a bigger
computer or the Internet.
Terminals Also known as network computers, they are cheaper alternatives to
intelligent terminals. Most network terminals do not have a hard
disk drive and must rely on the host computer or the server for
their system and application software.

3.2.3 Pointing Device

Pointing is a natural human activity. There are five devices that utilise this
method, as shown in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: Five pointing devices
(a) Mouse ă Move (roll) to direct a pointer/cursor/icon on the screen. When

the ball at the bottom of the mouse rolls, the vertical and horizontal
coordinates (position) of the mouse cursor changes. By checking the
coordinate, a computer can determine the cursorÊs position and displays the
cursor on the screen. It is considered to be the most user-friendly device.
Figure 3.5: Mouse

There are four types of the mouse, as described in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Four Types of Mouse
Mouse Description
Ball Mouse It uses balls to move and also known as a mechanical mouse.
Optical Mouse It uses light and requires a mouse pad that can reflect the light. This
mouse contains a section called photo-detector. It functions like the
ball mouse and normally used on a high-powered computer like a
server.
Touch Sensitive This has a pad that is sensitive to finger touch, for moving the
Mouse icon/cursor.
Wireless Mouse It communicates with the computer by emitting infrared signals or
low-intensity radio signals (see Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.6: Wireless mouse

Source: http://www.microsoft.com
(b) Touch Screen ă It is a monitor screen that is overlaid with a plastic layer. At
the back of the layer, there is an invisible, criss-crossing infrared light. This
arrangement enables a user to choose either an action or instruction on the
screen by using fingers. The touch screen is easier to use, especially when
someone requires information immediately. It is usually used at automatic
teller machines (ATM), information kiosks, several restaurants and petrol
stations.
(c) Light Pen ă It is a pen or a device like a pen, which is light sensitive and
connected via a cable to a computer. The location (or choice) is identified by
pressing its button against a specific position on the screen. It is normally
used for drawing images and selection of menu.

(d) Digital Board ă It is a device that can be used to plot or copy certain
drawing or picture. The item to be copied is placed on a digital tablet. Then,
a specific stylus connected to the computer is used to plot the material. As
the stylus moves from one location to another, the computer records the
locations from the digital tablet. When the material has been plotted, the
image can be displayed on screen, printed on paper or stored in a computer
system for future use. Digitisers are normally used by designers, architects
and engineers.
(e) Pen-Based System ă This uses a pen to enter handwritings or marks into the
computer containing software to identify and digitise handwritings and
also hand drawings. There are four types of pen-based systems like those
explained in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Four Types of Pen-Based Systems
Pen-Based Systems Description

Recognition of Signal Movement A system that can recognise various reading
or Electronic Checking marks, letters and printed numbers.
Handwriting Saved as a Handwriting is saved as a brief and not as a type-
Sketch/Brief written text.
Handwriting Changed to Type A system that can be trained to recognise clear and
Written Text with Training good handwriting.
Handwriting Changed to Type This system is the most difficult and complex.
Written Text without Training
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. How do computers receive data from the mouse?
2. State two types of pointing devices often used.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Normally, data is entered into the computer via keyboard. Do you

know of other methods that are used to enter data? List and explain
now the methods work.

3.2.4 Scanning Device

Scanning devices translate images, texts, drawings, pictures and similar items
into a digital form for direct entry to the computer. Images that have been
processed can be displayed on the screen, saved on the storage device and sent to
other computers. There are two technologies ă optical recognition and magnetic
recognition, as illustrated in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Recognition technology

Source: http://bcdata.com
(a) Optical Recognition ă This technology device, also known as the optical
reader, uses light to scan images. Examples of optical recognition devices are
illustrated in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8: Optical recognition
(i) Optical Mark Reader (OMR) ă Optical mark reader is used as a device
that reads pencil marks in UPSR and PMR examinations and can be
used for marking the objective questions of Section A, OUM final
examinations.
(ii) Fax Machine ă Fax machine (see Figure 3.9) is used for scanning
images and sending them electronically via telephone line to a
destination (fax machine). There are two types:
● Dedicated fax machine or simply known as fax machine; and
● Fax modem, which is installed in a computer to enable electronic

documents to be sent directly to its receiver (either fax machine or
computer). It is faster but cannot scan non-electronic documents.

Figure 3.9: Fax machine
(iii) Barcode Reader ă It is used for reading input in bar form - marks that
resemble vertically shaped zebra stripes.
(iv) Optical Character Reader (OCR) ă Optical character reader is used for
reading specific pre-printed characters (in specific font), for example
the OCR-A font (the one perfected by ANSI).
(v) Optical Handwriting Reader ă Optical Handwriting Reader is used

for reading handwriting, but its capability is still limited.
(vi) Imaging System ă It is an image scanning device that converts all

texts, drawings, pictures and others into digital form. Imaging system
technology has created imaging industries by combining the use of
scanners, cameras, etc.
(b) Magnetic Recognition ă This uses magnetic methods to scan magnetic

writing. The technological device used is the Magnetic Ink Character
Reader (MICR). The MICR reads the number (in strange form) that is
printed using magnetic ink. The MICR is often used in cheques to facilitate
sorting, as done by the Central Bank of Malaysia and other banks.
(c) Voice Recognition Device ă It converts human voice/speech into digital

codes. Human voice is transferred through a microphone that is connected
to a computer. When this input device is combined with sound cards and
appropriate software, a sound recognition system is formed. This system
enables a user to operate a microcomputer to develop documents by giving
orders using the human voice. It has the potential to be used as a security
method.

(d) Smart and Optical Card ă The smart card refers to the multi-purpose card,
or MyKad, distributed by the National Registration Department (JPN), as
well as credit and debit cards distributed by various commercial banks like
Maybank and CIMB bank. The use of the optical card is still restricted
despite its ability to store information of up to 2,000 pages as compared to
smart cards (able to store information up to 30 pages, depending on the
capability of the microprocessor) and magnetic cards (able to store
information of up to half a page).
3.2.5 Other Input Devices

There are other input devices that can receive input in the form of audio, video,
electronic pictures, senses and human biology. Most of these tools enable the use
of multimedia and there are some used for security objectives, such as the
concept of biometry. We can see various other input devices in Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10: Other input devices

(a) Audio Input Device ă It is used to record or play analogue music into
digital form. It can generally receive various forms of sound as input,
whereas, a sound recognition device can receive only one type of audio
input, i.e. sound input. There are two methods of digitising the audio:
(i) Audio Board ă The board that changes analogue sound to digital
sound and saves it for future use; and
(ii) Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) Board ă It emits digital

music, which normally uses the musical instrument digital interface
keyboard.
(b) Video Input Device ă Enables video pictures to be converted into digital
form through a specific card. There are two types of video card:
(i) Frame Capture ă Can digitise one frame at one time only; and
(ii) Full Movement ă Can convert at the rate of 30 frames per second.
The main problem here is storage, not the input. Nowadays, digital video
cameras are available in the market, where the output is in digital form.
Digital video recorders will facilitate multimedia presentation or a form of
new broadcasting on the Internet, i.e. web television.
(c) Electronic/Digital Camera ă It is similar to the traditional camera except

that images are recorded digitally in the camera or inside the camera
memory and not on film. You can snap a picture, look at it and place it on
the website within a few minutes.
Figure 3.11: Digital camera

Source: http://www.whatdigitalcamera.com

(d) Sensor ă These are input devices that collect data in specific forms directly
from the environment and send them to the computer. Sensors can be used
to track data such as speed, weight, temperature, image, shape, light, air
pollution, etc. Have you ever weighed yourself using an audio enabled
weighing scale at a supermarket? That is one example of a sensing device
used to measure your weight and also your height.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. What is the most common type of input device? Why are there
various types of input devices?
2. State two examples of optical recognition and magnetic

recognition technologies.
3.3 INPUT CONTROL

There must be input control to safeguard the integrity of data and to prevent
them from becoming „garbage in garbage out‰ (GIGO). Input control is a
collection of manual and computer control methods that have been designed to
ensure all input data are actually precise when entered into the computer.
ACTIVITY 3.3
How do we know the data we have entered into the computer is

correct?

3.4 OUTPUT METHODS

Output can take various forms, such as screen output, printed paper, cathode
ray, signals, voice, microfilm, etc. In general, there are two types of output (see
Figure 3.12).
Figure 3.12: Two types of output
Besides soft copies and hard copies, decisions on output largely depend on a
number of factors, such as:
(a) Frequency of output required ă Whether always, regular, upon request or

unpredictable;
(b) Cost involved;
(c) How much output to be produced;
(d) How fast the information is required; and
(e) Situation of the users.
ACTIVITY 3.4
How do we view the processing results that we have done inside a

computer? Try to figure out how the results are displayed and discuss
it with your coursemates.

3.5 OUTPUT DEVICES

Data entered needs to be processed by the computer so that they are in a machine
readable form until the output device converts them into a form that can be read
by humans. Output devices used together with microcomputers are the monitor,
printer, plotter and voice output device. We can see examples of output devices
in Figure 3.13.
Figure 3.13: Output devices

3.5.1 Printer
The image displayed on the monitor is often referred to as soft copy. Information
that is produced on paper, whether from printer or plotter is called a hard copy
(see Figure 3.14).
Figure 3.14: Printer
Three popular types of printers always used together with microcomputers are
as follows:
(a) Ink Jet Printer − Sends out droplets of ink at high speed onto the surface of
paper. This process does not only produce images of high quality letters,
but also allows printing to happen in various colours. An ink jet printer is a
printer that is reliable, quiet and cheap.
(b) Laser Printer − Utilises the emission of a laser beam onto the drum, and is
transferred onto paper by using the toner (as in the photocopy machine).
There is a laser printer that is classified as a PostScript printer. PostScript is
a printer language, often called Page Description Language (PDL), which
has been accepted as a standard for laser printer.
(c) Thermal Printer − Uses heat element to produce images on heat-sensitive

paper. Originally, this printer is used in scientific laboratories to record
data. This printer is used specifically for producing output that is almost
the same as photographs.

The measure of printer speed depends on the type of printer or the method of
printing, i.e. whether on the basis of characters, lines or pages. The speed is
characters per second, lines per minute or pages per minute. Most printer models
are desktop printers which are difficult move around (depending on size). The
use of laptop computers leads to portable printers.
Among the criteria in choosing printers are image quality, speed, level of noise
and cost of operation, such as ink cost, spare parts, etc.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
1. What are the factors that influence the speed of a printer?
2. Give two types of printers that are popular now.
3.5.2 Monitor
Monitors are used for output as well as for input. There are two types of
monitors ă cathode ray tube (see Figure 3.15) and flat panel display (see
Figure 3.16).
(a) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) ă It is a vacuum tube that is used as a display
screen for the computer or video display terminal. The technology is the
same as the television. The cathode ray tube is an output device commonly
used together with the computer. The smallest unit on the screen is called a
pixel (picture element).
Figure 3.15: Cathode ray tube monitor

(b) Flat Panel Display ă It is lighter, thinner and uses less power compared to
cathode ray tube. This panel is made of two pieces of glass/plastic that
have activated materials among them.
Figure 3.16: Flat panel display monitor

Source: http://support.gateway.com
The clarity of a monitor is determined by the resolution which is measured in

pixels. A pixel is a dot or „picture element‰ that forms an image on the monitor.
For certain monitor size, higher resolution (more pixels) leads to clearer image.
For certain degree of clarity, bigger monitor requires higher resolution.
Standard
A number of standards have been developed for determining the degree of
computer resolutions. Four standards that are commonly used now are shown in
Table 3.6.
Table 3.6: Four Computer Resolution Standards
Standard Definition
Super Video Graphics Minimum resolution of 800  600 pixels.
Array (SVGA)
Extended Graphics Resolution up to 1,024  768 pixels; popular standard now.
Array (XGA)
Super Extended Resolution of 1,280  1,024 pixels.
Graphics Array (SXGA)
Ultra Extended The latest and highest standard; its use is continuously
Graphics Array growing, especially for engineering designs at high level
(UXGA) and for graphical fine arts.

3.5.3 Plotter
Plotters are used specifically for producing bar charts, maps, architectural
drawings and three-dimensional illustrations. A plotter can produce multi-
coloured documents of high quality and also documents bigger than that
produced by other printers. There are four types of plotters as follows:
(a) Pen Plotter ă It moves pens or pencils on the paper draft. This plotter is
very cheap and easy to maintain, but it is slow and less capable of
producing voluminous images and shaded images.
(b) Electrostatic Plotter ă It uses electrostatic charge that is faster than a pen
plotter or ink jet plotter. An electrostatic plotter is used for applications that
require voluminous output of high quality, such as those in advertising and
design of graphic arts.
(c) Ink Jet Plotter ă It produces art lines and multi-coloured output by emitting
droplets of ink onto the paper surface. Its best characteristics are speed,
high quality output and operating quietly. Its main weakness is the
possibility of its jet getting blocked, and this requires more maintenance.
(d) Direct Imaging Plotter or Thermal Plotter ă It produces an image by using

heat-sensitive paper and pin heated by electricity. Its cost is almost the
same as the electrostatic plotter. It is reliable and suitable for voluminous
amount of work. Its main weakness is the need for expensive paper and it
normally produces an output of two colours only. It is suitable for map-
making applications.
SELF-CHECK 3.5
1. What is the use of a plotter? Elaborate.
2. State the differences between a „cathode ray tube‰ monitor and a

„flat panel display‰ monitor.
ACTIVITY 3.5
In your opinion, what is the difference between a printer and a plotter?

3.5.4 Voice Output Device

There are two types of technology, i.e. voice output (refer to Figure 3.17)
technology (speech coding and synthesising) and sound output (refer to
Figure 3.18) technology (frequency modulation [FM] synthesising and virtual
acoustic).
Figure 3.17: Voice output
Figure 3.18: Sound output

 Input is like a bridge between data and processing, which is to enable data to
be carried from users to computer.
 Output is like a link between computer processing and people.
 Direct data entry consists of data that can be read by a machine (computer)
and transferred as input directly into the computer.
 Indirect data entry requires various media and processing of the data source
before the actual computer processing.
 There must be input control to safeguard the integrity of data and to prevent
them from becoming garbage in garbage out.
 Output can take various forms, such as screen output, printed paper, signals,
voice, microfilm, etc.
 Output devices used together with microcomputers are the monitor, printer,
plotter and voice output device.
Acoustic Output devices

Data entry Plotter
Garbage in garbage out (GIGO) Point-of-sale (POS)
Hard copy Pointing device
Input devices Printer
Keyboard Scanning device
Magnetic recognition Soft copy
Monitor Terminal
Optical recognition

Topic  Secondary
4 Storage
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe five advantages of secondary storage.
2. Explain two types of magnetic storage;
3. Recognise four types of optical storage; and
4. Identify other types of storage devices.
 INTRODUCTION
After discussing about input and output in the previous topic, we shall now
move on to another computer component devices secondary storage. You will be
introduced to various types of secondary storage in the market together with
their comparisons.
4.1 BASIC STORAGE

Storage in a computer holds data and information to be retrieved for future use.
Users normally stores digital photos, video, audio and documents. As a student,
the capability of a computer is to store your learning materials, such as digital
notes and assignment works is very crucial. Besides the use by users, the
computer itself does need storage to store system and application software.
While primary storage holds data temporarily, secondary storage does otherwise.
Secondary storage is the physical material on which a computer stores data,
instructions and information. A storage device has been designed to store data
and instructions in a permanent form and to retrieve them back. This storage

64  TOPIC 4 SECONDARY STORAGE
does not disappear because data is stored in magnetic, optical or optical magnetic
form as illustrated in Figure 4.1. It is also a method of storing data, information
and instructions outside the computer.
Figure 4.1: Variety of secondary storage devices

Source: http://digisupersonic.com/
On the latest technological development, primary storage is moving towards a

large capacity using small microelectrical circuits, while secondary storage is
moving towards a large capacity using magnetic and optical media. An example
of secondary storage are hard disks, solid state drives, memory cards, universal
serial bus (USB) flash drives, optical disks, smart cards, magnetic stripe cards and
microfilm. Cloud storage is another, latest storage option, in which the storage
media is not visible to the users.

TOPIC 4 SECONDARY STORAGE  65
Capacity of a storage medium refers to the number of bytes (characters) that can
be hold. Figure 4.2 shows the capacity of a storage medium.
Figure 4.2: Storage capacity
The speed of storage devices is defined by access time. Access time measures the
amount of time it takes to locate the required data on a storage medium.
The five advantages of secondary storage are shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Five Advantages of Secondary Storage
Characteristics Advantages
Size Can accommodate large amounts of data.
Data stored can reach gigabyte (GB) or terabyte
(TB).
Reliability It can be considered safe.
Comfort Data can be accessed immediately.
Economic Storage costs can be reduced.
Lifetime It is permanent and can be used for archiving.
Some storage has a lifespan of up to 100 years.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Why do we need storage inside a computer? Explain.

4.2 MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES

A magnetic storage device refers to equipment which uses a magnetic head to
read and write data. It gets the data to and from a magnetisable medium. The
medium may be a plastic tape coated with fine particles of a metal. The two
magnetic storage devices are magnetic tape and hard disk.
4.2.1 Magnetic Tape

A magnetic tape is a secondary storage medium whereby its data are stored
inside the tape roll. To be specific, a magnetic tape is a thin plastic tape that has
been covered with materials, which can be magnetised. Data on the tape is
represented by magnetic particles that are digital data in discrete forms of „0‰
and „1‰. A tape contains a number of tracks or channels which are normally used
to store data. Normally, there are seven or nine tracks. Data on the tape will be
deleted before new data is written on it. The number of tracks on the tape
depends on the number of read/write heads that are present on the tape drive
unit.
As the tape is in roll form, data will be stored serially. Every tape column (seven
or nine tracks) will represent one character. For data that is stored serially, the
storage method used is serpentine where data is stored one by one along one or
two tracks at one time. Data will be written from the beginning to the end of the
track concerned, and this will continue onto the part that has not yet been used as
Figure 4.3: Magnetic tape

Besides that, there is also data that is stored in parallel. For the parallel type, data
will be written block by block or record by record. Every block of data will be
separated by a space, which is called inter-block gap. For record by record, the
space is called inter-record gap. The space is required because the tape cannot
stop immediately after it has been rolled. Normally, the use of tape is only
35%ă70%, depending on the blocking factor.
A magnetic tape drive is measured by how much data can be stored on the
magnetic tape and also the speed of the tape passing through the read/write
head. The combination of these two determines the rate of transfer or the number
of characters per second that can be sent to the primary storage. Tape density is
measured by character per inch or bit per inch. Data density varies from 800 bpi
to 7000 bpi. The tape length is normally 600 m, 366 m or 731 m.
Therefore, a tape of 366 m with 6,250 bpi can store up to 180 MB of data. The size
of data that can be stored is normally between 40 MB to five GB. The drive that
can upgrade its maximum loading is digital audio tape (DAT). A digital audio
tape drive consists of two read heads and two write heads which read/write one
type of magnetic pole only. Data on the tape will be accessed and written serially.
There are two types of magnetic tape ă magnetic tape unit for large computers
and tape cartridge unit for personal computers. Currently, most tapes are used
for safe storage and copy storage because they are portable and cheap. Storage
size of a normal magnetic tape is between 20 GBă40 GB.
The disadvantage of a magnetic tape is the slow rate of serial data access. Its
advantages are it is cheap, portable and long lasting.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Give two advantages of secondary storage.
2. Various types of storage are available in the market. State three

types of magnetic storage which are commonly choose by
consumers.

4.2.2 Hard Disk

A hard disk is a storage device that contains one or more inflexible, circular, thick
and strong metallic platters that use magnetic particles to store data, instructions
and information. The disk is enclosed in an airtight, sealed case to protect it. A
hard disk that is mounted inside the system unit of a computer is called an
internal hard disk (refer Figure 4.4). It is not as portable as the external hard disc.
Figure 4.4: Internal hard disk
The hard disk can store and access data faster and has a higher capacity. The
hard disk is a very sensitive device. Its read/write head floats on the disc surface
at a distance of 0.000001 inches. This very close distance allows dusts, atoms of
smoke, human hair and fingerprints to cause destruction to the read-write head.
This damage can cause some or all the data on the hard disc to be destroyed as
well.
An external hard disk is a separate hard disk that connects with a cable to a USB
port on the system unit or communicates wirelessly. Meanwhile, a removable
hard disk is a hard disk that you insert and remove from a drive. Compared to
internal hard disk, external and removable hard disks (Figure 4.5) are better in
terms of:
(a) Transport a large number of files;
(b) Easily store large audio and video files;
(c) Secure the data; and
(d) Add storage space to a notebook and desktop computer, without having to
open the system unit.

Figure 4.5: External and removable hard disk
ACTIVITY 4.2
How does it look like in a hard disk drive? Visit the following link to
discover the components of a hard disk drive:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdmLvl1n82U
Can you briefly explain the components?
4.2.3 Optical Storage

An optical storage device provides an alternative for the need to store a lot of
data. This device uses the principle of light, rather than the magnetic principle of
storing data. The emission of a laser beam determines the data to be written or
read.
During the writing of data onto the surface of an optical device, a high powered
laser beam is used to form microscopic holes (pits) on the disc. Each pit
represents data „0‰ while part of the disc without a pit represents data „1‰.
During the reading of the optical disc, a low powered laser beam is directed on
the disc surface. A reflection of the laser beam depends on the holes on the
surface. If there are holes, the reflection of the beam disperses and cannot be
detected by the light detector. This portrays the „0‰ state. If there is no hole or if
the surface is flat (land), a reflection of the beam focuses and can be detected by
the light detector. This portrays the „1‰ state.

There are four optical disc technologies used by computers, as shown at Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Four Types of Optical Storage
Optical Storage Description

Compact Disc-Read Only It is similar to the music compact disc (CD) on the market.
Memory (CD-ROM) Read only means it cannot be written or erased by users. A
user can only access data that have been written by the
writer. CD-ROM is also used for distributing databases,
application software packages and huge references.
Compact Disc-Recordable It is so called write once, read many (WORM). CD-R
(CD-R) means a compact disc that is recordable; a disc that enables
us to record data or information. We can only write once
onto the disc. It is appropriate for use as multimedia
storage and for archival. A special drive is required for
recording data onto CD-R.
Compact Disc-Rewriteable It is also known as erasable optical disc, as can be seen in
(CD-RW) Figure 4.6. This disc is similar to the other CD-R except
that its surface is altered whenever data is recorded. Since
it can be altered, CD-RW is normally used in building and
editing multimedia presentations.
Digital Video Disk (DVD) An all-digital disc with a type of storage which is almost
the same as the CD-ROM. It has the ability to store 135
minutes of video data in digital form. It can also be used as
storage for computers. The DVD drive can read a CD-
ROM but the CD-ROM drive cannot read a DVD. Each
DVD can store as much as 17 GB of data.
Figure 4.6: Compact Disc-Rewriteable

4.2.4 Flash Memory Storage

Flash Memory Storage is a type of solid state media which consists entirely of
electronic components, such as integrated circuits; contain no moving parts.
Flash Memory Storage is more durable and shock resistant compared to other
types of media such as magnetic hard disks or optical disks, due to lack of
moving parts.
The examples of Flash Memory Storage are solid state drives, memory cards and
USB flash drive.
Figure 4.7: Flash Memory Storage
(a) Solid state drives are a storage device that uses flash memory to store data,
instructions and information. It is used in all types of computers and
portable devices.
Solid state drives are better than magnetic hard disk in terms of:
(i) Access time is 80 times faster than hard disk;
(ii) Transfer rates are faster;
(iii) Generate less heat and consume less power; and
(iv) Lasts three to five years longer than a hard disk lifespan.
(b) Memory cards allow users to easily transport the digital content of their
camera, audio or video player, and other devices to a computer or vice
versa. A memory card is a removable flash memory device that you
normally insert and remove from a slot in a computer, mobile device or
card reader/writer.
(c) USB flash drives are a flash memory storage device that plugs into a USB
port on a computer or mobile device. It is one of the popular portable
storage nowadays, due to its size and weight. It is small and light, with a
storage capacities ranging from 512 Mb to 64 GB.

4.2.5 Cloud Storage

Cloud storage is an Internet service that provides hard disk storage to computer
users. The types of services offered by cloud storage providers vary.
Unlike other types of storage, cloud storage is preferred to:
(a) Access files from any device that has Internet access;
(b) Share files with other users; and
(c) Store offsite backups of data.
Some of the widely used cloud storage providers are as in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8: Cloud storage providers
4.2.6 Other Types of Storage

Besides the types of storages we have previously discussed, there are other
options available for storing data, instruction and information for a specific use.
These include magnetic stripe cards and smart cards, microfilm and microfiche.

(a) A magnetic stripe card is a card with a stripe that contains information
identifying you and the card. Information stored in the stripe normally
includes your name, account number, or cardÊs expiration date. A magnetic
stripe card reader reads the information stored on the stripe. An example of
magnetic stripe card is a membership card.
.
Figure 4.9: Magnetic stripe card and smart card
(b) A smart card, which is similar in size to an ATM or a credit card, stores data
on a thin microprocessor embedded in the card. Smart card contains a
processor and has input, process, output and storage capabilities. When a
smart card is inserted into a specialized card reader, the information on the
card is read, and if necessary, updated. An example of a smart card is
MyKad.
(c) Microfilm and microfiche store microscopic images of documents on roll or

sheet film. A computer output microfilm recorder is the device that records
the images in the film. Microfilm and microfiche are normally used in
libraries to store back issues of newspapers and magazines. The use of
microfilm and microfiche greatly reduce the number of papers. They are
inexpensive, and have the longest life of any storage media.
Figure 4.10: Microfilm and microfiche

ACTIVITY 4.3
What is the history of computer storage? Visit the following link:
http://www.zetta.net/history-of-computer-storage
Note down the main points. Compare your notes with your
coursemates.
4.3 DATA ORGANISATION HIERARCHY

Data is stored in secondary storage on the basis of hierarchies. We can also see
how much capacity various storage types have, as illustrated in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Comparison of Storage Types
Types of Cost/Storage
Cost Per MB Lifespan Size
Storage Size
Diskette RM 1/1.44 MB RM 0.69/MB 3ă5 years 1.44 MB
Hard Disc RM 400/8 GB RM0.05/MB 3ă5 years 320ă500 GB
CD-R RM 5/650 MB RM0.0076/MB 100 years 650 MB
CD-RW RM 30/650 MB RM 0.046/MB 100 years 650 MB
Magnetic Tape ă ă 5ă10 years 10 GBă30 GB
DVD ă ă 100 years 17 GB
RAM RM 200/64MB RM 3.13/MB Volatile 64 MBă1 GB
Zip RM 60/250 MB RM 0.24/MB 5ă10 years 250ă750 MB
Data organisation hierarchy is divided into five levels, which are:
(a) Bit ă It is represented by „0‰ and „1 that is operated with hardware.
(b) Character/Byte ă A byte is formed by eight bits. A character is formed by a

group of bits and is not necessarily made up of eight bits; it depends on the
type of coding system, such as ASCII and EBCDIC. Examples are the
characters A, B, D, U and L.
(c) Field ă It is a unit of data that is made up of one or more characters. This is
the lowest logical level of the data unit. Examples of fields are:
(i) Name: It is fixed at 40 characters, for example, MOHD AKIL; and

(ii) Identity Card (IC) Number: It is fixed at eight characters (old IC) and
10 digits/characters (new IC), such as 740820-03-1233.
(d) Record ă It is a collection of several related fields. It can also explain a

certain event, i.e. a number of related fields of a certain event is combined
together logically to form a record. An example of a student personal
record is made up of several fields of student personal information, such as:
(i) Registration number: 7192.
(ii) Name: Mohd Najmuddin bin Kamal.
(iii) Faculty: Faculty of Information Technology and Multimedia

Communications.
(iv) IC number: 780402-11-1438.
(v) State/Place of birth: Johor.
(vi) Current address: First College, Open University Malaysia.
(e) File ă It is a collection of several related records. An example of this is the

student personal file, containing several studentsÊ personal records.
4.4 UPGRADE PERFORMANCE

Three ways to upgrade the performances of hard discs are racking the
disc, Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks (RAID) and compressing/
de-compressing the files.
(a) Racking the Disk

This can upgrade the performance of a hard disc by predicting data that are
wanted. This is a combination of hardware and software. While the
processor is quiet, data always used will be read from the hard disc into the
cache memory. When the data is required, they will be accessed directly
from this memory. The rate of transfer from memory is faster than that of
the hard disc. The result is that the system performance normally goes up
by 30%.
(b) Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks

This increases the performance by having more external storage. A
collection of cheap hard discs is arranged by using a special network and
software. This group of discs is considered like a large hard disc. However,
it performs better than a single disc of the same capacity.

Figure 4.11: RAID can make disk volumes more reliable and faster
(c) Compressing/Decompressing Files

This is required to remove excessive spaces from the computer files that
have reduced total available storage space. This situation is important
because:
(i) It saves time while sending files through the network;
(ii) It reduces the size of file storage; and
(iii) It is for the purpose of archiving.
Data files that have been compressed need to be de-compressed before they can
be used as normal. This technique is called „data decompression‰.
Normally data that has been compressed has a special suffix, such as .zip, .tgz, .Z,
.gz, .lha, .arc, .zoo, and .rar. Compression and decompression techniques are
called „codec‰. Sometimes, this process is also called „zip‰ and „unzip‰.

The two main techniques of data compression are shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Two Main Techniques of Data Compression
Technique Details
Lossless Where data compression is done by preserving all input data. In
Technique other words, all input data will be used in the compression process.
This enables data that have been decompressed to be the same as the
input data.
This technique only re-packages the data for storage or transmission

purpose. Examples of software products that used this technique are
Winzip, Stacker, Superstor and DriveSpace. Graphic image in
graphic interchange format (.gif) is in the form of lossless
compression.
Lossy Technique This is a compression technique that removes data permanently
during the compression process but users will not feel any loss. Data
lost is not important and can be re-generated by using special
functions. Examples are like removing some colours or small sounds
that are not felt by users.
These colours and sounds are over-shadowed by a clearer colour or

sound. Data in the joint photographic experts group (.jpeg), mpeg
level 3 (.mp3), moving picture experts group (.mpeg) formats are in
the lossy format.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. Data organisation hierarchy is divided into Five levels. State these

levels.
2. Name three types of Flash Memory Storage.
3. Explain two data compression techniques.

Ć Secondary storage is a storage device that has been designed to store data
and instructions in a permanent form.
Ć The secondary storage has five advantages which are size, reliability,
comfort, economic and lifetime.
Ć There are two types of magnetic storage: magnetic tape and hard disk.
Ć A magnetic tape is a secondary storage medium whereby its data are stored
inside the tape roll.
Ć The hard disc uses a thick and strong metallic plate. The hard disc can store
and access data faster and has a higher capacity.
Ć An optical storage device provides an alternative for the need to store a lot of
data. This device uses the principle of light rather than the magnetic principle
of storing data.
Ć There are four types of optical storage, which are CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW
and DVD.
Ć Three ways to upgrade the performances of hard discs are racking the disc,
Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks and compressing/decompressing
the files.
Bit Lossless
Compressing/decompressing Lossy
Compact Disc-Read Only Memory Magnetic storage
(CD-ROM) Optical storage
Compact Disc-Recordable (CD-R) Racking the disc
Compact Disc-Rewriteable (CD-RW) Record
Digital Video Disk (DVD) Redundant Arrays of Independent
Field Disks (RAID)
File Secondary storage
Hard disk Write Once, Read Many (WORM)

Topic  Computer
5 Software
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the four roles of system software;
2. Identify four categories of system software;
3. Discuss the functions and features of operating system;
4. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of operating system;
5. Discuss four categories of advanced application software; and
6. Discuss four types of database.
 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier topic, you have been told that a computer system is made up of
hardware and software. Hardware is the physical manifestation of the computer,
while software consists of the programs that command the hardware. Computer
software can be divided into system software and application software. Both
softwares can be divided further into a few categories, as illustrated in Figure 5.1.
Each of these categories will be explained in greater detail, later in this topic.
Figure 5.1: Computer software

80  TOPIC 5 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
5.1 SOFTWARE
For most people, when they think about computers, they normally think about
the hardware, such as keyboard, monitor, processor and others. They do not
realise the presence and importance of software. Computer software is actually a
set of planned instructions and step by step action that is required to convert data
into information and making the computer useful.
In general, software can be categorised into system software and application

software. The system software is also rarely talked about but discussions on it
normally revolve around a subset of system software, known as operating
system (OS). The operating system is the basic software found in all computers.
The system software is actually divided into operating system, utility programs,
device drivers and language translators. The operating system contains various
functions and features like multitasking, multi-user, multiprocessor, etc. There
are many operating systems in the market and each has its own strengths and
weaknesses. Windows is a personal computer (PC) operating system that is the
most popular and has been built by Microsoft Corporation. UNIX is mostly used
in the server system. Linux contains various features of UNIX and is becoming
more popular because it is a free and reliable operating system.
Computer software is developed by using a programming language. There are

many types of programming languages, such as the imperative language, object-
oriented language, logic-based language and function-based language. Each
language has its own strength in solving certain problems. There are several
generations of programming languages, beginning with the machine language
up to the natural language. Various popular programming languages are C, C++,
Java and others, that will be discussed here together with examples.
Application software is used by many people to solve specific problems like

providing documents, generating reports, making presentations, performing
calculations and others. Computers require instructions from humans to perform
certain tasks. Currently, there is various types of application software in the
market. The most often used are word processing, spreadsheet, databases and
graphic software. Figure 5.2 illustrates the relationship between the computer
hardware, operating system and application software.

TOPIC 5 COMPUTER SOFTWARE  81
Figure 5.2: Relationship between computer hardware,

operating system and application software

5.2 SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Software consists of instructions that run inside the computer. System software
is used to start the computer and it is located on the back of the application
software. It also coordinates the hardware components and application software.
System software enables users to interact directly with the computer.
System software operates through the complexities of the computer hardware.

Among the main roles of a system software is to inform the computer how to
translate data and instructions, how to operate computer devices such as printers
and disc drives, and how to use computer hardware. System software is divided
into four categories, as shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Categories of system software

Table 5.1 explains the roles of the system software categories shown in Figure 5.3
Table 5.1: Four System Software Categories and Roles
System Software Roles

Operating System Program that operates microcomputers. It coordinates resources,
provides interfaces between users and the computer and runs
the applications.
Utility Programs Perform special tasks related to the management of computer
resources and files. It includes programs that help users to
identify problems on the hardware, searching lost files and
making copies of data. In other words, a utility program
functions as a virus scanner, hard disc formatter, compression
software and copy-making software.
Device Driver Program that is specially designed to allow input and output
devices to communicate with other computer systems.
Language Translators Translate program instructions that have been written by a
programmer into a language that is understood and processed
by the computer. Language translators will be explained in
greater detail in the programming language section. Language
translators include compilers, translators and assemblers.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What are the main uses of a system software? Explain.

5.3 OPERATING SYSTEM

Every computer system, whether large or small, has an operating system and
every operating system has three basic functions, as illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4: Three basic functions of operating system
The resources managed by an operating system include mouse, printer,

keyboard, storage device and memory. User-interfaces are provided by the
operating system to enable users to interact with the application programs and
hardware. The operating system loads and runs the applications such as word
processing.
The operating system manages and controls all processing activities in the
computer. It determines how the random access memory (RAM) is allocated to
the programs, determines the importance of the needed tasks and controls the
flow of information to and from the processor. An operating system is a complex
computer program that is very important to the computer. For example,
Windows 2000 operating system is said to have 30 million lines of program code,
built by over 5,000 programmers within more than three years with a cost of
nearly RM3.8 billion. The Linux operating system has almost 2.5 million lines of
program code, built by 150 programmers.
The operating system enables a computer to perform various types of tasks.

The operating system also enables a computer to perform more than one task
simultaneously. It enables the computer to identify processor (central processing
unit), main memory (random access memory), keyboard, video displays, disc
drive and others. The operating system also provides facilities for users to
communicate with the computer and acts as enabler for running the application
software.
The operating system normally contains a number of basic programs. An

important program inside the operating system is called supervisor. This
program is also known as monitor, executive, kernel or command processor. For
example, the supervisor program in Windows 98 is win.32.dll and in Linux is
vmlinux.
The operating system is normally stored in the hard disc. When a computer is
switched on, it will first perform the Power On Self-Test (POST). Then, the Basic
Input-Output System (BIOS) inside the Read Only Memory (ROM) will search
for the operating system to boot-up the system. The BIOS will search for the
operating system on the „Master Boot Record (MBR)‰ sector in the floppy disc. If
there is no operating system on the floppy disc, the basic input-output system
will search for it on the master boot record sector of the hard disc.
The master boot record sector contains information on the operating system of
the computer. After reading data from master boot record and meeting the
supervisor program, the basic input-output system will load the supervisor
program into the main memory (random access memory). Then, the basic input-
output system will pass on the computer management job to the supervisor
program. Now, the computer is under the control of the operating system and
can accept commands from users.
Part of the operating system will remain in the main memory for as long as the
computer is on. This portion will always be in the memory and is said to be
resident (permanent) and is made up of the supervisor program. The supervisor
program will control the overall operating system and will load into the main
memory of other operating system program from the hard disc when required.
The operating system program that is located in the hard disc is non-resident.
The operating system forms the core that enables the computer to function. It
works behind the scene and becomes the middleman for requests from users and
programs. It manages and drives computer hardware, and reads and writes data
from and onto the disc drive. When a user works on an application program, the
supervisor program will load the software into the main memory, before the
program is executed.

When a user uses the computer, the main memory has the supervisor program,
the application software to be run and the data or information being processed.
Thus, a larger random access memory size in a certain computer will enable it to
function faster and in a comfortable manner. If a computer does not contain
enough random access memory to run the software, then, the computer will run
slowly or it may hang.
5.4 FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

In general, the functions of an operating system are to:
(a) Provide Interface for Users

There are two types of interfaces: command-line interface and graphical
user interface. By using the command-line interface, users need to type a
command like the one shown in Figure 5.5. An example of an operating
system using a command-line is the MS-DOS which was very popular in
the 1980s.
Figure 5.5: Command-line interface

For example, look at the following command-line:
C:\> copy c:\myfile a:\yourfile
This command-line directs the computer to copy a file from the hard disc
(C:) to the floppy disc (A:). You will need to use a clear command when
using the command-line. This command-line also shows that you need to
inform the computer where to find MYFILE and where to copy YOURFILE
to. If you forget important information or use a wrong format, an error
message will be displayed on the screen.
In general, the command-line interface is more suitable for skilled users

who have been using computers for a long time and can remember the
required commands. The UNIX and Linux operating systems also use the
command-line. This interface is also called the character user interface
(CUI). Normally, the operating system based on the character user interface
has one other layer that acts as a translator of the commands to the
supervisor program. This layer is called shell. Examples of shell for Linux is
C shell (csh) and born again shell (bash).
Currently, the number of computers using command-line interface has

reduced. It is still used in the mainframe system and server system that
uses UNIX platform. The operating system trend is moving towards a user-
friendly environment and becoming graphic-oriented, known as graphical
user interface (GUI). Graphical user interface depends on software based
graphics, which enable texts to be integrated with graphic images.
Among the components inside it are icons, dialogue box and menu.
Examples of software that uses graphical user interfaces are Windows,
Macintosh and BeOS. Graphical user interface users interact with the
operating system and other software packages by using pointing devices
like the mouse and keyboard to enter instructions.
Now, users do not have to type every line of command; users only need to
select from the screen displays. Users use the mouse to manipulate icons,
dialogue box and menu. In graphical user interface, an icon is a graphic
image that represents a processing activity. For example, a user may select
„Recycle Bin‰ icon to delete a file from storage. The graphical user interface
was first introduced in 1983 in Macintosh computer. The graphical user
interface simplifies a lot of things for users, where they now do not have to
memorise and enter difficult instructions (see Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6: Graphical user interface
(b) Manage Hardware

It includes input components (mouse, keyboard, scanner), output
components (printer, screen, audio, video), secondary storage (hard disc)
and main memory. The operating system coordinates and performs
according to the program, requiring the hardware needed.
(c) Manage Hard Disc File System

The operating system manages the movement of data from input
component (keyboard) to output component (monitor) and from secondary
storage to main memory, apart from the main memory to secondary
storage.
(d) Manage the Processing or Running of Other Software

Assume the execution of one program as one process. If a user uses three
programs simultaneously (e.g. producing graphs using CorelDraw, surfing
the Internet using Internet Explorer and listening to the music on the
Internet using RealAudio) ă hence, there are three different processes being
executed in the computer.
The operating system is responsible for ensuring that the three processes
execute well and do not cause the computer to hang. This ability in using
the three programs simultaneously is known as „multitasking‰. An
important characteristic of the operating system in managing multitasking
is robustness; if one program fail, it does not cause the computer or other
processes to hang. Operating systems that have the robust characteristic are
UNIX, Linux and BeOS.

The other main functions of the operating system are to:

(a) Help the interaction between computers and users;
(b) Help communication between computer components;
(c) Reduce time for executing userÊs instructions;
(d) Optimise the use of computer system resources;
(e) Reach all files in the disc storage;
(f) Ensure safety of the computer system; and
(g) Examine all system activities and give warnings to users on all matters.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. State the advantages of the graphical user interface over the
command-line interface.
2. State two methods of opening files using graphical user
interface.
3. Explain at least three main functions of the operating system.
5.5 FEATURES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Every operating system has its own features. Even the ability of every system is
different. Among the main features of an operating system are multitasking,
multi-user, multi-processing, batch processing and virtual memory as shown in
Figure 5.7.
Figure 5.7: Features of operating system

5.5.1 Multitasking
Multitasking is the ability of a computer system to perform more than one

task at one time (simultaneously).
If an operating system allows only one task to be performed at one time, such a
system is called single tasking. Multitasking enables a user to perform a new task
without having to exit from the task currently being performed and can even use
the result of the second task inside the first task. For example, a user can produce
a chart inside a spreadsheet software, while using a word processing software
and later, insert the chart into the document being typed. Multitasking is divided
into two types, as shown in Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8: Two types of multitasking
Users normally do not see the tangible differences between these two types
of multi-tasking. Tangible differences may be seen in real-time applications.
Preemptive multitasking is more robust and stable than cooperative
multitasking.

5.5.2 Multi-User
If an operating system is capable of accepting more than one user to access the
computer at one time, it is called a multi-user system.
Sometimes, multitasking is also referred to as „time-sharing‰. Normally, a multi-

user operating system allows multitasking as well. Every user gets an equal slice
of time. Examples of operating systems that have the multi-user capability are
UNIX, Windows 8 and Linux.
5.5.3 Multi-Processing
Multi-processing refers to an operating system that is capable of handling

more than one processor simultaneously.
The use of more than one processor is suitable for scientific computers because
computers of this type perform a lot of calculations and processing. As such,
scientific computers require operating systems that can manage more than one
processor. Examples of multi-processor type of operating system are UNIX
(Solaris), Linux, BeOS and Windows 8. Table 5.2 illustrates four operating
systems and their maximum processors.
Table 5.2: Four Operating Systems and Maximum Processors
Operating System Maximum Number of Processors
BeOS 8
Solaris 64
Linux 16
IRIX 128

5.5.4 Batch Processing
Batch processing refers to the processing mode of an operating system.
During the early computer era, data processing was done using the batch mode.
This means that data and programs are prepared on batch mode for processing.
Users cannot enter data during the running of program. Data and programs are
collected and prepared first, then later, entered one by one for processing by the
computer. Batch processing is still being used now in the mainframe system
environment. Nowadays, the interactive processing type of operating system is
very popular, where users can enter data while programs being executed.
5.5.5 Virtual Memory

Usually the operating system will load the application software into the main
memory (Random Access Memory) to run the application software. If the RAM
size is small or if the software size is large, the software may not fit in and cannot
be run. To overcome this problem, the operating system uses the concept of
virtual memory. With this method, the operating system will use the secondary
storage (hard disc) as part of the main memory.
In this method, operating system loads a portion of application software into

main memory and another portion into virtual memory. When this happens, the
running of computers will slow down because access to secondary storage is
slower than the main memory.
For example, users often find computers running slowly when two or three
softwares run simultaneously. This is because the operating system needs to
transfer data from the main memory (random access memory) to the secondary
storage (hard disc) and vice versa. This process of data transfer is slow and often
involves some noise signifying that the computer is accessing the hard disc.
The process of transferring data from virtual memory to the main memory
and from the main memory to the virtual memory is called „swap‰.
Swap space (page) on the hard disc is the storage size that is used as virtual
memory, as illustrated in Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9: Page swapping
5.6 TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

We have discovered functions and features of operating system in previous
sections. However, we also need to realise that there is no single operating
system that fits for all kinds of computers. As we know, nowadays, computer
could exist in different forms ranging from as small as mobile phones up to huge
servers. So, different operating system is required to make all these computers
work.
In general, operating systems can be divided into four categories (see Table 5.3).
Table 5.3: Four Categories of Operating System
Operating System Description

Personal operating It is also called desktop operating system and installed in a
system single computer.
Server operating system It is commonly referred as network operating system and
designed for network server that allows multiple user access
to a network, as well as resources.
Mobile operating system It is designed for mobile devices, such as mobile phones,
smartphones and tablets.
Embedded operating It is installed in other kind of computer, such as cash
system registers, kiosks and most consumer electronics.

We will now take a look into more details of each category of operating system in
the following sections.
5.6.1 Personal and Server Operating System

There are various kinds of personal and server operating system which are
available today. The most widely used are described in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Personal and Server Operating Systems

Disk Operating Dominant operating system during 1980s and early 1990s.
System (DOS) Initially, disk operating system only supported command-line
interface and later, newer versions of disk operating
system allows menu-driven interface. There are two forms of
disk operating system: PC-DOS created for IBM personal
computers and MS-DOS created for IBM-compatible personal
computers.
Windows Windows is developed by Microsoft and for many years, this
operating system holds nearly 90% market share. There are
many versions of Windows operating system:
 Windows 1.0 to Windows 3.1.1 ă It was not really a full-
fledged operating system but rather considered as
operating environment for disk operating system graphical
shells to make disk operating system easier to use;
 Windows 95 to Windows 98 ă Both versions incorporated
graphical user interface, easier to use than previous
Windows 3.x and supported multitasking, Internet
integration, customisations, long file names, DVD drives,
larger hard disk drives as well as USB drives;
 Windows NT (New Technology) ă It was designed as
32-bit version of Windows that support high-end
workstations and servers;
 Windows ME (Millennium Edition) ă It was introduced
as the improvement to Windows 98 with additional
features: improved home networking and shared Internet
connection; improved multimedia capabilities, better
system protection, faster boot process, and more Internet-
ready activities and games;
 Windows 2000 ă It was introduced as a replacement for
Windows NT and incorporated enhanced capabilities
for wireless devices and other types of new hardware for
high-end servers and workstations;

Windows (contÊd)  Windows XP (eXPerience) ă As the successor to Windows

2000 and Windows ME, it was considered as the most
accepted version of Windows with improved photo, video,
music editing and sharing, improved networking
capabilities, and support for handwriting and voice input;
 Windows Vista ă It replaced Windows XP and
incorporated new user interface concept called Aero
interface that uses glass-like transparency, vibrant colours
and dynamic elements like Live Thumbnails of taskbar
buttons, and a Flip 3D feature to view all open windows in
3D. However, this operating system requires higher level
of hardware requirements which made it less acceptable
by end-users;
 Windows 7 ă It was introduced to replace Windows Vista
with better performance and better compatibility with
various range of personal computers, especially netbook;
 Windows Server ă This operating system is designed
specifically for server use. It incorporates Internet
Information Services (IIS) as default web server to run
web-based application and web services, as well as
supports virtualisation technologies, security tools and
better management; and
 Windows 8 ă It is the latest Windows operating system to
cater for use on personal computers, including home and
business desktops, laptops, tablets and home theatre
personal computers. It offers major changes in user
experiences in using operating system, especially tablets
via the introduction of Metro design concept in its user
interface.
Mac OS It is developed by Apple Corporation and is a proprietary
operating system for Apple computers, which is based on
UNIX. The operating system puts heavy emphasis on new
„digital lifestyle‰ applications, such as the iLife suite,
enhanced business applications via iWork and integrated
home entertainment through FrontRow media centre. The
latest version of Mac operating system is OS X Mountain Lion.
UNIX It was developed at AT&T Bell Laboratories in the late 1960s to
cater for mid-range servers. As a multitasking and multi-user
operating system, computers ranging from microcomputers to
mainframe can run it. However, UNIX is harder to install,
maintain and upgrade than most other commonly used
operating system. Thus, it is more expensive and requires a
higher level of technical knowledge. Hewlett-Packard UNIX
(HP-UX) is one of the examples of UNIX operating system.

Linux Linus Torvalds developed Linux in 1991 which is based on

UNIX. Linux is an open source operating system that allows
public to modify and improve the codes. Linux is preferred by
individuals and organisations due to lower cost. Among the
popular Linux operating system are Ubuntu, Fedora and
Elementary.
5.6.2 Mobile and Embedded Operating System

What makes mobile and embedded operating system different from the
operating system used for personal and server is that this type of operating
system specifically and specially designed for particular mobile devices
depending on its specific usage. This is because the operating system for mobile
or embedded systems need to consider several aspects such as capabilities of the
mobile device in accepting touch input or whether its display can rotate
automatically as the device is moved from portrait to landscape orientation, the
interface used, and the applications that can run on that device.
Table 5.5 describe nine popular operating systems used for mobile and
embedded computer systems.
Table 5.5: Nine Mobile and Embedded Operating Systems

Windows Embedded It is designed by Microsoft for consumer and industrial
devices, such as digital photo frame, cash register, automated
teller machine (ATM) and global positioning system (GPS)
device.
Windows Mobile As it is also developed by Microsoft, the elements of Windows
are also incorporated in it but with more emphasis to mobile
devices functionalities. Its standard features include Internet
Explorer Mobile as default web browser, Windows Media
Player as default media player (used for playing digital media)
and Microsoft Office Mobile (mobile versions of Microsoft
Office) as default office suite.
Windows Phone It is the successor of Windows Mobile that incorporates a new
user interface, featuring its Modern design language. The
software is integrated with third party and Microsoft services.
Current version is Windows Phone 8.

Android It is a Linux-based operating system developed by Google

and it is an open platform operating system. It supports
multitasking and capable of allowing mobile applications to
take full advantage of the mobile device features has to offer. It
can be installed in both smartphones and tablets. Current
version of Android is Android Jelly Bean 4.3.
iOS It is the operating system developed by Apple to run on its
proprietary mobile devices, namely iPod, iPhone and iPad. iOS
is derived from OS X and current version is iOS 6.
Blackberry Operating It is designed specifically for Blackberry devices. Like other
System operating systems, it also supports multitasking, e-mail
communication, web browsing, music management, video
recording and calendar tools.
Palm Operating It was originally designed for Palm devices. In 2009, Palm web
System and Palm operating system was released, which is based on Linux as
Web Operating well. This version was targeted for new Palm devices and
System incorporated contact and calendar synchronisation, as well as
web browsing.
Symbian It was widely used in Nokia phones and offers various
functionalities: multithreading and multitasking, web
browsing, e-mail, handwriting recognition, synchronisation
and a range of other mobile applications. Developer can
customise user interfaces to meet the needs of end-users via its
flexible user interface framework.
Embedded Linux It is alternative operating system that is used for other kind of
mobile devices, such as global positioning system and portable
digital media players. It is available in various flavours from
different companies.
5.7 APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software contains programs developed to fulfil the need of certain
users. Application software is divided into two sections, i.e. basic application
software and advanced application software. The basic consists of software used
to increase productivity of users while the advanced consists of software for
specific objectives and requires a little expertise to operate. With the help of
computers, various operations can now be performed that were previously done
only by people with expertise and training. Application software consists of
programs that have been developed to fulfil specific needs of users.

If the system software is considered as „behind the scene‰ programs, the

application software is considered as programs for performing beneficial work
like typing, calculations and drawings. Basic application software is also called
„general purpose‰ application program. Its objective is to increase productivity
of users by helping them to perform normal tasks. They can be referred to as
productivity packages, e.g. word processing, spreadsheet, database management,
batch software, groupware software, communications and desktop accessories.
Application software can exist in variety of forms, depending on the needs and
requirements of individuals, groups or organisations. The following Table 5.6
describes the forms of seven application software:
Table 5.6: Seven Application Software
Application Explanation
Software
Packaged Software developed and sold for profit. As it is mass produced and
software or copyrighted, this means it caters for wide variety of users. Examples may
commercial include Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop and Norton Antivirus.
software
Custom Software that performs specific functions for any business or industry. This
software software is required when there is no packaged software that can meet
such specific requirements. As a result, the company needs to find or hire
developers to develop the tailor-made software to fulfil the business needs.
Some examples are e-procurement system and e-recruitment system.
Shareware Software distributed and available to try for free. Although it requires no
cost during trial period, it is still copyrighted. In order to use this software
for longer period of time, users need to pay certain fees to the developer.
Popular examples of shareware are WinZip and WinRAR.
Freeware Software distributed to be used for free. As it is also copyrighted, users still
do not have access to source codes to make any modifications. QuickTime
Player and Yahoo! Messenger are examples of freeware.
Public Free software and can be used, copied, modified and distributed to others
domain without any restrictions. The public owns the ownership; therefore, the
software software is not copyrighted. Pine and Lynx are the examples of public
domain software.
Web Software hosted on a server allowing users to access and interacts from any
application computer via the Internet connection.
Open Software that has no copyright restrictions. Thus, it can be used, modified
source and redistributed freely. It can also be downloaded from the Internet
software without any cost. Examples are Blender and Moodle.

Advanced application software consists of specific purpose programs and

requires some expertise to operate. These four categories of software are specific
in nature and can be further categorised, as shown in Figure 5.10.
Figure 5.10: Four categories of advanced application software
(a) Business software ă Deals with assisting people to ensure their day-to-day
business can run effectively and efficiently. It comprises of programs like
word processing, spreadsheet, database, presentation, personal information
manager, business software suites, project management and accounting.
Examples are Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Oracle Database, Apple
Keynote and Oracle Primavera.
(b) Graphic and multimedia software ă Offers the capabilities of handling and
working with complex graphic and multimedia. It covers computer-aided
design, desktop publishing, paint/image editing, photo editing, video and
audio editing, multimedia authoring, and web page authoring. Examples
may include Autodesk AutoCAD, Adobe Illustrator and Adobe
Dreamweaver.
(c) Home, personal and educational software ă Offers functionalities for

personal use, as well as for education purpose. Personal finance, photo
editing, reference, home design, self-learning and video editing are among
usage of personal and educational software. Examples are Microsoft
Windows Movie Maker, Broderbund Instant Architect and Intuit Quicken.

(d) Communication software ă Allows users to share information and

communicate with each other effectively via various media. It offers
capabilities such as web browsing, e-mail, instant messaging, chatting,
blogging and video/audio conferencing. Examples may include Mozilla
Firefox, Skype, Yahoo! Messenger, and Microsoft Outlook.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
What is the difference between basic application software and
advanced application software? Explain.
5.8 WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE

Those who are involved in business make use of the word processor to prepare
information in the form of documents like memos, reports, letters, minutes of
meetings and whatever is required to be typed. Users in a house environment
type assignments, letters, journals, a log of cinema titles and many others.
A word processing software enables you to create, edit, format, store and
print texts and graphics in one document.
Since you can save memos or documents that you have typed into the disc, you
can access them at other times to modify them, reprint or do whatever you want
with them. Parts of existing documents that do not change do not need to be
re-typed; the entire document that has been checked can be reprinted as new. An
assignment often done by computer users is to prepare information in the form
of documents. Word processing software is the software mostly used by users.
Five important activities of word processing are as illustrated in Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11: Five activities of word processing
The concept of word processing in personal computer is based on the concept of

What You See is What You Get (WYSIWYG) and it is pronounced „wihzeewig‰.
What is seen on the screen is how a certain document will be produced by
printers ă font, graphic and others. Font refers to the type, size and shape of
characters. Most word processors contain additional features to upgrade their
capabilities. These features are tools like spelling-checker, grammar-checker,
thesaurus, macro, sorting and underlining of ideas.
Activities that can be done during word processing are editing of document,
search and replace, merging of e-mails, document footing and heading,
footnotes, mathematical functions, index generator, content generator, and
document import and export. You can search any word quickly inside a
document by using the search command inside a word processor. A replace
command can replace one word with another. Besides that, spellings can be
verified by the spelling-checker program. The grammar checker will identify the
use of inaccurate sentences, incorrect grammar or sentences that are too long. The
earliest word processing software was Wordstar. Examples of currently and
widely used word processing software are WordPerfect, Ami Pro and Microsoft
Word.

With the addition of more features into word processing packages, word
processing has crossed the boundary into desktop publishing. Desktop
publishing packages are normally better than word processing packages in
fulfilling the needs of high level publishing, specifically on the choice of
characters and reproduction of colours. Many magazines and newspapers today
depend on desktop publishing software. Businesses use them to produce
newspapers that look professional, reports and leaflets that can improve
communications, and to give better pictures to the outside world.
When a document is being edited by a user, the word processing software will
load a copy of the document from secondary storage (hard disc) into main
memory (random access memory). All editing activities will be done on this copy
inside the main memory. This is because data access from the main memory is
faster than data access from the secondary memory. When the user completes
editing, he/she can save the document again into the secondary storage to
replace the older copy.
Documents produced by commercial word processing software like WordPerfect

and Microsoft Word are in a certain format and not in the form of texts or
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). For example,
Microsoft Word uses its own format to store documents. Therefore, Microsoft
Word document is not portable because the document cannot be used on
platforms other than Windows.
Portable document format (PDF) is a document format that is portable.
This can cause problems in a mixed environment where operating systems like
UNIX, OS/2, BeOS, Windows and Linux exist in one place. A number of
methods can be used to produce a form of document that is portable. Among the
methods are producing document in PDF, postscript (ps) format or in markup
languages like Standardised Markup Language (SGML), Extensible Markup
Language (XML) or TeX.
Users can use this format to produce portable documents between different
operating systems. All forms of documents like those from spreadsheet, power
point presentation, word processing and graphics can be converted into PDF
format by using Adobe Distiller software. The PDF documents produced have
the hypertext capability, can be printed, displayed on the computer but cannot be
edited. The PDF format was introduced by Adobe (a company). Most articles
freely available on the Internet are in postscript or PDF format.

Documents with postscript or PDF format can be displayed with Ghostview

software which can be obtained freely at http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~gost. Adobe
gives out for free the PDF display software, i.e. Adobe Acrobat at
http://www.adobe.com. Users can also use the postscript format. Actually,
postscript is a page description language and is mostly used in laser printers to
produce high quality printing.
An example of a document in postscript format is shown in Figure 5.12. This

document will produce another document stating Selamat datang ke OUM if
printed by a printer with postscript capability.
/TeXtDict 300 dict def TeXDict begin /Ndefdef /Bbind defN

/FMat[1 0 0 -1 0 0]N /FBB[0 0 0]N /nn 0 N /IE 0 N /ctr 0 N
4 MB /w0 rmovetoB /Ip -4 wB /mp -3 wB /np -2 wB /op
p 1 wB /rp 2 wB /sp 3 /tp 4 wB /x0 S rmovetoB /y
aB /bos/SS save NB /eosSS restoreB end
TeXDict begin 39158280 55380996 1000 600 600(hello.dvi)

@start
/Fa 14 117 dfl116 D E
1 0 bop 639 523 a Fa(Selamat)28 b(datang)e(k)n(e)h(OUM)1926
5255 y(q)p eop
end
userdict /end-hook known end-hook if
Figure 5.12: Example of postscript format
Users can also produce portable documents in a markup language like Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML), Standardised Markup Language and Extensible
Markup Language. The main objective of producing documents in a markup
language is to separate information from the document format. This concept is
the same as the concept of separating a program from data in databases. This
way, the document format can be modified easily without involving the
information that is present in the document.
Standardised Markup Language is an international standard for producing

electronic documents that are platform-free and hardware-free. This means that
documents in Standardised Markup Language can be used in UNIX, Windows,
Linux and other platforms without being changed. Documents in Standardised
Markup Language form can also be changed into various types of format like
PDF, CD-ROM, postscript, databases, information system, hypertext or whatever
format that is required. It was initially introduced in the 1960s. Hypertext
Markup Language is a subset of Standardised Markup Language for use over the

Internet. Extensible Markup Language was introduced to overcome the weakness

of Hypertext Markup Language; Extensible Markup Language is the superset of
Hypertext Markup Language and a subset of Standardised Markup Language.
Users can also use TeX software to produce portable documents from documents
in the form of TeX markup language. Document based on TeX can be processed
to produce another document in the form of PDF, postscript and device
independent (DVI). TeX is mostly used in producing mathematical and scientific
documents.
SELF-CHECK 5.4
1. What do you understand by the concept of WYSIWYG?
2. List a number of additional features of a word processor that you

know.
5.9 SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE

Spreadsheet which consists of rows and columns has been used as a business tool
for a few centuries. Spreadsheets produced manually are difficult to prepare and
when there is a change, a lot of calculations need to be redone. A spreadsheet
software can perform the calculations again automatically whenever a number
changes. For example, a function of a spreadsheet is to calculate distance based
on speed and time ă changes in speed will cause another round of automatic
calculation which will alter the distance. This ability enables businesspersons to
try out a set of different numbers and obtain the results quickly. The ability to ask
„What if?‰ and later, see the results on the computer before committing to buy
resources enables businesspersons to make decisions faster and better. In short,
spreadsheet software is a software for undertaking analysis, calculation, planning
and mathematical modelling on the computer.
What about spreadsheet software for users at home? The ability to enter a set of
numbers in meaningful ways, such as a set of deposit and interest rates for
buying a house and offer financial ideas to users who cannot do it themselves
(manually). Home users can use spreadsheet to perform various tasks from
budget preparation to considering whether to accept a new job or not.

It can be used to create a model based on mathematics and other business

activities. Currently, this software has replaced paper spreadsheets, calculators
and pencils.
Among the traditional functions that are supported by spreadsheet software are:
(a) Storing data automatically;
(b) Accepting summarised raw data and producing information; and
(c) Performing analysis and improving planning.
The strength of spreadsheet is the ability to calculate automatically, speedily and

accurately. As such, it can be used to perform „what if‰ analysis, sensitivity
analysis, expense requirement, profit forecasting, graphic creation and
simulation. Any problem involving data that can be entered into rows and
columns are suitable for spreadsheets. Examples of this type of software are
Quattro Pro and Lotus 1-2-3.
Spreadsheet is divided into rows and columns. Each row is numbered, while
each column is given name. The intersection between each row and column is
called „cell‰. Each cell contains reference address and fixed address. In each cell,
a user can type in a number, text or mathematical formula. Basically, solution to a
problem using spreadsheet can be divided into four steps:
(a) Problem definition stage ă Covers objective of spreadsheet, type of required

output, type of input variables, assumption in calculation and type of
formula to be used.
(b) Planning for presentation stage ă Covers how to arrange labels, data,
formula and other instructions to achieve maximum efficiency, clarity and
flexibility.
(c) Data entry stage ă Involves required type of commands for input, edit and
store values, label, formula and functions in the required presentation.
(d) Testing and using stage ă Stage that tests whether spreadsheet produces the
results accurately when data is entered.

Other features that are available in electronic spreadsheet are macro (short
program which can be used to repeat specific steps), mathematical functions, plot
3D, active function and integration with other applications. Figure 5.13 illustrate
Excel electronic spreadsheet.
Figure 5.13: Excel electronic spreadsheet
SELF-CHECK 5.5
State the uses of electronic spreadsheet in business.

5.10 DATABASE SOFTWARE

This software can store, update, manipulate, access and report in various views,
and print data in various forms.
When data is available as a report, i.e. a form that is useful to users, data has
become information.
Concert organisers, for example, can store and change data of date of the next
concert, seat number, ticket cost and sales. When this has been done, organisers
can use the software to access information, such as the number of tickets sold in
every price range or percentage of tickets sold on the day before the concert.
Database software is useful for someone who needs to reach out to a large
number of people. For example, a volunteer who is looking for blood donors for
the National Blood Bank can store a file of all donors in his area so that he can
access their names and telephone numbers to enquire on the type of blood
donated, postcode or the last date he/she donated blood.
The database management system (DBMS) software is also known as database

manager. The database management system is a computer-based system for
defining, manipulating, controlling, managing, maintaining and using database.
Database can be defined as:
(a) Collection of data or information and relationship among them; or
(b) Collection of data with related set of entities.
Data can be in the form of text, video, graphics, audio and others. Databases are
stored in secondary storage. To fulfil the need of organisations, data needs to be
collected, stored and accessed effectively. Databases can help with these three
processes. They also enable data to be processed and shared by various parties.
Data can also be edited, added and erased easily. Users can perform queries over
the database to solve problems. A number of important terms in databases are
entities, attributes, field, record and relationship.
(a) Entities are things, people, places or events whereby the data and
information stored are about them. Examples of entities are universities,
students, employees, cars and doctors.

(b) Attributes or fields are data or information that explains the characteristics
or features of a certain entity. For a student entity, examples of attributes
are name, address, date of birth, identity card number, matrix number and
gender.
(c) Record is a collection of related attributes for certain entity. It also can
explain certain event, which is a number of related fields about certain
event grouped together logically to form record. An example of a record
which groups together number of attributes for a student entity is
presented:
Name : Abdullah Adam
Matrix number : 789
Address : No. 7, Jalan Sephia 2, Taman Sephia Permai, 43600
Bangi, Selangor
Date of birth : 1 January 1977
(d) Files are various collections of records containing the same attributes.
An example is a file of First Year Student containing all records of
Year 1 students in the Faculty of Information Technology and
Multimedia Communications.
(e) Database is a collection of several files that are related to one another.
The main source of data for a computer-based information system is
the database. Another objective of the database is to reduce data
duplication. For example, a student database may consist combination
of studentÊs personal file, file of courses offered at Open University
Malaysia, co-curriculum activities file and student finance file, as
shown in Figure 5.14. Figure 5.15 illustrates different stages of data
inside a database.

Figure 5.14: Database
Figure 5.15: Stages of data in database

5.10.1 Types of Databases

There are four types of database, as shown in Figure 5.16.
Figure 5.16: Four types of databases
A relational database type is the most widely used today. In this type of
database, data is arranged in table with rows and columns. Each column
constitutes one attribute and each row constitutes one record.
The table of data also has the following three features:

(a) Each column describes one attribute only;
(b) Sequential arrangement of columns and rows are not important; and
(c) Every row is unique.
5.10.2 Database Management System Organisation

Database management system has the function of managing data and
information stored inside the database. It can be regarded as an interface
between users and the database whereby it acts as a facilitator to allow users to
access and manipulate data elements embedded in the database. Examples of
database management system for personal computers are Microsoft Access,
dBase V, FileMaker Pro, FoxPro, Visual Fox Pro and Paradox.
Database management system is different from traditional file management. The

traditional file management is a system containing files which are separated from
each other. For example, student file and file of courses offered every semester
are different and not related to each other. This makes processing difficult if
information from several files is required.

For example, we have a record and attributes as follows:

(a) Student file ă Name, matrix, identification card, department;
(b) Course TZ1443 registration file ă Matrix, name, department;
(c) Course TU2983 registration file ă Matrix, name, department; and
(d) Lecturer's room file ă Lecturer name, room no.
With the traditional file system, we may face problem in getting a list of students'
names based on department or list of courses taken by a student because the
information is present inside three different files.
Traditional file processing system has the following weaknesses:
(a) Data redundancy ă Same data attributes are repeatedly present in different
files;
(b) Data integrity problem ă Data needs to be updated in all files to ensure that
they are consistent throughout; and
(c) Program and data independence problem ă Program and data are closely
related as data is created to feed into a program.
Database management system is created as means for solving problems. It has

the following objectives:
(a) Integration of data from various file sources or databases;
(b) Avoids data redundancy;
(c) Sharing of data among different applications;
(d) Data integrity can be retained in terms of security and reliability; and
(e) Data inside the database can be changed as required.
Inside the database, each file has a relationship with other files. Relationships
among files are made through key fields. In a database, data dictionary stores
information in data and the database structure. In building a database
application, the following seven steps are required, as illustrated in Figure 5.17.

Figure 5.17: Seven steps in building database applications
These steps are usually discussed in greater detail in the System Analysis and
Design course. Database management system is required to free data and
application programs to make them independent of each other. This will simplify
data access and editing, minimise data redundancy, define data, manage data
security and maintain data integrity. It can be regarded as a software layer
surrounding the database. The software includes query language, report
generator and utilities, and graphics.
A database management system has number of weaknesses. Firstly, the software

is expensive. For a personal computer, the database management system
software costs between RM1,000 to RM2,500 each. This software is meant for
single users and has a limited number of files that can be created.
For a mainframe computer such as the database software used in student

registration at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), car registration at Road
Transport Department (JPJ) or patient registration at UKM Medical Centre, the
cost of the database management system software is high. Examples of database
management system with high capacity are Integrated Database Management
System (IDMS), DB2, Oracle, Sybase and Informix. The use of database
management system requires large secondary storage and high powered central
processing unit. There is also a need for skilled personnel to manage the database

management system software. The person who manages database management

system is known as the database administrator (DBA). Development of
information systems based on database management system is more complex,
time consuming and costly.
However, database management system is the core software for any

organisation, whether big or small, in managing information. Almost all large
organisations in various industries use database management system software to
manage information. Some people say that organisations cannot function
without a good database management system.
There are three types of relationships that can exist in databases ă one-to-one,
one-to-many and many-to-many, as shown in Figure 5.18.
Figure 5.18: Examples of three types of relationships
For example, let us take the database of a business containing their customer
files, sales file, inventory files and supplier files, as follows:
(a) One-to-one relationship ă One data can only have a relationship with one
other data, e.g. relationship between customer file and sales file;
(b) One-to-many relationship ă One data can have a relationship with more
than one other data, e.g. customer file with sales file, if a customer makes
many purchases; and
(c) Many-to-many relationship ă One or more data can have a relationship
with one or more other data, e.g. many suppliers can supply many items.

There are several types of database organisations. These are hierarchical,

networked and relational and they will be discussed here.
In the hierarchical database, records are arranged or combined in related groups

that resemble a family tree, i.e. the concept of parent and child. This database
functions well if it has a one-to-many relationship. The structure has to be
defined from the beginning. Every child can only have one parent and there is no
relationship among the children. The many-to-many relationship cannot be
established here. This type of database was introduced in the 1960s. Figure 5.19
shows an example of the hierarchical database.
Figure 5.19: Example of a hierarchical database
In a networked database, every child can have more than one parent. This
arrangement can be bent easily as compared to hierarchical database but there is
a limit on the bent and it needs definitions prior to its use. This type of database

can have all types of relationships. It was first introduced in the 1970s. Today,
both hierarchical and networked types are not widely used. Figure 5.20 shows an
example of a networked database.
Figure 5.20: Example of a networked database
Relational database is the most stable and flexible database. Its model was first
introduced by E. F. Codd. It does not require the database structure to be initially
defined. Data is arranged in the form of a table with rows and columns. A name
is given to each table and column. Every table is given a unique column, known
as main key. This main key is used to link different tables. Relational databases
are widely used today. Figure 5.21 shows an example of a relational database.
Figure 5.21: Example of a relational database

In a hierarchical, networked or relational database, data is stored inside the

database. The programs to process the data are stored separately outside the
database. However, there is a new approach in which data and programs are
stored inside the database simultaneously. This is known as object-oriented
database. This new type of database is not yet widely used. Now, there is also an
object-oriented relational database. Figure 5.22 shows four types of database
management system organisations.
Figure 5.22: Four types of database management system organisation
5.10.3 Client-Server
Most database management systems are stored inside the server. Database
management system software will store and manage data in the server computer.
The client computer will be used by users to access and process the data
contained inside the database of the server computer. This method is known as
client-server system. The client-server system enables a database to be shared by
many users. Examples of server-based DBMS are Oracle, Informix and Sybase.
An example of software that can build user-interface software is PowerBuilder.
Examples of client-server systems are student registration system in OUM and
foreign worker registration in Malaysia Department of Immigration.

The client-server system has the following advantages:
(a) Server has the main function as storage and processing is done by clients;
(b) Data security at the server is more assured; and
(c) Hardware requirement can be added easily to the server.
Databases can be arranged in three ways − centralised, distributed and client-

server. Figure 5.23 shows three categories of databases. In a centralised database,
all organisational databases are present in one computer only, usually in a
mainframe computer. This technique simplifies management but has risk if the
computer breaks down. For example, in OUM, all databases on students, staff,
finance, etc. are stored inside one computer. This technique is known as
centralised database.
Figure 5.23: Three categories of databases
In a distributed database, all databases are stored in several computers located in

different places (buildings, rooms, areas). For example in OUM, information on
Language Faculty students are stored in the Language Faculty database and the
information on Science Faculty students are stored in the Science Faculty
database. This approach is known as distributed database. This approach is more
difficult to maintain.
In a client-server database, clients do the database applications while the server

does part or all of the actual database management system. An example of this
type of database is the student registration in OUM.

There are two ways on how to access data in a database, i.e. through query
language and application programs as shown in Figure 5.24.
Figure 5.24: Two ways to access data
Query language is a language used by users to capture data from the

database.
With this language, users can add, edit, delete and access the database. An example
of the query language is Structured Query Language (SQL) which can be used to
access relational type of databases. An example of SQL instructions are presented in
Figure 5.25.
SELECT OWNERID, ‘is in Orders & Antiques’

FROM ORDERS, ANTIQUES
WHERE OWNERID = BUYERID
UNION
SELECT BUYERID, ‘is in Antiques Only’
FROM ANTIQUES
WHERE BUYERID NOT IN
(SELECT OWNERID FROM ORDERS);
Figure 5.25: Example of SQL instructions

Users can also access databases through programs that are written in
programming languages like COBOL or C which contain SQL statements that are
embedded inside the programs. This technique is known as embedded SQL, as
/* example of embedded SQL using C */

#include
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;

Int BUYERID;
char FirstName[100], LastName[100], Item[100];
main()
{
EXEC SQL CONNECT UserID/Password;
EXEC SQL DECLARE Itemcursor CURSOR FOR
SELECT ITEM, BUYERID
FROM ANTIQUES
ORDER BY ITEMS;
EXEC SQL OPEN ItemCursor;
EXEC SQL FETCH ItemCursor INTO :Item :BUYERID;

While(!sqlca.sqlcode) {
EXEC SQL SELECT OWNERFIRSTNAME, OWNERLASTNAME
INTO :FirstName :LastName
FROM ANTIQUES
WHERE BUYERID = :BuyerID;
Printf(‘%s %s %s’, FirstNamre, LastName, Item);
}
exit ();
}
Figure 5.26: Example of embedded SQL
A concept that is widely used today is a „data warehouse‰, i.e. a combination of

several large databases inside an organisation in a form that is suitable for use by
users. A data warehouse may contain a very large amount of data and this may
cause difficulty for users to analyse the data.
This leads to the technique of data mining, i.e. a technique of analysing

voluminous amount of data by using statistical techniques, machine learning,
artificial intelligence, etc.
SELF-CHECK 5.6
1. What is the advantage of having a database?
2. What is meant by database management?

5.11 DOCUMENT PROCESSING SOFTWARE

TeX is a document processing system for producing documents of high quality. It
is mostly used in the publication of academic journals or magazines. This system
is suitable for use mainly in documents that involve many mathematical
formulas. TeX documents are in the form of ASCII which contains markups such
as an HTML document. This document will later be processed to produce a form
of portable document like postscript or PDF. Figure 5.27 shows the Gostview
software which can be used to display .ps and .pdf documents.
Figure 5.27: Gostview software that display postscript document
5.12 GRAPHICS SOFTWARE

Displaying graphics to businessmen may look non-beneficial at first because
there is number printing that is normally done by the computer. However,
graphs, maps and charts can help people to compare data, identify pathways
with ease and make decisions more quickly. Research has shown that human
beings learn more from information presented visually. Furthermore, visual
information is normally more meaningful than page of numbers. Besides
representing numbers and facts, graphs are often used together with messages by
businessperson or whoever, as part of their presentation.

Graphic software combines various visual objects to produce presentations

that are attractive and joyful.
The use of graphic software is very satisfactory if the work is done by a graphic
artist who has the ability in both artistic aspect as well as the ability to use
sophisticated graphic software to translate ideas. An artist uses the software as a
tool for producing fantastic computer-based arts. Graphic software is software
that converts numerical data into a graphic display form, such as the bar chart,
pie chart, etc. It enables users to produce various types of graphical forms. Five
types of graphics software are shown in Figure 5.28.
Figure 5.28: Five types of graphics software
(a) Decorative graphics ă It is used to improve document production and not

for delivering information. They are normally embedded inside word
processors like clip drawing. Examples of decorative graphics software are
Paint (given out free inside Windows operating system as shown in
Figure 5.29), Paint Shop Pro and Adobe Photoshop.

Figure 5.29: Microsoft Paint
(b) Business/analytical graphics ă Simplify numerical data so that they are

easily understood. Examples of such graphics are bar chart, pie chart,
dotted area chart, line graph, pictogram, etc. These are normally obtained
by using spreadsheet or statistical software.
(c) Presentation graphics ă It is used to present data/ideas to customers. This

presentation may consist of text, table, clip drawing, picture or business
graphics. Examples of such graphics are Microsoft PowerPoint (see
Figure 5.30), Freelance and Harvard Graphic.

Figure 5.30: Microsoft PowerPoint
(d) Illustration graphics is a type of presentation graphic that is used

professionally. Three types of illustration software are drawing, painting
and image editing. An example of this software is Adobe Illustrator as
Figure 5.31: Adobe Illustrator

(e) Animation graphics ă Add movement over the image and drawing.
Examples of graphics software used for animation are Maya (for 3D
animation) and Adobe Flash Professional CS6. These types of software were
used to produce Toy Story and Toy Story 2.
5.13 SOFTWARE SUITE

Groupware software is a software used inside a network of a group of users
working on one project. It normally consists of four different types, such as the
basic groupware software like Lotus Notes, workflow software like Action
Workflow, meeting software like VetanaÊs Group and scheduling software like
Microsoft Project.
5.14 GROUPWARE SOFTWARE

Groupware software is a software used inside a network of a group of users
working on one project. It normally consists of four different types, such as the
basic groupware software like Lotus Notes, workflow software like Action
Workflow, meeting software like VetanaÊs Group and scheduling software like
MS-Project.
5.15 DESKTOP PUBLISHING SOFTWARE

Desktop publishing software is a software used for printing or publishing and is
more advanced than word processing software. The features of this software are
the ability to mix and match texts and graphics, various types of styles and
presentation, importing elements in different format and page description
language. Examples of desktop publishing software are Microsoft Publisher,
PageMaker, FrameMaker, QuarkXPress and Scribus. Figure 5.32 shows an
example of an interface of Scribus, an open source software for desktop
publishing.

Figure 5.32: Scribus
5.16 MULTIMEDIA SOFTWARE

Multimedia presentation software or multimedia composition enables users to
combine text, graphic, animation, video, music, voice and sound in their
presentation. This software simplifies multimedia-based software development.
Examples of multimedia software are Multimedia ToolBook, Authorware, Flash
and Director. Figure 5.33 shows an example of the Flash software.
Figure 5.33: Adobe Flash

 Although system software is rarely talked about, its importance cannot be

denied.
 There are four categories of system software: operating system, utility

programs, device drives and language translators.
 Application software consists of word processing, electronic spreadsheet,

databases, presentation software and others.
 The operating system manages resources, provides the user-interface and

executes applications.
 Windows, Mac OS, UNIX and Linux are commonly used operating systems.
 The five features of operating system are multitasking, multi-user, multi-

processing, batch processing and virtual memory.
 Besides that, we have also seen application software that is often used to
increase productivity of organisations and individuals such as word
processing, spreadsheet, databases, groupware software, etc.
 Advanced application software is divided into four categories: business

software; graphics and multimedia software; home, personal and educational
software; and communication software.
Batch processing Multi-processing

Compiler Operating System (OS)
Database Spreadsheet
Data mining User-interface
Device drivers Utility program
Multitasking Virtual memory

Topic  Programming
6 Language
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concept of programming languages;
2. State five generations of computer languages;
3. Identify six characteristics of programming language; and
4. Recognise different types of programming languages.
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall know more about programming language. Computer
programs are developed by using programming languages. A program is a set of
instructions followed by the computer, so that data can be processed. The process
of producing a program is called programming. Programming is a part of the
larger software development process which consists of problem specification,
program design, programming, program testing and program maintenance.
6.1 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

In general, the computer itself is deaf, dumb and cannot think on its own. It
requires instructions from humans to perform certain tasks, ranging from a
simple task (such as performing a 2 + 2 arithmetic operation) to a very complex
task (such as launching a spacecraft to Mars). Therefore, we use a programming
language to communicate with and instruct computer to perform certain tasks.
Instructions inside a program are arranged logically through the process of
programming. There are many types of programming languages that can be used
by programmers to communicate with the computer.

128  TOPIC 6 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
A programming language is similar to a natural language like English, in several

aspects. For example, it resembles words, symbols and syntax. To write a
program, a programmer needs to know the words, symbols and syntax of the
programming language used. There are many programming languages such as
APL, Pascal, Java, Perl, Eiffel, C, C++, Basic, Fortran, Lisp, Scheme, BETA, Lua,
Visual Basic, Prolog, Haskell, Hugs and COBOL.
Each programming language is invented in different phase of the time, as shown

in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Programming Language Evolution
Years Programming Language

1950s Lisp, Fortran
1960să1970s Basic, C, SmallTalk, Pascal, Scheme
1990s C, C++, BETA, Java, Prolog
There are programming languages for specific purposes as well, such as

Concurrent C, Orca and Leda for parallel programming and Android for mobile
programming. Figure 6.1 shows the relationship model between users,
programming language and computer.
Figure 6.1: Relationship model among users, programming language and computer

TOPIC 6 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE  129
6.2 WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES?
Users can use whatever programming language they know to solve problems.
However, if the user knows only one programming language, the solution
provided may not be optimal and efficient. Therefore, a user needs to understand
the potential of a certain programming languages, so that he/she can evaluate
the strengths and weaknesses of the language, in solving the problem faced.
After evaluation, user can adopt the most effective method from a list of possible
methods to solve the problem. There are five benefits of understanding
programming languages that are elaborated in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Benefits of Understanding Programming Languages
Benefit Elaboration
Knowing superiority of the For example, if development involves a rapid prototype,
programming languages then, it is more efficient to use scripting language like
and where it is suitable to Python, rather than using C or C++.
be used
Understanding weaknesses Each language is suitable for one field. For example, to
of the programming develop graphical user interface (GUI), it is more efficient
languages to use C++ or Java rather than C. To do a lot of
calculations, Fortran is more suitable than Java or C.
Producing more efficient If a user understands a few programming languages,
solutions he/she can use the most efficient language for solving
problem. For example, if the solution requires access to
databases, it is better to use scripting language like
Python for linking, rather than C or C++.
Programming languages For example, an object-oriented language will make user
will influence usersÊ think of a solution based on the object concept, while a
thinking in solving logic-based language will make the user think of the
problems solution, based on logic.
Programming languages Most problems are more efficiently solved by experts in
are tools for solving the respective fields. Therefore, experts in certain fields
problems by using the can learn appropriate programming languages in order to
computer solve their problems.

It is common for a programmer to know more than one programming language.

Normally, each programming language has similar characteristics. After
mastering one programming language, it is easy to master another programming
language because the programming concept is the same ă only the language
syntax changes. There are many types of programming languages and their fields
of applications are based on current needs and trends. Examples of the languages
discussed above and their fields of application are shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Examples of Programming Languages and Their Fields of Application
Programming
Fields Year
Language
Fortran Scientific calculations 1956

Lisp Symbol calculation, artificial intelligence 1957
C System development 1974

COBOL Business-oriented system development 1960
Visual Basic System development, graphical user interface 1990
C++ Large and complex system development 1984
Java Internet applications, graphical user interface, enterprise 1995
system development
Perl Internet, common getaway interface (CGI), text processing 1990
6.3 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

GENERATIONS AND EXAMPLES
In general, programming languages can be categorised into five generations. The
first generation is known as the machine language. When computers were first
invented, the language adopted was the machine language, using binary digits of
„0‰ and „1‰ to represent instructions and data. Programs that were written in the
machine language needed no translation into the object code before computer
execution because the machine language format already adhered to the computer
architecture.

Computer language generation is said to have begun from low level up to high
level. A programming language is said to be a low level one when it resembles
the language that is actually used by the computer. A high level programming
language, on the other hand, closely resembles the language used by human
beings like the Malay Language. Table 6.4 show five programming language
generations and how the programming language is represented in each of the
generations.
Table 6.4: Five Generations of Programming Language
Generation Language Representation of the Programming Language

1st Machine 10010001
2nd Assembly ADD 210(8,13), 02B(4,7)
3rd Algorithmic Over_time := 0
4th Query FIND Name = „MAZLAN‰
5th Natural IF patient is sick THEN examine body temperature
(a) First generation ă Programming language for this generation is the machine
language. With the machine language, a programmer can write an optimal
program. However, this method is quite difficult because the programmer
needs to remember binary code and numbers. Therefore, the machine
language is rarely used today. The machine language is also dependent on
the computer brand and this adds to more difficulties in using it.
An example of the machine language being used to represent instructions

and data is:
01011010 00010000 01111100 11101001
(b) Second generation ă Consists of assembly language. The invention of the

assembly language is the first step in the development of software, which is
easier and more effective. An assembly language is easier to remember
because of its short forms. It also depends on the type of computer.

It uses symbols and words to represent instructions and data, and does not
use binary digits like the machine language. An example of a program in
the assembly language is given below:
V86_signal_return :
Call SYMBOL_NAME (save_v86_state)
movl
xorl
call SYMBOL_NAME (do_signal)
jmp restore_all
ALIGN
Since a program in the assembly language is not in the machine language

understood by the computer, it needs to be converted into the machine
language first, before it can be processed by the computer. Software called
„assembler‰ is used to convert programs from assembly language into
machine language.
(c) Third generation ă Programming languages consist of languages produced

in the 1950s, i.e. high level languages. They are still being used today, e.g.
C, COBOL and Fortran. They resemble more the human natural languages.
This simplifies the programmers in writing their programs. This generation
of languages is also known as high level languages and is designed for use
in various machines, with little change. With the third generation
languages, users no longer need to write many instructions like those in the
machine or assembly language. Instead, users need to type only one
instruction to perform something that requires many instructions in the
machine language.
Among the reasons for the invention of the high level languages are to:
(i) Simplify writing, unlike machine and assembly languages;
(ii) Enable a program to run on more than one machine, as it only needs
to be re-compiled before being run on a different machine; and
(iii) Enable a programmer to concentrate more on fulfilling usersÊ needs.
Examples of programming languages produced in this generation are Algol

68, Fortran, C, Ada, COBOL, Simula, APL, BCPL, Basic, PL/1, Pascal, Logo
and Modula.

Most high level languages are based on algorithms or procedures. With

procedure-based language, a programmer needs to use programming logic
to solve problems. In other words, a programmer needs to write
instructions in a certain order to be implemented for solving the problem.
Source codes are programs that are written in high level languages.
They need to be converted into machine language, which is called object

code, to enable programs to be executed by computer. This conversion
process is done by language processors.
There are three types of language processors, as shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: Three language processors
(d) Fourth generation ă Known as problem-oriented language. Languages of

this generation, also known as fourth generation language (4GL), require
even less instructions as compared to the third generation languages when
performing a certain job. The definition of this generation is different,
depending on vendors. Normally, this language is combined with a
software package like the database management system (DBMS). Normally,
fourth generation is used to access information from files and databases.
Fourth generation language instructions resemble English language

instructions for accessing and formatting data. Languages of this generation
are easy to use. This enables professional and non-professional users to
develop software easily. Some people do not consider fourth generation
language as a procedure-oriented language because it places emphasis on
what needs to be done and not on how it should be done (method). Fourth
generation language will not replace the third generation language because
it focuses more on one task.

Most fourth generation language procedures are automatically generated

by computer and users only need to state what needs to be done and not
how to do them.
A few examples of the fourth generation languages are:
(i) Query languages like Structured Query Language (SQL), Query by

Example (QBE) and Intellect. These languages are used to change,
edit, create and access information from databases;
(ii) Report generators are languages used to generate queries and reports
from databases; and
(iii) Application generators perform more than query languages and

report generators. They are tools that generate software according to
usersÊ needs, with regards to data requirements required to be
processed and reported.
(e) Fifth generation ă Natural languages of programming languages, i.e.

languages that are the same as the query languages, except that users are
not required to learn dictionary, grammar and syntax. They use natural
languages like English. The use of natural languages touches on artificial
intelligence field of study, i.e. field that studies on how to make computers
think like humans.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. What makes „low level‰ programming language different from

„high level‰ programming?
2. Give two benefits that can be obtained, if you understand

programming language.

6.4 APPROACH: CLASSIFICATION OF

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Programming languages can be classified based on six characteristics of the
language, as shown in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3: Six characteristics of programming language
Each characteristic has its own strengths and weaknesses. The following sections
will discuss strengths and weaknesses of each characteristic.
Besides the above mentioned characteristics, there are also other characteristics of
programming languages like:
(a) Constraint programming;
(b) Accessed-oriented programming;
(c) Single data structure programming, e.g. APL language treats all data in the
form of matrix or sequential order; Icon language treats all data in the form
of expressions; and
(d) Database language, e.g. SQL.

6.4.1 Imperative Language
Imperative means instruction order or command.
Therefore, imperative language is a language where every instruction for solving

problem needs to be stated clearly. Each instruction for solving problem will be
executed step by step. An imperative language can be likened to a recipe for
cooking. In this language, technique used is „Do A, then, do B‰. Thirteen
examples of imperative languages are shown in Figure 6.4. There are times when
it is known as procedural language. The basic idea in imperative language is that
users need to state every step required in solving problem.
Figure 6.4: Thirteen examples of imperative language
6.4.2 Object-Oriented Language
Object-oriented language was invented to develop systems that are large and
complex.
The need for an object-oriented language arose when existing languages could no
longer fulfil the need of systems that are becoming more complex. The
advantages of object-orientation are ease of system management, ability to
change system properly and reusability of components in a new system. The
structure of an object-oriented language makes a program easier to design and
understand. Object-oriented languages handle images, audio, video and sound
much easier than procedural languages (third generation). The basic idea is to
focus on objects inside a system, not on functions that occur inside the system.

There are four concepts in an object-oriented language, as indicated in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5: Four Concepts of Object-Oriented Language
Concept Description
Class Blueprint that defines the variables (or attributes) and the methods
common to all objects of a certain kind.
Object Each object is an instance of a particular class. Many unique objects
can be created from the same class.
Encapsulation Term given to the process of hiding all details of an object that do not
contribute to its essential characteristics. Encapsulation hides the
implementation details of the object and the only thing that remains
externally visible is the interface of the object (i.e. set of all messages
the object can respond to).
Inheritance Capability of a class to use the properties and methods of another
class while adding its own functionality.
An advantage of the object-oriented language is reusability. Any object that has

been declared as reusable can be used inside another program. This simplifies
and speeds up application development. Object-oriented language was first
introduced in 1970 in Simula language, followed by Smalltalk and C++.
Examples of object-oriented languages are C++, Smalltalk, Java and Objective-C,
Pascal, Delphi, BETA, HyperTalk, Limbo, Python and Eiffel.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
What is meant by object-oriented programming?
6.4.3 Logic-Based Language

Logic-based language focuses more on problem statement, not on how to solve
problem. The software system is responsible for solving stated problem. This
language is based on logic, i.e. facts and rules. Facts and rules are stated in the
form of IF-THEN statement. For example, users can state facts and rules as
follows:
IF X is-father-of Y AND Y is-father-of Z, THEN X is-grand-father-of Z.

In writing logic-based program, users make use of Horn Logic, i.e. statement that
uses IF-THEN. All facts and rules will be stated in Horn Logic form.
Subsequently, the user will state a problem to be solved. The system will try to
solve the problem based on facts and rules that have been given. For example, we
can produce the following information based on Horn Logic:
happy (x) <– rich (x), famous (x)

happy (x) <– young (x), in-love (x)
happy (x) <– old (x), wise (x)
famous (x) <– actor (x)
famous (x) <– singer (x)
Subsequently, we can state the following fact:
actor {ali}
rich {ali}
Finally, we can ask the system the following question which means is ali happy?:
? – happy (ali)
The system will answer yes or no based on the information given before. An
example of the logic language is Prolog.
6.4.4 Function-Based Language

A function-based language emphasises what needs to be calculated and not how
to calculate. The program is in the form of functions, i.e. function that is almost
the same as mathematical function. The codes written in function language are
normally short and concise. For example, to get all odd numbers between 1 and
20, a function-based program is given:
[x|x <– [1..20]; x mod 2 = 1]
Examples of function languages are Lisp, FP, Scheme, Common Lisp, Hope,
Standard ML, Miranda, Haskell, Hugs and Lucid.

6.4.5 Script
Scripting languages are translated languages that are normally produced for
certain objective. They can be used for developing prototypes rapidly. This type
of language is portable between various types of computer platforms. Systems
that have been developed in scripting languages run slower. Examples of
scripting languages are awk, sed, Perl, Python, REXX, rebol and ruby.
HTML and XML are Internet-based scripting languages used to develop

applications for Internet.
6.4.6 Visual Language

Programming using a visual language replaces instructions based on text with
icon symbols. Each icon represents an object or general programming function
like copy, delete, open file, etc. An example of visual language is Visual Basic and
it is the most popular used among normal and professional users. Other visual
languages in the market are Visual FoxPro and Visual C++.
6.5 COMMON PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Now, let us learn a few common programming languages in this subtopic.
6.5.1 C
It is a small language with attractive features. The C language is mostly used in
the development of system software and application software.
Programs in C are portable, where users only need to re-compile programs of

a new operating system in order to produce suitable object codes.
For example, Linux and UNIX operating systems were developed in C language.
The C programming course is a core subject in computer science programs for
most university. The C language is quite difficult to learn for new users but it is a
language that has various capabilities and is very powerful.

6.5.2 C++
C++ adds on object features to the C language based on ideas from Simula
language. Initially, it was known as C with Classes language. This language is
mostly used in large and complex systems development, such as telephone
switching, graphic user interface system, traffic control on road, etc.
6.5.3 Java
Java is an object-based language invented in 1995 by James Gosling. It has the
features of C++ and Simula.
Java converts Java programs into byte code, not to object code, where the byte
code can run in any operating system by using Java virtual machine without any
changes. This technique enables any Java program to be portable among many
computer systems. Initially, Java was mostly used in producing graphics and
animation on websites. It is known as widely used programming language in the
world. Java has been popular with the slogan „Write once, runs everywhere.‰
6.5.4 Perl
Perl is a scripting language that can be used in processing of text, common
gateway interface, database communication, etc. PERL has portability feature.
In addition, PERL can be used for the following purposes:
(a) Develop web application;
(b) Administer system; and
(c) Process textual or numerical data.
6.5.5 Python
Python is a scripting language based on objects which can be used to develop

prototype, process data based on text, communicate with databases, etc.
Among applications that have been built using Python are web applications,
address book, computer network management and astronomical software.
Python is an alternative to Perl.

6.6 COMPILER, ASSEMBLER, INTERPRETER

Programs that have been written in a programming language are called source
codes. Source codes are in the form of text or ASCII. It can be written by using
the general purpose editor, such as notepad or integrated development
environment (IDE) editor. Examples of IDE mostly used are Borland C++ and
Visual Studio. Now, let us observe an example of a source code used for C
programming language as shown below. The program will display the output
„hello world‰ when it is executed.
main ( )
{
printf (“hello world \ n”);
}
This source code needs to be compiled or converted into object code before it can
run in any computer. The compilation process is done by compiler. If this
program is compiled in Linux, it can only run in Linux; if compiled in Windows,
it can only run in Windows.
This problem is said to be non-portable, i.e. any software that is compiled in

operating system type A cannot run in operating system type B. The problem of
non-portable arises because the object code produced from the compilation
process is different for different operating systems. This object code is specific for
one type of operating system only.
While source code is compiled, it will be linked to a library, i.e. set of existing
instructions inside an operating system. In Windows operating system, the
library is given extended dynamic loading library (.dll). Examples of libraries in
Windows operating system are vb200.dll and vb3000.dll. The software (or object
code) that is produced requires this library to run. Since the library is present in
the specific operating system (e.g. Windows) only, the object code that is
produced can run in Windows system only.
Every processor (central processing unit) is built using different architecture.

Each architecture contains a set of instructions, which are different from one type
to another. Since the set of instructions is different, the machine language of each
processor is also different. The object code that is generated from the compilation
process is in the form of machine language. Since the machine language is
different, the object code produced is also different. Therefore, the object code
can run in the processor that produces it only.

For example, two types of architecture for the processor are RISC and CISC.
Examples of CISC processors are Intel, AMD and Cyrix while examples of RISC
processors are Alpha, Motorola 6800 and PowerPC. Any program that is
compiled for an Intel processor cannot run on an Alpha processor because both
contain different object codes.
To convert assembly language programs into object code, we need to use

assembler. The object code produced is not portable. We can use assembly
language to write program. The assembly language is mostly used in
development of operating systems and it is used specifically in certain operating
systems.
An interpreter is a computer program translates high level instructions line by

line into an intermediate form, which it then executed. In contrast, a compiler
translates high level instructions directly into machine language. Compiled
programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. The advantage of an
interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation stage
during which, machine instructions are generated. This process can be time
consuming if the program is long. Interpreter does not convert programs into
object code. Programs in the interpreter are portable, i.e. it can run using any
operating system. Programs inside interpreter are far slower than programs that
are compiled and run in the form of object code. Basic and Lisp are examples of
programming languages that used interpreter.
 Programming language is an artificial language to communicate with

computer.
 A program is a set of instructions followed by the computer, so that data can

be processed.
 The importance of understanding certain programming language is to

evaluate its strengths and weaknesses of the language in solving problem
efficiently.
 Programming languages can be divided into stages or five generations

(machine, assembly, algorithmic, query and natural), beginning from lowest
to highest.

 The higher the language is, the nearer it is to the human form.
 Most high level languages are languages based on algorithms or procedures.
 Fourth generation language instructions resemble English language

instructions for accessing and formatting data.
 Programming languages can be classified based on six characteristics:

imperative, object-oriented, functional, logic, parallel, scripting and visual.
 The imperative language is a language where every instruction for solving

problem needs to be stated clearly.
 Object-oriented language was invented to develop systems that are large and
complex.
 Three important concepts in an object-oriented language are class, object and

inheritance.
 Logic-based language is based on logic represented by facts and rules in a

form of IF-THEN statement.
 A function-based language emphasises what needs to be calculated and not

how to calculate.
 Scripting languages are translated languages that are normally produced for
certain objective.
 Programming using visual language replaces instructions based on text with

icon symbols.
 There are two types of Internet scripting language ă HTML and XML.
 Assembler is used to convert programs from the assembly language into the
machine language.
 Compiler is used to convert high level language (e.g. Basic, C, Pascal) into
machine codes.
 Interpreter is used to interpret and execute instructions one by one in a high

level language.

Assembler Logic
Compiler Machine language
Encapsulation Object-oriented language
Function-based language Program
Imperative language Visual language
Inheritance
Interpreter

Topic  The Internet
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the term „Internet‰;
2. Discuss the history (five phases of generation), development, issues
and evolution of Internet;
3. Identify the contents of Internet and how to manage them; and
4. Discuss the current and future trend of Internet.
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall focus on the Internet itself. You may be familiar with
browsing the Internet, but do you know what the real capability of the Internet
is? Do you know the definition, history, development, issues and evolution of the
Internet? In this topic, we shall learn on the things that were mentioned earlier
and on the other hand, we are going to identify the client and server node in the
Internet. Besides that, you will also identify the effective process of searching and
managing information over the Internet. Finally, we will explore the current and
future trends of the Internet. Let us start!
7.1 DEFINITION OF INTERNET

In any organisation such as a government office, private company or university,
computers are usually linked to a computer network called local area network
(LAN). This enables users to share resources like printers, communicate via
electronic mails (e-mails), share databases, etc. When two or more local area
networks (and other networks) are combined into one big network, it is called
inter-network or the Internet. Figure 7.1 shows the Internet structure.
146  TOPIC 7 THE INTERNET
Figure 7.1: The Internet structure
The Internet is the short form of „international networking‰ that refers to the
largest type of global network. Now, imagine that all computer networks in the
world are linked to form one big network of a global nature. The network formed
is called the Internet, i.e. a network formed by a combination of computer
networks in the entire world. With the Internet, a computer in Kuala Lumpur can
access a computer in China, India, the US, Japan, Saudi Arabia and anywhere
else in the world.
The Internet is a grouping of computer networks that is very large and covers
the whole world. It operates using Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP).
There were various proprietary networks linking several countries before the
Internet era, such as Malaysian Airline (MAS) network linking Malaysian Airline
offices worldwide, but these were not the Internet. The Internet has adopted the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol in order to enable various types
of computers to work together. The Internet has been successful in creating a
global village where a community can communicate with another community
easily, without physical and time boundaries.
The term „intranet‰ refers to a portion of the Internet that is located inside one
organisation. „Intra‰ means inside.

TOPIC 7 THE INTERNET  147
For example, portion of the Internet located in all the faculties in the Open
University Malaysia (OUM) constitute is an intranet. The portion must be
guarded by special firewalls ensure that outsiders could not simply come into the
OUM to access its confidential files. So, intranet is really a subset of the Internet ă
one at the organisation level, while the other, at the global level.
As many intranets were built, companies discovered more competitive

advantage if they link them together. Thus, an extranet is formed by linking two
or more intranets.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. In your own words, give the definition of the following terms:
(a) Internet;
(b) Intranet; and
(c) Extranet.
2. Based on the answer above, explain how they differ from one
another.
7.2 HISTORY
The Internet network has an interesting history. By looking at the history, we are
able to evaluate advantages, disadvantages, weaknesses, past development and
future of the Internet better. The Internet network was born in the US, in 1969.
The Defence Department of US formed the Advanced Research Project Agency
(ARPA) which started the network. This organisation was responsible for
upgrading the activities of research and development in the field of technology to
compete with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR), the predecessor of
todayÊs Russia. This was the answer to the success of the USSR government in its
launching of the Sputnik satellite communication. In the 1970s, the US and the
USSR were in the Cold War period. Many people thought that the success of the
USSR had awakened the US from asleep.

7.2.1 How Does the Internet Began?

Two main researches in Advanced Research Project Agency were intellectual
sharing and computer resource sharing. Intellectual sharing research touched on
how researchers could share opinions among themselves no matter where they
were. Computer resource sharing research touched on how a researcher could
use computer resources at other places easily. It needs to be noted that, in that
decade, computers were very expensive, limited and large. A computer often cost
millions of dollars and occupied one big room. Only organisations like the US
Defence Department and large companies could afford to own a computer.
Personal computers were not yet available.
As a result of that research, a computer network called ARPANET was

established in 1969. It connected four computers that were available at different
locations ă University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), University of
California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), University of Utah and Stanford Research
Institute (SRI). In 1971, a total of 23 computers joined ARPANET, mostly
universities and research centres. In 1973, the numbers increased several fold. In
1971, e-mail facilities were introduced into ARPANET.
In the 1970s, initiatives were taken to create a standard data sharing among
various types of computer networks. At that time, every computer company
introduced network systems that were different from one another. This initiative
enabled all computers of different brands in various types of networks to share
data or to communicate among themselves easily. In 1974, a data sharing
technique called Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was introduced. Later, in
1978, this technique was expanded to what was called Transfer Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol.
ACTIVITY 7.1
As we know, the Internet dominates almost every aspect of human life

today. Write a mind map on how it all started. Present it during your
tutorial.

7.2.2 The Internet as a Phenomenon

In 1982, ARPANET network used Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
fully as standard in data sharing. This enabled various types of computers in
ARPANET to share data among themselves. The terms „internet‰ and „Internet‰
were used from this year onwards. The term „Internet‰ refers to the computer
network that uses Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, while „Internet‰
refers to the grouping of computer networks that uses Transfer Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol. The success of ARPANET in using Transfer Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol resulted in many universities and other organisations
joining ARPANET. In 1984, about 1,000 computers were inside ARPANET. The
main activities of the Internet during that time were e-mail, file transfers, remote
log-in and Usenet.
In 1986, National Science Foundation Network (NFSNET), a high-speed network,

was formed. This network became the backbone network that connected
universities, research centres and government agencies with the supercomputer
centre. In 1990, the ARPANET network was terminated and its functions were
taken over by National Science Foundation Network. In 1997, National Science
Foundation Network which functioned as the backbone network was taken over
by a private party.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, Internet usage was still confined to universities,
research centres and government organisations. Its main applications were e-
mail, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Usenet. In 1989, a big incident occurred in the
European Laboratory for Particle Physics (European Organization for Nuclear
Research [CERN]), a large research centre in Switzerland that was destined to
change the Internet forever. Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, proposed an
information sharing technique based on hypertext for the Internet environment.
In 1990, Berners-Lee introduced a protocol or technique called Hypertext

Transfer Protocol (HTTP), i.e. a technique that can be used to develop
distributed multimedia systems based on networking.

This multimedia system contains graphics, text, audio and video which can be
indexed and accessed easily by users in the entire world. This system has been
given various names like the web, World Wide Web, W3 or WWW. As we know
now, the Internet was born! The web can be defined as a network of various
types of information like graphics, audio, video and its text is based on hypertext.
The original term for hypertext was introduced by Ted Nelson in 1967.
Originally, hypertext only involved document texts but now, it involves
documents based on graphics, audio, video and others.
Ted Nelson worked to develop a hypertext system that was named Xanadu. The
basic idea of the hypertext was once presented by Vannevar Bush in an article As
We May Think in 1947. According to Nelson, hypertext means a collection of
documents or nodes that have links or references among themselves. Users can
read a document and access other documents via interactive links. The basic
concepts in hypertext are link, accessibility and interactivity. With hypertext, the
information provided is linked among themselves like a cobweb.
The technique of Hypertext Transfer Protocol was introduced to the Internet

in 1991.
In 1992, there were 70 sites that offered Hypertext Transfer Protocol and the web
services on the entire Internet. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol was still not
widely used enough because there was no Internet browser that was good and
attractive for users. Most Internet browsers at that time were based on text.
In 1993, a browser based on graphics was developed by Marc Andreessen and

Eric Bina at the National Centre for Supercomputing Application (NCSA) in the
US. This browser, called Mosaic, was given out for free to users. It contains
interface features that are attractive and user-friendly. A combination of ideas
from Berners-LeeÊs hypertext and Mosaic browser was finally successful in
popularising the Hypertext Transfer Protocol on the Internet.
Mosaic software is considered the main invention, i.e. a great application that has
successfully popularised the Internet to general users instantly. At the end of
1993, within two years of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol introduction, there
were 700 websites. The Internet began to attract media and general public. A lot
of news concerning the Internet was found in magazines, newspapers and TV.

On the commercial aspect, the Internet began attracting attention of giant

commercial organisations. Many people think that the Internet is the key to their
future successes in business. Many Internet-based companies have been formed
in big numbers. Marc Andreessen and a few friends have set up an Internet
technology company and produced an Internet browser called Netscape. This
browser is given free to all users. The giant Microsoft Corporation was quite late
in entering the Internet. This company produced the Internet Explorer browser as
a means of dominating the Internet. Competition between these two Internet
browser software brands in attracting the Internet users market is very
interesting. Many people think that whoever dominates the browser software,
will dominate the Internet. Figure 7.2 presented an interesting story about
Netscape/Microsoft.
From 1996 to 1999, there was a war on Internet browser software ă the software
that is used to surf the Internet between software giant Microsoft and Netscape.
Why? Many people thought that whoever managed to control the market in the
Internet browser software, would ultimately control the Internet because the
Internet browser is the „vehicle‰ for accessing the Internet.
In 1996, Netscape (company) produced the Netscape Navigator software and it

was given out for free to users. The result was that Netscape controlled 80% of
the Internet browser software. At that time, the Internet was becoming popular.
Many companies began to realise the Internet as an attractive business
opportunity. Many websites were developed, goods began to be sold and
various services were offered. The question was ă how to access the Internet?
Users began to use the Internet browser software. So, whoever was in control of
the Internet browser market would also control the Internet.
Microsoft Corporation entered the Internet quite late. After realising the
importance of the Internet, Microsoft began to set out a strategy for controlling
the Internet. Remember that Microsoft was controlling 90% of the personal
computer operating systemsÊ market (nine out of 10 personal computers sold
were using Windows 95/98/ME/XP system). As a first step, Microsoft
produced the Internet Explorer and it was given out for free to customers. As a
result, in 1998, almost 90% of the browser market was controlled by Internet
Explorer.
Figure 7.2: Interesting story about Netscape/Microsoft

SELF-CHECK 7.2
Discuss the role of ARPANET in the history of Internet.
7.2.3 Development of the Internet

It is estimated that the number of Internet users will double every 18 months. The
period of from 1997 to 1999 was the period of the Internet explosion where the
Internet became a hot topic for talks and discussion. Internet fever began to reach
every user who wanted to set up his/her own private website and his/her own
e-mail account. Various benefits and specialties of the Internet have been
proposed by the media and other parties. Among the benefits the Internet could
give were that it could create a global village, remove boundaries of nations,
provide information quickly, close the gap between developed and developing
nations, open online education and create borderless economies. However, most
of the statements have not been achieved fully or they can still be debated upon.
Although the popularity of the Internet has increased and many dotcom
companies emerged rapidly, 2000 was a difficult year for the Internet.
Weaknesses on the Internet were felt by users. Among problems that arose were
difficulties in searching for relevant information, network congestion, unfiltered
news, various rumours, spread of viruses through e-mails, low security level
when credit cards were used in transactions, computer invasion and widespread
pornographic materials online. Many dotcom companies suffered from losses
and closed down. Based on research, companies that made profits on the Internet
were those that operated websites selling pornographic materials.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Surf the web for articles on the Internet between 1997 and 1999. In
their thirst to popularise the Internet, some of the statements made
could have been exaggerated. Based on current facts, which
statements are true and which statements are false?
2. In your opinion, what will be the changes to the Internet in the

next seven years to come?
3. Obtain a list of dotcom companies in Malaysia. What are the

problems of setting up dotcom companies in Malaysia?

7.3 INTERNET EVOLUTION

Some people think that the Internet opened up a new era in economy. In this new
economic era, a company does not need a building or a physical site. Instead, it
needs only a website for dealing with customers. All transactions can be done via
the Internet. Many Internet-based companies, also called dotcom companies, are
formed all over the world. Many of these companies are listed in the stock
exchange and receive extraordinary responses from investors. There are
companies that are listed at RM2 but the next day, they are transacted at RM200
per share. The Internet will continue to develop. Table 7.1 shows the history of
the Internet (five phases) and how it has changed throughout the course of
history.
Table 7.1: Five Phases of Change of the Internet
Evolution Year Explanation

1st Phase Before 1969 Birth of ARPANET for the purposes of research and
computer resource sharing in the US only. Most users
were scientists, students and academicians. The Internet
was used as a tool for sharing computer resources.
2nd Phase 1970ă1990 Communication like e-mail, File Transfer Protocol and
Usenet were used widely. Usage was still confined to
universities and government agencies. Internet usage
concentrated in the US, Europe and Japan. The Internet
was used as a tool of communication.
3rd Phase 1990ă1997 Hypertext technique was used widely in network
information. The Internet began to attract public
attention because the Internet browser had attractive
and user-friendly interfaces.
4th Phase 1997ă2000 The Internet explosion. The number of users expanded
rapidly. The Internet was used for business transactions.
It became the subject of conversations and many articles
regarding the Internet were written in various
magazines.
5th Phase 2001ăonwards The Internet reality. Many dotcom companies closed
down. Realities of Internet advantages and disadvantages
were felt. Some initiatives to improve the Internet
continued.

7.3.1 Internet Timeline

Now, we will continue learning and focus on the Internet timeline, as mentioned
in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Internet Timeline and Events
Year Event
1969 Four computers were connected on the ARPANET network in US. The
computers were from University of California, Los Angeles; University of
California, Santa Barbara; Stanford Research Institute and University of Utah.
1971 The number of computers in the ARPANET was up to 21. A technique of e-mail
communication was introduced.
1973 The University College of London was connected to ARPANET, the first
connection of ARPANET outside the US.
1978 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol data sharing technique was
produced.
1979 Usenet was introduced. It involved two computers in ARPANET.
1982 ARPANET used Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol completely.
Definitions of Internet and intranet were introduced. „Internet‰ refers to the
(worldwide) grouping of computer networks that uses Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol while „intranet‰ refers to a computer network that
uses Internet Protocol.
1984 The number of computers on the Internet exceeded 1,000 units.
1988 The Internet was massively attacked by the Internet worms which were
computer softwares that spread on their own. This incident shows the low level
of safety on the Internet. Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) was set
up to monitor security on the Internet.
1989 The number of computers exceeded 100,000 units. A book entitled Cuckoo Nest
was published. This book explained on how a group of invaders from Germany
were successful in entering some of the US military computers without
permission, via the Internet.
1990 ARPANET was terminated and replaced by National Science Foundation
Network network.
1991 Hypertext Transfer Protocol was produced by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. This
became the basis for the development of the web on the Internet.
1992 The number of computers on the Internet exceeded 1 million units. Malaysia
also joined the Internet. The Internet network in Malaysia is managed by
Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS). This network is
known as JARING and is participated by several local universities like OUM.

1996 Browser war between Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer. At that
time, almost 80% of users were using Netscape.
1997 The backbone function of National Science Foundation Network for the
provision of Internet passage was taken over by a commercial company. A
computer programming language based on objects ă Java, was launched by Sun
Microsystem in 23 May 1997. This language received extraordinary responses.
Java enables websites to have various attractive animations. Search engines
were also introduced. There were already 17,618 discussion forums based on e-
mails.
1998 The Internet was estimated to have millions of websites. Electronic commerce
(e-commerce) and portal technology began to attract attention.
1999 The number of computers on the Internet was estimated at 76 million units. The
number of web servers was estimated at seven million units.
2000 An estimated about one billion websites were on the Internet.
In the Internet history and timeline, we have found rapid development of the
Internet just within a period of 30 years. The Internet began as a research network.
Then, it became a communication and data sharing network (this later evolved into
Internet becoming a platform for social media and social network) and a network
for e-commerce. The Internet has removed the physical boundaries that divided
the world and created a global village that transcends time and space.
A computer needs an Internet Protocol (IP) address to communicate with other

computers on the Internet. Without the Internet Protocol address, computer
cannot reach the Internet. Do you know that Internet Protocol address
for the entire Internet is coordinated by a body with its centre at
http://www.internic.net while for computers in Asia is coordinated by Asia
Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), with its centre in Japan. The
distribution of Internet Protocol numbers in Malaysia is managed by Malaysian
Institute of Microelectronic Systems.
ACTIVITY 7.3
Internet greatly affects human life today, whether in Malaysia or

worldwide. Imagine the impact of the Internet on society whether in
Malaysia or the rest of the world. Also, imagine if the Internet does not
exist today. What are the activities that users cannot do without the
Internet? Discuss.

7.4 COMPUTERS ON THE INTERNET

There are two types of computers on the Internet, i.e. host computers and server
computers. A host computer is a unique computer on the Internet which has an
Internet Protocol address. Internet Protocol address is made up of four sequential
numbers a.b.c.d. Examples of Internet Protocol addresses are 202.187.48.7,
202.187.46.197 and 192.228.128.18. Each sequence a,b,c,d consists of numbers
between 0 and 255. For example, Internet Protocol address for a host at Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia consists of numbers between 202.187.40.X and 202.187.46.Y.
A good analogy for an Internet Protocol address is the identity card number. It is
unique to a certain host. There are no two hosts on the Internet that have the
same Internet Protocol address. A computer needs to have an Internet Protocol
address to access the Internet.
As a simple rule, if the computer is a personal computer and has an Internet

Protocol address, then the computer is a host computer. If a user accesses the
Internet using services provided by the Internet service provider like tm.net.my,
jaring.my or maxis.my via a home computer, the user does not need an Internet
Protocol address. The userÊs computer will be given an Internet Protocol address
dynamically by the Internet service provider (ISP).
Computers can also function as servers, i.e. computers that can be accessed by
users on the Internet. A server is a high-powered computer that is used as a
platform for websites, e-mails, electronic discussions, archives, file server, etc.
Normally, a server would use UNIX, Linux, Solaris or Windows 2000 Server as
its operating system.
A server has two forms of identification ă i.e. Internet Protocol address and fully
qualified domain name (FQDN). Examples fully qualified domain name for a
server are www.jaring.my (192.228.128.18) or www.oum.edu.my (202.187.48.7).
The analogy here is that a person has an identity card number and name, so a
server too has an Internet Protocol address and fully qualified domain name. As
a simple rule, if the computer is high powered, has an Internet Protocol address
and fully qualified domain name, then, the computer is a server.
Fully qualified domain names are used to assist Internet users, because it is easier
to remember a fully qualified domain name www.jaring.my rather than an
Internet Protocol address 192.228.128.18. Therefore, every server on the Internet
has an Internet Protocol number and name for identification. A fully qualified
domain name gives a lot of information regarding a certain server. For example,
the server name lms.oum.edu.my gives the following meaning ă lms is the
computer, oum is the organization name and my is the country name. Therefore,
in general, the name lms.oum.edu.my refers to a server located at the OUM.
The end part of the server name normally shows the location or type of
organisation in which the server resides. For examples:
 .edu refers to an educational institution;
 .gov refer to a government organisation;
 .org refers to a non-commercial organisation;
 .com refers to a company;
 .my refers to Malaysia;
 .uk refers to the UK;
Because the Internet is originated from the US, the domain name for computers
in the US does not have a country name. For example,
 www.facebook.com
We can see an example of an Internet address in Figure 7.3, while the explanation
of some domains is shown in Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.3: E-mail address

Figure 7.4: Internet domain
Did you know that most server names are in the form of Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) that has been the basis of Hypertext Transfer Protocol? An
example of a URL name is http://www.oum.edu.my:
 http refers to http protocol;
 www refers to website;
 oum refers to OUM;
 edu refers to educational institution; and
 my refers to country, Malaysia.
Based on the above example, the term web, refers to the combination of hosting
server on the Internet that offer information based on Hypertext Transfer
Protocol. Previously as described, Hypertext Transfer Protocol is the protocol for
sending and receiving information based on hypertext. The information in the
form of hypertext can be linked with other information to create a link or web
with wider/broader information. Hypertext Transfer Protocol server has a
„prefix‰ of www like www.oum.edu.my, www.jaring.my and www.um.edu.my.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol server is also known as web server.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
What do you understand by a server computer? Explain.

7.5 WHAT IS THE INTERNET CONTENT?

The Internet is a network initially meant for doing research. It was mostly used
by universities, research centres and government agencies. That is the reason
why there are many documents of an academic nature on it. They include books,
technical reports, research output, translations, data, articles, discussions,
program source codes, research software, lecture notes, software guides, pictures
and sound. Normally, the information is free and can be accessed via websites.
Based on this scenario, the Internet can be likened to a huge virtual library, which
contains numerous types of information.
The Internet also offers various forms of communication like e-mail,

online discussion, Usenet and e-mail based discussion. These communication
techniques have successfully created a global village.
With e-mail, users can communicate with anyone, anywhere. E-mail is a type of
communication that is cheap and fast. An e-mail sent from the OUM takes only
seven seconds to reach the UK. By using e-mail, users can send attachments like
Microsoft Word documents, software, zipped files, graphics or audio.
The Internet also offers various online discussion topics via Usenet. There are
over 7,000 topics discussed inside Usenet and users can choose from various
topics that interest them. In a Usenet discussion, anyone from any part of the
world can give opinions or ideas freely. One of the ways to access is by accessing
Usenet server, such as http://dotsrc.org/usenet.
The Internet also offers discussions based on e-mails. Discussions normally focus
on a specific topic. Users need to have e-mail accounts to participate in the
discussions. There are several locations that offer discussions based on e-mail for
free, such as http://www.groups.yahoo.com.
Internet has become the platform or host to various social media and social
networking sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube and many more.
All these sites have the features of Web 2.0, which is a term referred to sites that
allow users to connect, interact, contribute and collaborate with each other, rather
than being websites with static pages or just for retrieving information. Web 2.0
provides users with the opportunity to effectively present their ideas, lead online
discussions, share educational content and document files and collaborate with
each other mostly in real-time. Some of Web 2.0 applications are Google Docs,
Prezi, Pinterest and various others.

On the Internet, you can also search and get various types of information for
references and reading. There are various types of information available on the
Internet. A user can get the entire literary works of William Shakespeare,
translations of Quran, sayings of Prophet Muhammad, classical Malay literary
works, recipes for cake making, lecture notes, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
reports on Malaysia, etc. Many foreign and local universities have placed their
lecture sources like notes, sample examination paper and online software onto
the Internet to be accessed and these benefits the students. Example of lecture
website is http://www.vlib.org.
The Internet is also a large archive of computer software. It contains various

types of software like graphics, word processing, databases, games, etc. A type of
software that is getting wide attention on the Internet today is the open source
software. The open source software consists of high quality software and can be
obtained together with program codes.
The Internet also offers various news sources which are up to date and fast via
newspaper and television websites.
Examples of news websites are:
(a) http://www.cnn.com
(b) http://www.thestar.com.my
(c) http://www.bharian.com.my
Users can also buy various things via the Internet. For example, users can buy
reference books from companies in Germany via the Internet. Purchases via the
Internet normally require credit cards. It is estimated that total sales via the
Internet, also called e-commerce, could reach up to billion in the near future.
Examples of popular e-commerce websites are:
(a) http://www.amazon.com
(b) http://www.ebay.com and
(c) http://www.lelong.com.my

The Internet also offers a variety of entertainment such as chat (chat), music,
videos, movies, blogs and games. On the Internet, you can also find various
websites that have been built by people for the purpose of promotion,
advertising, etc. Users can visit websites of a museum, a university, a company or
of an individual person and see various types of information being displayed.
These websites contain a variety of information in the form of text, audio, video,
graphics, cinema, software, etc. In other words, there are numerous materials on
hundreds of websites that can be accessed by the Internet.
Based on the discussions, we can think of the Internet as a very large virtual
environment, without boundaries, without a clear map and without anyone in
control, and which covers the entire world. It can be said to contain a reservoir of
knowledge about the world. It also offers ways of communication to human
beings efficiently and quickly.
We can see the summary of things available on the Internet as shown in

Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5: Things available on the Internet

ACTIVITY 7.4
In your opinion, what is really available on the Internet that can be of

benefit to users? What can be done on the Internet? What process can be
improved on the Internet? Post your opinion in Forum. Compare your
opinion with your coursemates.
7.6 MANAGING INTERNET INFORMATION

The Internet is a big source of information. How do we manage information on
the Internet efficiently? Users need to understand this approach because it will
help users to search for information and use this information efficiently.
Searching for information involves the process of searching the place where the
required information is present. This is an important process. Many users spend
a lot of time exploring the Internet searching for information but to no avail. The
user obtains information that is not relevant and out-of-date.
Two main ways of searching for information over the Internet are through search
engines and portals. Other minor approaches that can also be used are the
USENET, FAQ, e-mail discussion forums and archive sites. Examples of
components used to search the information on the Internet can be seen in
Figure 7.6.

Figure 7.6: Components in searching for information on the Internet
Manipulation of information involves the process of transforming the

information and using the information acquired wisely. Often, users spend their
time obtaining information that ultimately cannot be used because they do not
know how to manipulate the information. This indirectly will waste time and
energy.
The Internet security level has improved a lot. This can be seen on sites such as
online banking such as cimbclicks.com and maybank2u.com. Even so, there are
still successful invaders that access the host computer without permission. If it
successfully invaded, they will steal data, change sites, stealing credit card
numbers, make and other transactions.

ACTIVITY 7.5
Discuss the strategy for handling the following issue:

The level of data security over the Internet for e-commerce transactions
is still being questioned by users. What is the guarantee provided by
companies that credit card numbers used in e-commerce transactions
are safe? There have been many stories where thousands of users' credit
card numbers were stolen by intruders from company servers.
7.6.1 Search Engine

The first step in searching for information is to use a search engine. Users will use
one or more key words to search for the desired information. Then, the search
engine will search for Websites based on the key words. Can you name some
examples of popular search engines? Figure 7.7 show an example of a popular
search engine Google.
Figure 7.7: Google search engine

Source: http://www.google.com.my

Search engines are not intelligent but they are also not dumb either. They
function based on robot and index.
A robot is a kind of software that is sent by the search engine to wander

around the Internet.
How does this robot work? A search engine will send many robots to wander
around the Internet. These robots will bring back data on the web servers visited.
Based on the data brought back by the robots, an index will be built. This index
basically contains key words and in which servers the key words are present.
Every search engine has different techniques in building the index. Therefore,
two different search engines will give different answers for the same key words.
Since the size of the Internet is so large, not all Internet servers are accessed by
robots. When users make a request based on key words in a search engine site,
the search engine will refer to the index to get relevant servers. The search engine
will always do the updating process over the index.
7.6.2 Portals
The second best way to access information is to use portals. A portal is a server
that contains a directory of several servers on the Internet based on categories of
information available on the servers. Users can find information by accessing the
servers in related categories.
Examples of popular portals are:
(a) http://www.google.org
(b) http://www.yahoo.com
(c) http://www.wikipedia.org

Portals require human beings to arrange and classify servers into certain
categories. This method produces a list of servers that are more orderly and can
be used easily. For example, if a user wants to know more about the Java
programming language, he can access servers that are available in the category of
computer programming language. This method often produces information that
is suitable and relevant. The portal (site) at http://www.dmoz.org is an initiative
of Internet volunteers in building a portal. Commercial portals are those like
http:// www.yahoo.com and http://netscape.aol.com. An example of a portal
(website) for BlueHyppo is shown in Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.8: Portal for BlueHyppo

Source: http://www.bluehyppo.com

7.6.3 Other Methods

In addition to search engines and portals, users can also find information
through forums and frequently asked questions (FAQ), as shown in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9: Archive website frequently asked questions

Source: http://www.faqs.org
Just remember that USENET is an on-line discussion corner. There are various
discussion corners inside USENET. In one discussion corner, new users may be
asking very trivial questions in the eyes of experienced users. Often, whenever
trivial questions are asked in the discussion corners, experienced users would
say ă „RTFM or the FAQ‰. Do you know what are the meanings of these
abbreviations?
The acronym RTFM means „Read the Fine Manual‰, i.e. the new user should
have read the manual first before asking trivial questions. The frequently asked
questions, i.e. a document in the form of questions and answers. Questions in
frequently asked questions are those that are often asked inside USENET
discussion corners. More details about USENET and frequently asked questions
will be deliberated in the upcoming topics in this module.

Besides frequently asked questions and RTFM, users can also search for
information on the archive server, i.e. a server that contains a lot of information
on certain specific topics. The address of the archive normally can be obtained
from frequently asked questions portals or documents. Many hosts on the
Internet serve as archives or centres of information gathering in certain fields.
Examples of websites that serve as archives or centres of information gathering in

certain fields are:
(a) http://lib.stat.cmu.edu ă Archive in the field of statistics;
(b) http://www.ibiblio.org (former website is http://www.metalab.unc.edu) ă

Archive for open source software; and
(c) http://www.filehippo.com ă Archive for Windows software.
SELF-CHECK 7.4
1. How can users find useful information on the Internet within a

short period of time?
2. Explain the advantages of communication through:
(a) E-mail; and
(b) USENET.
7.7 INTERNET LAWS

The Internet does not have any law and it is not owned by anyone. Since every
country with Internet has its own laws, the Internet is difficult to control legally.
For example, the distribution of immoral acts, political controversies and illegal
materials are allowed on websites in the US because such distribution is based on
the concept of freedom of speech being practised over there. However, such
websites can be accessed anywhere on the Internet, including in Malaysia, most
of which may be wrong from the legal perspective. Consequently, even though
such materials may be legally wrong, users in Malaysia can still access them.

In summary, Cyber Laws in Malaysia may not be used to stop broadcasting of

illegal materials outside of Malaysia. The act has power on websites operating in
Malaysia only. In line with the progress of the Internet, the Malaysian
government has gazetted the Computer Crime Act 1999 to deal with unhealthy
activities over the Internet.
Nowadays, there are many crimes committed through the Internet. There are
also individuals who abuse the Internet as a source of reference for doing
criminal. For example misuse of chat or social networking site to lure women or
teenagers for various purposes are not healthy. This is quite dangerous isnÊt it?
7.8 THE INTERNET TODAY AND THE FUTURE

Originally, the Internet was a network for research and academic purposes.
Therefore, most of the original information on the Internet is of the academic
type. When the Internet was first built, there was trust among all the Internet
users. Security issues on the Internet were not that important. The Internet also
provided an infrastructure for communication and intellectual sharing via e-
mails, USENET and discussion corners.
Today, activities of the Internet include e-commerce, news, multimedia material,

hypertext, websites, entertainment, etc. This situation gives rise to issues that
were not previously important such as access, information filters, userÊs privacy,
Internet passage congestion and data security. These began to get more attention
later. It was predicted that the Internet will become a basic need for every
household, like the telephone or TV in the near future.
Businesses too will increase via the Internet. Various steps are being taken to
make the Internet more widespread and easily used by users, e.g. Internet access
via TV, third generation (3G) approach to mobile phones, the use of optical fibres
and high powered lines to houses. Based on earlier discussion, we find the
Internet too has problems. By understanding these problems, users will be aware
of limitations, future of the Internet and will not easily believe everything that is
found on the Internet. The Internet is a virtual space and has a very wide
coverage.

There are five major trends related to future Internet, as shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3: Five Key Trends Related to Future Internet
Trend Description
We always Simple example is that we use e-mail in the office or at home
communicate using using a laptop. If we are mobile, i.e. at the airport, for example,
variety of devices in we still can be connected to the e-mail by using other devices,
various places such as smartphone or tablet for editing process of the e-mail.
Everyday, we use For example, online banking, online games, Internet TV, digital
variety of online movies, video on demand, magazine subscription or online
services newspapers, online purchases, online distance learning and
social networking.
The Internet has Users will be powered by equipment and low cost device which
evolved rapidly from allows them to create their own content and make the product
sharing information and services to be more personal. To make the content and
concept to products more attractive, collaborative concept was practiced for
collaborative the production and better service. This sparked a phenomenon
publication that changes the work ethics, commercial and social activities
among the Internet users.
Everyday, the These smart products are used to collect and process data. This
number of smart information could then be used in the subsequent preparation of
products increased the information that a decision can be made.
Personal information In future, different devices and users can be used to collect
spread in various information about other users (such as location, time and
system and network behaviour). Data accumulated will be used as a set of system to
indicate the particular user. If there is demand, this can be
disbursed quickly to other parties.
Source: Carvalho et al. (2010)
Infographics from the following websites may also provide you an overview and
future developments on the Internet:
(a) http://buildtheresidual.com/27/the-internet-in-2015-
infographic/2013/02/
(b) http://dailyinfographic.com/2016-the-year-of-the-zettabyte-infographic
(c) http://www.smashingapps.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/The-
Internet-in-2020.jpg
Arguably, if you want to keep abreast of Internet in many aspects, you can get it
from the Internet as well. Agree?

ACTIVITY 7.6
In your opinion, does the Internet today is capable of satisfying Internet

users in the future? Can Internet congestion exists later? Try to discuss
with your partner.
Ć Beginning in 1969 until today, computers and the Internet have undergone
through five phases (before 1969, 1970ă1990, 1990ă1997, 1997ă2000 and 2001ă
onwards) and have become a major part of our life.
Ć The Internet is a grouping of computer networks that is very large and covers
the whole world. It operates by using Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol.
Ć The term „Intranet‰ refers to a grouping of some local area networks inside
an organisation only (intra means inside).
Ć The Internet began in the US with the birth of ARPANET for research and
sharing academic resources. ARPANET has grown rapidly and was later
replaced with National Science Foundation Network.
Ć Hypertext Transfer Protocol and the web speed up the rapid development of
the Internet.
Ć There are two types of computers on the Internet, i.e. host computers and
server computers.
Ć A host computer is a unique computer on the Internet which has an Internet

Protocol number.
Ć Internet Protocol address contains four sequential numbers a.b.c.d. Examples

of Internet Protocol addresses are 202.187.48.7, 202.187.46.197 and
192.228.128.18.
Ć Computer can also function as a server that is the computer can be accessed
by users on the Internet.

Ć Server has two forms of identification, i.e. Internet Protocol address and fully
qualified domain name. A fully qualified domain name is much easier to
remember compared to Internet Protocol address.
Ć There is a lot of information on the Internet about various things. This can be
searched via search engines and portals.
Ć Cyber Law in Malaysia cannot be used to stop broadcasting the illegal

materials outside Malaysia. Action can only be taken on the websites
operating in Malaysia.
Ć There are several major trends associated with the future of the Internet such
as existence of online services, number of smart products constantly growing
and so forth.
ARPANET Intranet
Cyber Law Internet
Domain Internet Protocol (IP)
E-mail National Science Foundation Network
(NFSNET)
Extranet
Search engine
Frequently asked questions (FAQ)
Security
Fully qualified domain name (FQDN)
Transmission Control
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Hypertext
Usenet
Information
Web

Topic  Software on
8 the Internet
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain seven types of software that are available on the Internet;
2. Distinguish between shareware and freeware;
3. Describe the concept and advantages of open source software;
4. Explain the term File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and telnet;
5. Practice ethical and the use of smiley icons, acronyms and
signature to write e-mails effectively;
6. Discuss Usenet and frequently asked questions (FAQ); and
7. Analyse and discuss the Internet phenomenon.
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall learn about software that is available on the Internet.
Software can be obtained free of charge but some have to be bought. This topic
will also discuss a popular Internet communication technique, i.e. e-mail. In the
beginning, e-mails were text-based but now, you can even send several types of
data together with e-mails, such as text documents, graphics, audios, PowerPoint
presentations and many more. We will also discuss some of the things related to
e-mail such as ethics, the smiley icons and many others. Finally we will discuss
about the Usenet and frequently asked questions (FAQ). Are you ready?

174  TOPIC 8 SOFTWARE ON THE INTERNET
8.1 INTERNET SOFTWARE

There are seven types of software on the Internet. This is shown in
Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Seven types of software on the Internet
We will look at the types of software in more detail in the next subtopic.
8.2 SHAREWARE AND FREEWARE

Based on Figure 8.1, one of the software is known as shareware. Do you know
what the purpose of this software is?
Shareware is a type of software that can be used by users for free within a
certain period of time.
After that period, if the user continues to use the software, he/she needs to send
payment to the programmer of the software. This allows the consumer to make a
choice whether to continue using it or switch to another application.

TOPIC 8 SOFTWARE ON THE INTERNET  175
Do you know some of the examples of this software? Examples of shareware are
Winzip (see Figure 8.2) and McAfee (antivirus).
Figure 8.2: Winzip
Besides shareware, there is also freeware. It is available free of charge from the
Internet. Often, this software has specific charge to users who want to add
functionality or upgrade the software. If not, the user will remain with basic
functions or normal functions of the software.

An example of freeware is AVG antivirus software (refer to Figure 8.3).
Figure 8.3: AVG antivirus software
8.3 OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE

The other type of software that we are going to learn is open source software. Do
you know why this software gets a lot of attention in the Internet now? What
does it mean?
Open source software is a software that can be obtained without any cost,
together with its source code that licensed to be studied, changed and
redistributed freely to others.

Distribution of the software together with its source codes has the following
advantages:
(a) Users can modify the software and are not tied/bound to any company;
(b) Users have the opportunity to remove errors that may be present inside the
source codes; and
(c) Users can also learn how the software is built based on the source codes.
The open source software begins with the GNU project (GNU is not UNIX), i.e. a
project founded by Richard Stallman from Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) in the beginning of the 1980s. The original aim of this project was to
produce a system based on UNIX for free. This project has been successful in
producing software of high quality, such as GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
compiler, Lisp program compiler, Emacs editor and others. All GNU softwares
uses the copyright called GNU Public Licence (GPL) which states that anyone
can modify the program source code but the modification must be shared with
other users. Basically, GNU encourages software and source code sharing among
users so that high quality software can be produced.
The GNU Public Licence concept is the opposite of the commercial software
concept. Commercial software would tie users to the software company. If the
software contains errors, users will have to wait for the newer version to be
produced and this will take a long time. If the software company raises the price,
users will have to accept that and pay more for the latest version of the software.
Users can make any modification to the source code of the open software but
users are requested to share the modification with other users via the Internet.
With this intellectual sharing, it is hoped that the software will be continuously
modified, so that it will become a high quality software.

Examples of open source software widely used today are Linux (operating
system), Apache (web server), GNU Compiler Collection (C language compiler),
Perl and R (statistical software). We can see the definition of GNU Public Licence
software, as shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Six GNU Public Licence Software
GNU Public
Definition
Licence Software
Linux Operating system for a computer. It is an alternative to commercial
software like Windows 95/98/ME/NT, Mac OS and Sun Solaris. It
is widely used in universities, research centres, private companies
and public. It contains lasting characteristics (Linux can operate for
years without stopping), multiprocessing, multi-user and other
sophisticated characteristics. Today, Linux system has a desktop
environment similar to Windows 98/ME/NT in terms of user-
friendliness. It can be installed together with Windows 98/ME
inside one computer.
TeX A document processing system. It is used to produce various
types of documents and books, especially those that involve
many mathematical expressions. Detailed information can be
obtained on the website http://www.tug.org. TeX is produced
by Donald Knuth, a famous mathematician and computer
scientist. One amongst his writings is The Art of Computer
Programming in three volumes.
LibreOffice High quality office software which contains word processing,
spreadsheet, database and presentation software for free. This is
an alternative to the Microsoft Office or Open Office. All types of
documents inside Microsoft Office can be read by LibreOffice.
Many government organisations today have changed to
LibreOffice. Users need a minimum memory of 64MB and at least
a Pentium processor to use the LibreOffice with comfort.
GNU A project started by Richard Stallman at Massachusetts Institute
of Technology in 1981 to produce a free UNIX system. Among
the software products of this project are GNU Compiler
Collection C compiler, Emacs editor, R statistical software, Perl
language, Awk processor and Fortran g77 compiler. All GNU
software use a GNU Public Licence.

Python An object-oriented programming language. It can be used for

building a prototype, Internet (programs), data processing,
scientific calculations, etc. Among organisations that used this
language are National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA), Disney, Boeing and Google. Detailed information at
www.python.org.
R Software for data analysis. It can be obtained for Windows
98/ME and UNIX systems. It contains various facilities for
statistical analysis like regression analysis, time series and
hypothesis testing. The R website is at http://www.r-project.org.
It is an alternative to Statistical Product and Service Solutions
(SPSS) and Statistical Analysis System (SAS) commercial
software.
There are thousands of high quality open source software pieces available over
the Internet for users.
You can visit the following website for detailed information on open source
software:
(a) http://www.opensource.org
(b) http://www.gnu.org
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. What do you understand by the term GNU Public Licence?

Explain.
2. Give examples of two shareware that is available on the Internet.

8.4 FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a technique of downloading data from any File
Transfer Protocol server on the Internet onto the userÊs computer.
We can see an example of the website as shown in Figure 8.4:
Figure 8.4: File Transfer Protocol using Firefox at host

Source: ftp://ftp.jaring.my
Many servers offer anonymous ftp services, i.e. the server allows anyone
anywhere to download data from it. Examples of server that offer anonymous ftp
are ftp://ftp.jaring.my.

User can use variety of software to manage the files on the server. Among the
commonly used software is CuteFTP (see Figure 8.5).
Figure 8.5: CuteFTP display

Source: www.bol.ucla.edu/software/win/cuteftp/img/cuteftp87.png
8.5 TELNET
Telnet is a technique of communicating with a server and to use facilities

available on the computer.
To use telnet, a user needs to have a user account on the server to be accessed.
The telnet technique can be used to access servers at foreign university libraries,
Usenet server, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) server, MUD server or database server.
An example of the use of telnet is, suppose a user wants to perform complex
calculations that require high performance computers (super), what should
he/she do? Users can proceed to the supercomputer centre in Malaysia, i.e. at
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Jalan Semarak, Kuala Lumpur to perform
these tasks.

A supercomputer is a kind of computer with high capability and cost. It can

be used to perform simulations, car modelling, complex calculations, weather
forecasting and others.
Besides that, users can access to the supercomputer via Internet. Users can telnet
to the supercomputer and perform computations on the computer remotely.
Therefore, the telnet technique enables the sharing of supercomputer resources
for all users wherever they may be in Malaysia.
8.6 E-MAIL
An e-mail is a communication technique between users on the Internet. In the
early days, e-mails were only text-based. Today, users can send various types of
data together with e-mails, such as Microsoft Word documents, PowerPoint
presentations, Excel spreadsheets, graphic .jpg, audio .mp3 and others. The
computer server that manages an e-mail is called the Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) server.
To use e-mails, users need to have an e-mail account on the e-mail server. Most
organisations like universities and private companies give out free e-mail
accounts to their staff. If users use the services of tm.net.my or jaring.my, they
too are given free e-mail accounts.
There are websites that offer free e-mail accounts such as Gmail at
mail.google.com and Yahoo! Mail at mail.yahoo.com. Users can access the
websites and register for the e-mail accounts. These free e-mail websites are
popular among students and other individuals.
An e-mail account contains two parts ă account name and the name of the Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol server (domain name). For example, a user with the name
Anis Shafiqah has an account name of anis_shafiqah on the host server Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol oum.edu.my. If the user registers at www.oum.edu.my
with that account name, the userÊs e-mail account is anis_shafiqah@oum.edu.my.
The account name has a minimum of eight characters and a maximum of
32 characters, on condition that it does not contain special characters or space.
The following e-mail account names are not valid: „anis shafiqah‰, „a shafiqah‰;
while the following account names are valid: „anis_shafiqah‰ and „a_shafiqah‰.
Select a good account name that is suitable and can be easily remembered
by other users. Names such as „brutal99‰, „lanunlaut‰, „amy89810‰ and
„mahakaya‰ are certainly not suitable. Imagine the feelings of the receiver when
he receives an e-mail from someone with the name mat_brutal@hotmail.com.

To read an e-mail on the user account on the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
server, users can use two techniques and they are:
(a) Users can use the server software and access the said Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol server; and
(b) Users can download e-mail from the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
server onto a personal computer using the Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3)
technique.
If the user is an Internet subscriber with www.jaring.my, the Post Office Protocol
3 technique/protocol is used to download e-mails from pop.jaring.my onto their
personal computer. The e-mail client software that can be used is Eudora,
Pegasus and Microsoft Outlook. We can see an example of an e-mail
communication website, i.e. Gmail as shown in Figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6: Gmail website

Source: http://www.gmail.com
8.6.1 E-Mail Discussion

With e-mails, users can participate in various e-mail discussion corners. There are
thousands of discussion corners that cover various interesting topics such as
economics, science, computers and religion. These corners can be participated by
writing an e-mail to the server that manages the discussion corners. Normally,
e-mail discussions are managed automatically by computer without human

intervention. Do remember that users communicate with the computer via

e-mails. Therefore, they follow the instructions to participate or to exit from the
discussion corner correctly. A list of e-mail discussion corners can be obtained at
the websites http://www.groups.yahoo.com and http://www.tile.net.
Advantages and disadvantages of participating in discussion corners are briefly

listed in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Participating in E-Mail Discussion Corners
Advantages Disadvantages
Can discuss with and pose questions The number of e-mails received may be a
to many Internet users who are lot. Certain active discussion corners will
knowledgeable in certain fields. see more than 200 e-mails a day.
Answers to questions may be obtained Users need to spend a lot of time reading
very quickly. e-mails.
Can share opinions and information with Most e-mail contents are rubbish and not
people who have the same interest. beneficial.
Low cost. ă
8.6.2 Ethics of E-Mail Discussion

Several ethical issues that need to be observed during e-mail discussions are:
(a) Observing the traditional customs during discussions. Always respect other
userÊs opinions even if they disagree. Agree to disagree;
(b) Remembering that it is a virtual discussion corner. Users do not know other
users or their background. Other users may be older or may have more
experience. They may be a professor, researcher, program expert, chief
executive officer, campusmate, neighbour, etc.;
(c) Showing good conduct. This demonstrates your personality to other users.
If a user is noisy and obnoxious during discussions, most likely his
questions will not be entertained by other users;
(d) Sharing your expertise and asking questions, if you need the expertise of
other users. By sharing, a user can establish communication with other users;
(e) Respecting the privacy of other users and not discussing on private issues;

(f) Willing to forgive other userÊs mistakes and ready to help in solving
problems. Do not entertain people who like to quarrel;
(g) Discussion forums are archived. Maybe in 10 yearsÊ time, if users search on
the Internet, they may find their old e-mails again. Therefore, be careful
when writing them; and
(f) Not posting usersÊ private e-mails onto the discussion forums without
permission of the concerned users (very important). This violates the
privacy act of certain countries.
8.6.3 Smiley
An e-mail content in the form of text makes it difficult for users to express
emotions like anger, happiness, sleepiness, hatred, tears and laughter. Therefore,
the smiley icon technique is used. A smiley contains text-based symbols used
inside e-mails to represent a certain emotion like anger, hatred and laughter. To
view a smiley, users need to tilt their heads 90 degrees leftwards. Now, most of
the e-mail has options for smileys icon (see Figure 8.7):
Figure 8.7: Usage of smiley icon in e-mail

Now, the following e-mail note has no smiley:
What to do. It is luck. Maybe you can help.
Is it less effect or impact? Let us change it into more effective e-mail and better
impact by using icons smiley:
What to do. It is luck. :-( May be you can help. :-)
Smiley symbols are :-) and :-(. The second e-mail shows that the writer feels sad
and jokingly asks if the receiver can help. There are hundreds of smiley symbols
and the three most common ones are shown in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: Three Smiley Symbols
Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning

:-) Smile ;-) Smile, wink
:-( Sad, do not agree :-p Taunting
8-) Wearing glasses :-O Eye surprised
Do you know how smiley starts? You can visit the following website to learn
history and how smiley icons start:
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sef/sefSmiley.htm
ACTIVITY 8.1
You can visit the Yahoo! Messenger website at

http://messenger.yahoo.com/features/emoticons/ to see another
variety of interesting smiley icons.
In your opinion, what are other icons that can be added? Try to find
other icons in other websites. Compare ways and means they are
written.

8.6.4 Acronyms
What is ASAP, ROTFL, RTFM, YMMV, BTW? These characters are acronyms or
short forms that are used to represent phrases that are normally used on the
Internet. In Table 8.4, nine of the popular acronyms are shown. Acronyms are
used to facilitate users to write quickly without the need to type full sentences in
the e-mail, discussion and chat. This can save time and reduce the errors in
spelling. In fact, space can also be saved!
Table 8.4: Nine Popular Acronyms
Acronym Expression Meaning

ROTFL rolling on the floor Laughing while rolling on the floor.
laughing A cynical expression.
BTW by the way By the way
RTFM read the fine manual Advised to read the manual before
asking
AFAIK as far as I know As far as I am concerned
ASAP as soon as possible An advice to speed up
FYI for your information For your information
IMHO in my humble opinion My view point
OTOH on the other hand On the contrary
YMMV your mileage may vary It may be different with you
ACTIVITY 8.2
Explain your opinion on the following statement:

If users receive the following e-mail, what do you understand?
„Please send the program ASAP. Your proposal makes me ROTFL.

Regarding the TeX program, please RTFM. I experience power upgrade
of 20 times after adding more RAM, YMMV. BTW, I am going to Ipoh
tomorrow. IMHO, SarahÊs proposal is better than AnisÊ proposal.‰

8.6.5 E-Mail Signature

An e-mail signature is a message at the end of an e-mail. It may contain the
address of the user, web address, words of wisdom, graphics, text, etc. to give a
unique personality to the e-mail. An example of an e-mail signature is displayed
in Figure 8.8.
Anis Shafiqah
Lecturer
Faculty of Information Technology and Multimedia Communication
Jalan Tun Ismail
50480 Kuala Lumpur
Tel: 03-88999100
E-mail: anis_shafiqah@oum.edu.my
Figure 8.8: Example of an e-mail signature

8.6.6 Smart E-Mail

Eight guidelines for the intelligent use of e-mails are shown in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Eight Guidelines on the Use of E-mails Effectively
Guideline Explanation
Ensure that your e-mail This makes it easier for the receiver to read your e-mail. It
content is short and is not proper to send a long-winded e-mail, hoping the
precise. receiver will read it. Remember, the receiver is also busy
with other work and may receive hundreds of e-mails a
day.
Ensure that an exact title is This will help the receiver to determine the importance of
used. the e-mail received.
Do not enclose a large This would cause problems to the SMTP. Limit the size of
sized attachment. your attachment to less than 1MB. There are cases when
users send e-mail attachments of 50MB in size.
Ensure that the e-mail sent Use the virus scanner to examine the e-mail received.
and received does not
contain a virus.
Process your e-mail in a For example, before going out for lunch, solve all your
batch. e-mail communication directly. Do not postpone.
Archive all important e- For reference or evidence in the future.
mails.
Do not subscribe to many For example, if you subscribe to five discussion corners,
e-mail discussion corners. each discussion has 100 e-mails a day. So, you will receive
an average of 500 e-mails a day. Your day will be used to
read e-mails only.
Do not reply to e-mails E-mail enables you to reply directly even to those who
while you are angry. you are not comfortable with. You may regret sending
the reply. Once replied, an e-mail cannot be retracted.

8.7 USENET
Usenet is an Internet discussion corner that is open, independent and free.
A Usenet discussion does not involve e-mails. Users do not have to register with
any server to enter Usenet. For example, if users access the Internet via jaring.my,
they can use the Usenet server news.jaring.my to participate in and read Usenet.
Usenet discussion is divided into a number of major topics. These topics are later
broken down into more specific subtopics. Therefore, users can easily search for
discussion corners that are of interest, as shown in Figure 8.9.
Figure 8.9: Usenet discussions

For example, a user wants to read an article inside the C programming language
discussion corner. The user can access the discussion corner comp.lang.c. If the
user wants to read about Malaysia, he can access soc.culture.malaysia.
An example of an article inside comp.lang.c is shown in Figure 8.10.
rom: holism (nolsen@nospam.myrealbox.com)

Message 18 in thread
Subject: Re: Learning C
Newsgroups: comp.lang.c
Date: 2001-04-11 21:43:55 PST
>> Anyone have any suggestions for a good introductory book on C?

>
The C Programming Language by Kernighan and Richie is a pretty

awesome book. Lots of short and sweet examples from the guys who
created the language. It’s just the C language minus most of the fat
you find in beginner books, so if you already know basic programming
concepts it should be a good book to get you into C.
Nick
Figure 8.10: Example of an article inside comp.lang.c
Inside USENET discussion forums, users can share opinions, request for help,
argue, spread rumours, sell items, fire at someone, criticise someone, get to know
each other, etc. There is no filtering of the USENET contents. Therefore, the
USENET contents may be true or false. Users are reminded not to readily believe
stories such as get-rich-quick-schemes or pills for preventing old age that are
available inside USENET.
Inside USENET discussion corners, the same questions are occasionally asked by
a new user. To avoid this, veteran users of discussion forums have taken the
initiative to produce a document called frequently asked questions (FAQ).
Frequently asked questions is a document containing questions that are

frequently asked by users and their answers to these questions.

Therefore, frequently asked questions originate from various Usenet discussion

corners. For example, if there is a new user involved in comp.text.tex discussing
TeX document processing software, the user may want to know the background
of TeX, its history, how to use TeX and others. The new user can ask these
questions inside comp.text.tex. A better way is for the user to read the frequently
asked questions for the comp.text.tex discussion corner. Normally, each
discussion corner has a frequently asked questions sent to the corner every month.
Users are suggested to browse the website http://groups.google.com and read

several Usenet discussion pages like soc.religion.islam, soc.culture.malaysia,
comp.lang.c, sci.math and others to see how Usenet discussions operate. After a
while, you can participate in a discussion forum that is suitable for you.
It is wise to read the frequently asked questions first before posing questions
because it contains useful information for new users to refer to and to know. An
archived frequently asked questions document is available at the website
http://www.faqs.org and has been discussed in Topic 7.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Usenet. How about you

evaluate the validity of its contents? Explain.
8.8 THE INTERNET PHENOMENON

The growth of the Internet with the advancement of hardware and software
development in various computing devices such as personal computers, smart
phones, clouds computing and wearable devices has created phenomenon in
various ways.
One of the phenomenons of the Internet nowadays is the addictive uses of social
network websites and applications such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LINE,
Google+ and many more. So, what do you know about social network websites?

Boyd and Ellison (2013) in their article titled Social Network Sites: Definition,
History and Scholarship have defined the social network websites as web-based
services that allow individuals to:
(a) Construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system;
(b) Articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection; and
(c) View and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within
the system.
Facebook is the most popular social network site that allows users who are part
of the same „network‰ to view otherÊs profiles, unless a profile owner has
decided to deny permission to those in their network. Figure 8.11 shows the
interface of Facebook website for Open University Malaysia.
Figure 8.11: Facebook of OUM site

Source: www.facebook.com/openunimalaysia

Google+ is another alternative for Facebook. It is used by GoogleÊs fans who

would like to have a single sign-on using Google Account. Google+ comes with
different style of interface compared to Facebook. Figure 8.12 shows an example
of Google+ site.
Figure 8.12: Google+ site

Source: http://plus.google.com
Other popular social network sites, geolocation applications and trending

applications that based on the Internet and cloud storages are Twitter, YouTube,
Foursquare, Instagram and many more. These software or applications have
created their unique approach and phenomenon for their users.
The other trending on the Internet that currently attract many users are the
growth usage of smart phones, that leads to active development of mobile
applications in accessing data over the Internet; clouds computing that allow
accessibility, storage and online communication, such as through Google
ChromeOS or Chromebook, Box, Dropbox, Google Drive and etc.; wearable
computing such as Google Glass, smart watches and etc. ă all technologies that
has been developing to cater the growth of the Internet all around the world.
SELF-CHECK 8.3
Discuss some phenomenons of the Internet and predict the future of the
software and applications used for the Internet.

 There are various types of software on the Internet. Some of them are
shareware, freeware, open source software, protocols, file transfer, telnet,
e-mail and Usenet.
 Shareware is a software that can be used by users for free within a specific
period.
 Freeware is also available for free of charge from the Internet.
 The open source software begins with the GNU project (Gnu is not UNIX),
i.e. a project founded by Richard Stallman from Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in the beginning of the 1980s. The original aim of this project was
to produce a system based on UNIX for free.
 Among the advantages of open source software is the user can change or
modified the software and they are not tied to any company.
 File Transfer Protocol is a technique of downloading data from any File

Transfer Protocol server on the Internet onto the userÊs computer.
 Telnet is a technique of communicating with a server and to use facilities

available on the computer.
 The e-mail is a communication technique between users on the Internet.
 There are several ethical issues that need to be observed during e-mail
discussions.
 A smiley contains text-based symbols used inside e-mails to represent a

certain emotion like anger, hatred, laughter, etc.
 Acronym or brief phrases that are used to represent the commonly used
phrase on the Internet.
 Usenet is an Internet discussion corner that is open, independent and free.
 Usenet contains frequently asked questions. It is a document that contains the

questions with the answer for the most frequently asked by consumers.

 Internet has grown to be a phenomenon in various aspect of our daily life

including the way we communicate, share, works and so on. There are
many software, applications or websites available for social networks,
communication, clouds computing, wearable computing and many more
technologies that can be utilised to fulfil our needs.
E-mail Open source software

Freeware Shareware
Frequently asked questions (FAQ) Smiley
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Telnet
GNU Project Usenet

Topic  Communication
9
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe four basic elements of communication;
2. Identify communication as an important component of information
technology (IT);
3. Explain about coder-decoder in a communication system;
4. Describe two types of electromagnetic signals for data
transmission;
5. Identify two modes of transmitting data;
6. Identify three techniques of controlling data flow direction;
7. Identify three types of wires used as media for transmission; and
8. Explain the concept of cellular radio technology.
 INTRODUCTION
Communication is simply the transfer or exchange of messages, ideas, thoughts,
information or knowledge by means of whatever forms like words, writing,
behaviour or even body language. Data communication is a more specialised
term, targeting at the collection and distribution of electronic data in the form of
text, voice, pictures, graphics, video, etc. via the communication network.
There are four important elements that need to be known before any type of
communication can happen. These elements are message, sender, receiver and
media. In this topic, we shall study each of these basic elements closely.

198  TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION
9.1 IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF

COMMUNICATION
Communication is a process of sending data or information from one person (or
device) to another person (or device). Data or information can be in various
forms, including text, images, audios, signals, videos, graphics and others.
Communication can happen between people, computers, computers and people,
tools, and many more. Communication cannot take place if both persons speak at
the same time and none of them listens. Examples of daily communication are
face-to-face conversations, reading books, looking at the beauties of nature,
reading or receiving letters, watching TV, listening to speeches and certainly
listening to lectures. Networking is a mechanism for communication.
There are four elements for each type of communication to happen. The elements
are message, sender, receiver and media, as illustrated in Figure 9.1 inside a
telephone communication.
Figure 9.1: Communication via telephone
Let us learn about each of them in detail.
(a) The Sender ă The sender is the message transmitter or the place where a
message begins. The sender may be a person, an application, a machine that
can create messages or replies without human assistance, system user,
sensor, staff card reader or other input devices.
(b) The Message ă Certainly, when you communicate, a message is needed. A

message exists in various formats and forms. A message can be in the form
of files, requests, replies, status, controls or mail. When we ask someone,
the message of asking may be in the form of voice, letter of ordering, eye
movement or body movement. There are long messages like letters. There
are short messages like an order to „read‰. When we access a website, for
example, we type the address of the website www.oum.edu.my. The
website address is a message that we send to the website concerned or we
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION  199
ask the computer software to search for the website concerned. Thus, we
are the sender, the computer is the receiver, the website address is the
message and the Internet is the media.
(c) The Receiver ă It can be the presence of a message, media and sender but
there is no receiver. Without a receiver, communication cannot happen. For
example, we can cry for help in a jungle; so there is a message, a sender, a
media but there is no receiver; hence, there is no communication taking
place. The receiver is the target of the message. The receiver may be a
computer, terminal, printer, people, remote control device and others. In
computer network, receiver and sender can be present inside the same
computer. For example, sender of an e-mail mazlan@oum.edu.my sends an
e-mail to azly@oum.edu.my; both sender and receiver are present inside the
same oum.edu.my e-mail server.
(d) The Media ă A message is carried from sender to receiver via the
communication media. The media is the channel or vehicle for carrying the
message. For example, in a communication that involves two people talking
face-to-face, the medium is the air; while in the communication of
telephone conversation, the medium could be the telephone line, a
microwave, a wireless or a combination of these.
9.1.1 Coder and Decoder

Think of how the message we send can be understood by the receiver. The
message needs to be altered into a suitable form so that it can pass through the
media and is altered again into a form that can be understood by the receiver. In
this aspect, coder and decoder are required. The coderÊs function is to code the
message of the sender so that it is altered into a suitable form for the media and
decoder converts it back into a form that is understood by receiver. Figure 9.2
clarifies the general situation of coder and decoder inside a communication
system.
Figure 9.2: Communication system

9.1.2 Message Understanding

Even if the four elements (i.e. sender, receiver, media and message) are present
but the message is not understood, the actual communication still does not take
place. In human communication, language becomes the main obstacle that often
requires a third party, i.e. translator. In a computer communication, data
representation code or information will become the obstacle. As such, there is a
standard code for representing data such as ASCII, EBCDIC and the latest is
Unicode.
9.1.3 Error Detector

In a communication between sender and receiver, there is a need for an error
detector to ensure that the data sent is the same as the one received by the
receiver. This error may be described as noise or disturbances in the process of
transmission via the media, just like the climatic condition when the medium is
the air or microwave. If communication happens between people, the person
himself/herself can perform the detection and correction of errors based on
human ability. If communication happens between computers, error detection is
much needed to provide a scheme of detection and correction of the message
error by attaching additional data or information while sending the data, so as to
increase the opportunity for error detection. This scheme will be discussed later.
9.1.4 Security
When data is sent, it will become an attraction for eavesdropping. An example is
buying goods via the Internet using credit cards. The credit card number sent via
this medium will be easily stolen, if security measures are not taken. Among
security measures often used is encryption. We shall discuss this issue in another
topic later.

SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. In order to create communication, we need several requirements.

Among them is message. What are the other requirements?
2. Explain the functions of the following communication elements:
(a) Receiver, and
(b) Error detector.
3. What are the jobs of coder and decoder in a communication

system?
4. State the need for a standard code in communication among

computers.
5. Human beings communicate by various methods such as

speaking, sign language and others. The progress of IT enables
human beings to communicate by various new methods. Can you
state the techniques of communicating via computers?

ACTIVITY 9.2
1. Identify the sender, receiver and media in the following

communications:
(a) (b)
A lecturer giving lectures in a A telephone conversation

hall. between two persons at long
distances.
(c) (d)
A broadcasting programme Communication using the

Who Wants to be a Millionaire walkie-talkie.
on TV.
9.2 BASIC OF DATA COMMUNICATION
Data communication refers to the form of electronic communication, which

usually involves data transmission between users and computer, computer
and computer, and computer and devices.
Features of data communication are the types of signal, mode of transmission,

data flow direction and rate of transmission.

9.2.1 Types of Signals

Can you think of how electromagnetic signals that carry information are
delivered to the receiver?
Electromagnetic signals can be used to deliver information through various

transmission media. Two forms of signals that can represent information for
transmission via the communication lines are:
(a) Analogue Signals ă Are continuous, i.e. when signals are sent via media
(e.g. telephone wires), the electrical signals that are transmitted are
represented in the form of continuous sine wave, as shown in Figure 9.3.
The sine wave is featured by three parameters, i.e. frequency, amplitude
and phases, as shown in Figure 9.4.
(i) Frequency ă Number of recurring waves (refer to Figure 9.3). It is

measured in hertz (Hz), i.e. one cycle per second. Signals with 40Hz
recur 40 cycles per second.
Figure 9.3: Wave frequency
Figure 9.4: Sine wave

(ii) Amplitude ă Height of wave or waveÊs highest energy level, as shown

in Figure 9.5. Amplitude is measured in various units, e.g. voltage (V)
or decibel (dB). The stronger the signal, the higher the amplitude.
Figure 9.5: Wave amplitude
(iii) Phase ă Rate of signal change with time or the measure of time shift of
the waves that is measured in degrees (À). Signals with the same
frequency can have different phases, if they are compared. In Figure
9.6, the bottom wave (b) has a different phase, i.e. phase 180À
compared with the top wave (a). One complete wave cycle begins at a
point and continues until it reaches the point again. A shift in phases
happens when one cycle is not yet complete, but one new cycle has
already begun, i.e. before the previous cycle has completed fully. This
happens at point 1 in Figure 9.6(c).
Figure 9.6: Signal phases
Analogue signals are used in the low-speed telephone lines. Analogue

signals are transmitted via public switched telephone network
(PSTN).

(b) Digital Signals ă Like a discrete wave when compared with analogue
signal, which is like a continuous sine wave. In the digital transmission, a
series of discrete pulses are transmitted or sent, e.g. carrying digit 0 and 1.
These 0 and 1 values are similar to the binary data representation in the
computer.
Digital signals are in two states only, i.e. low voltage and high voltage,
off and on or 0 and 1.
Normally, digital signals are represented as rectangular waves as shown

in Figure 9.7.
Figure 9.7: Digital signals
Digital signals cannot be transmitted via public switched telephone

network, except after changing to the analogue signals. The process of
changing digital signals into the analogue one is called modulating, while
the reverse process is called demodulating.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain the differences between analogue and digital signals.
9.3 MODE OF DATA TRANSMISSION

Computers that have been networked perform their jobs individually.
Destination computers do not know when information from source computers
would arrive. Therefore, there needs to be a strategy to enable a destination
computer to realise that a source computer has sent information, and the
information has arrived to enable it to act on the information. The strategy of
making it known is called mode of data transmission.

Data transmission between two points or between two computers can happen in
two forms, i.e. in parallel or in series. Data that are sent by the parallel
transmission will be delivered in one go, normally in one byte (8 bits)
simultaneously. If 8-bit data are sent, 8 parallel wires are used to send the data,
i.e. each bit is sent via separate wires, as shown in Figure 9.8. Extra wires are
needed to send data between the sender and receiver. These signals allow data to
be sent in a proper sequence.
Figure 9.8: Parallel transmission
Printers, for example, receive data from computers via the parallel ports that are
transmitted in parallel, i.e. character (byte) by character (byte). This transmission
is suitable for short distances. Parallel transmission is not practical for data
communication. Computers normally transmit data in serial form because of the
high speed. Centronics parallel interface is an example of the parallel format.
Serial transmission is transmitting data serially, i.e. data being sent one bit
after one bit, as shown in Figure 9.9.
Figure 9.9: Serial transmission
Serial transmission is slower than parallel transmission, but is more suitable for
long distances. Serial transmission is the normal method of data transmission in a
communication network. In data communication, data are transmitted serially.
Two modes of transmission for serially transmitted data are synchronous
transmission and asynchronous transmission.

9.3.1 Asynchronous Transmission

This type of transmission has become popular after the invention of
teletypewriters that are used to send telegrams. Characters are sent one by one.
The time of transmission too cannot be determined; characters can be sent at any
time. To enable the destination computer realise that one character has arrived,
each character is wrapped with one start bit and one stop bit, as well as one
parity bit, as shown in Figure 9.10.
Parity bit is used to track errors. Start bit informs the receiver that data will be
sent. Stop bit means data have all been sent.
Figure 9.10: Asynchronous transmission
Each character can be separated by a different time space, which means that there
is no synchronisation between sender and receiver, especially when there is no
data being sent. Synchronisation is achieved only at each character. The receiver
will synchronise with the sender when start bit is received. Several agreements
between sender and receiver are the number of bits per word, parity check
whether odd or even, speed of transmission, and how the message is ended.
For sending each character, two additional bits are also sent. For example,
100 characters are sent, so the total bits being sent are 1,000 bits (i.e. eight bits
per character + two bits for start/stop × 100). These 1,000 bits are equivalent to
125 characters, where 25 additional characters constitute the overheads for the
asynchronous transmission. The asynchronous transmission is clearly not
efficient for sending a large amount of data. It is suitable for the low-speed data
communication, normally up to 32,000bps.

9.3.2 Synchronous Transmission

One weakness of the asynchronous transmission is the overhead that needs to be
carried during data transmission. In the synchronous transmission, a high
efficiency level is achieved by sending a group or a block of characters at one go
and to replace the wrapper bits (start and stop) by header and trailer.
Figure 9.11: Synchronous transmission
The receiver will check the data bits received until a header is found that contains
Synchronous Idle (SYN) characters and start bit, as shown in Figure 9.11 above.
Next, both the sender and receiver will mutually synchronise between them. The
receiver will receive all characters until a tail is found containing the last
character and SYN character. Data block (or packet) size varies from a few
characters to hundreds of characters. The bigger the data block, the faster the
transmission will be.
Synchronous transmission is faster and more efficient than the asynchronous

transmission. The efficiency level of synchronous transmission is up to 98%,
while that of asynchronous one is up to 80% only. However, if there are errors in
synchronous transmission, the entire block of data (all characters) will be spoilt,
whereas, only one character will spoil in the asynchronous transmission. The
hardware used to perform synchronous transmission is more expensive and
more complex than that for the asynchronous transmission. Any kind of data can
be transmitted synchronously, while only characters can be transmitted by the
asynchronous mean.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
1. What do you understand by „mode of transmission‰? Explain.
2. Clarify the differences between synchronous transmission and

asynchronous transmission.

9.4 DATA FLOW DIRECTION

Data communication network has three categories of line operation to control
data flow, i.e. simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex lines. These three flow types
of data transmission have advantages and disadvantages.
9.4.1 Simplex
Simplex data transmission allows data to move in one direction only, i.e. similar
to the one-way traffic, as shown in Figure 9.12.
Figure 9.12: Simplex transmission
Examples are TV broadcasting and radio broadcasting. Other examples are

terminals receiving data only (like normal TV) that displays share price data at
the share trading centre and displays of plane arrivals in the airports, sensing
devices at the traffic light crossing that track the arrival of vehicles, and printers.
All these examples confirm the data flow in one direction only.
9.4.2 Half-Duplex
Half-duplex data transmission confirms that data move in two directions, but
only in one direction at a time. For example, moving through a very narrow
bridge allows you to move only one car at one time, climbing the road to FraserÊs
Hill where going up and coming down are fixed at different hours, people who
communicate using walkie-talkie or radio taxi or communication between two
computers using modems, as shown in Figure 9.13.

Figure 9.13: Half-duplex transmission
This technique is quite slow because:
(a) The time for the device to change its role from sender to receiver or vice
versa;
(b) The waiting time while the sender device transmits a message to confirm
readiness to receive data to the receiver device; and
(c) The waiting time for the sender device while waiting for the reply on
readiness to receive data from receiver device.
9.4.3 Full-Duplex
Full-duplex transmission allows data to be sent in two opposite directions all the
time, i.e. just like the two-way street, as shown in Figure 9.14.
Figure 9.14: Full-duplex transmission
This technique allows the communication device to be capable of sending and

receiving data completely and independently. This technique also increases the
efficiency of the transmission system as compared with the half-duplex mode of
transmission. The required device here is more expensive than the above two
types, but this type is faster.

ACTIVITY 9.3
1. Based on the simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex types of

communication, discuss which type of communication is the most
effective, in terms of the cost factor.
2. Data move in three types of flow. Discuss the advantages and

disadvantages each of the three types of flow.
9.5 RATE OF DATA TRANSMISSION

Transmission rate can be said to be the bit rate or the baud rate.
Bit rate is the real measure of the number of bits transmitted every second. Bit
rate or data rate measured in bit per second (bps). For example, modem speed
is 14,400bps.
Baud rate is a measure of the number of changes of line states per second.
Change of line state means a change from state 0 to state 1 or vice versa, for
the digital signal. For the binary digital signal, baud rate = bit rate.
The rate of transmission depends on the frequency and the bandwidth.
Frequency is the amount of data being sent via a channel or line at wave
frequency ă the cycle of waves per second. Frequency is stated in Hertz (Hz)
or cycles per second.
Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequency that
is supported by a certain channel or line.
Data can be sent at various frequencies in a certain bandwidth. The maximum

transmission speed depends on the available bandwidth. The bigger the
bandwidth, the higher the transmission rate or the speed of transmission will be.

There are three grades of bandwidth. Let us learn more about each grade of
bandwidth in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Three Grades of Bandwidth
Bandwidth Description
Voice band The bandwidth that is present in the public switched telephone network.
It is called voice band because public switched telephone network is built
(from history) for voice communication instead of data. The width of its
bandwidth is 4,000 Hz, which is sufficient for sending voice. Since its
bandwidth is small, it is used for communication at the rate of up to
28.8Kbps.
Medium Normally used for communication that involves mainframe computers
band and minicomputers. Its normal speed is between 56K to 264Mbps.
Broadband It involves the satellite, microwave, coaxial cable, and optical fibre. It is
used for high-speed computers and has a speed between 56K to 30Gbps.
SELF-CHECK 9.4
1. Discuss the differences between bit rate and baud rate. When will
both the bit rate and the baud rate be equal?
2. State the advantages and the disadvantages of each technique of

data flow direction.
3. List three types of bandwidth grades that you know.
9.6 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

In this subtopic, we shall focus on the transmission media. Transmission media
depends on the form of data that are altered for communication. Among the
basic form of data that can be altered for communication are electrical pulses,
light pulses, electromagnetic waves and infrared waves.
The types of transmission media for carrying signals depend on the types of
signals. Twisted pair wire and coaxial cable carry signals in the form of electrical
pulses. Light pulses signals can be carried via optical fibre cable. For the
electromagnetic wave that penetrates the air, it requires the support of
microwave and satellite systems. The three forms of data ă light pulses,
electromagnetic wave and infrared wave ă are all the types of waves that come
with the wireless type of transmission media.

Transmission media can be classified as guided (via the physical media such as
twisted pair wires, coaxial cable and optical fibre cable) or unguided (via air,
vacuum and water).
9.6.1 Twisted Pair Wire

Twisted pair wire is the medium that is normally used to send data in the form of
electronic pulses. It is also known as twisted pair cable. Twisted pair wire
consists of a number of coloured and shielded wires that are twisted to create
magnetic fields and therefore, will reduce noise disturbances. Normally there are
four or eight wires (forming two or four pairs). In general, each pair of wires
supports one voice channel. This kind of wires is often used for telephones.
Twisted pair wires are cheap and easily obtainable, but the signals that pass
through are easily carried away and disturbed, while its transmission rate is low.
An example of a twisted pair wire is shown in Figure 9.15.
Figure 9.15: Twisted pair wire
There are two types of wires or cables, i.e. unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and
shielded twisted pair (STP). Unshielded twisted pair wires are cheaper and easier
to handle, but can be disturbed easily and have a shorter coverage distance as
compared with the and shielded twisted pair.
Besides being classified into unshielded twisted pair and shielded twisted pair,
twisted pair wires are also classified according to categories set by EIA/TIA-568.
In general, the factors that differentiate between these categories are the thickness
of wires according to American wire gauge (AWG) and the error features.
9.6.2 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable, also called shielded cable, is made up of one or more copper wire
strings that are shielded by insulator and covered with iron mesh. This cable is
widely used to support long distance connections. This kind of cable offers
higher rate of data transmission as compared with twisted pair cable and can be
used to send all types of data (not limited to voice or text only). Examples of the

coaxial cables are TV cable, cable used to connect TV and receiver of TV wave,
and the short link between computer and local area network. This cable can carry
data or signals of electrical pulses type.
In the voice communication system, every coaxial cable can support about
60 voice channels. Such cables that support multiple voices are called bandwidth
coaxial cables with a speed of up to 100Mbps. This kind of cable is called thick
coaxial cable, thicknets or 0Base5, which is also called thick Ethernet.
Another kind of this cable is the basic band coaxial cable that is used to send data
at high speed such as in the local area network (LAN). Cable that is often used in
the local area network is the RG-58AU cable that is often called the thin coaxial
cable, thinnets or 10Base2, which is also called thin Ethernet ă with a speed of up
to 10Mbps. An example of the coaxial cable can be seen in Figure 9.16.
Figure 9.16: Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable offers bandwidth and a degree of immunity from highly unstable
signals. In addition, this cable is cheap to install and follows the standard.
However, this cable incurs high cost for long distances because of the need for
repeaters. The safety level of this cable is not yet high. Termination and
connecting points of this cable need to be done correctly to avoid spoilage that
can create congestion in the network, thus, preventing access to it.
9.6.3 Fibre Optic Cable

Optical fibre is a medium in which data are transmitted in the form of light
pulses. Optical fibre technology is a new communication technology that is low
cost, high volume of transmission, low error rate and safe for the message.
Signals are converted into light pulses and shot by laser via shielded optical fibre.
That light will move and refract along the cable shield. This fibre can transmit
data at a speed of 80Gbps. A picture of the optical fibre cable can be seen in
Figure 9.17.

Figure 9.17: Optical fibre cable
Optical fibre is made from silicon fibre or silica, which is thinner than the human
hair. It can be used to transmit various types of data such as video, pictures,
multimedia, music and graphics. Since data are transmitted via light, they are not
affected by electronic disturbances and that will reduce errors in data
transmission. This fibre is also lighter than coaxial cable. Optical fibre cable is
used for linking long distances or linking between continents. Each fibre can
support multiple voice channels or TV channels.
9.6.4 Microwave System

Microwave does not use cables as its transmission media, but uses air or sky
space. Microwave uses the radio system, which uses high frequency to send and
receive data. Microwave signals are sent in the form of line of sight. These signals
cannot be bent according to the surface of the earth or to avoid hills, mountains
and tall buildings. Therefore, relay stations are used to link up microwave
signals. The number of relay stations depends on the shape of earth, normally
30kmă50km between each other. Relay stations are normally placed on top of tall
buildings, hills and tall towers. The frequency of microwave transmission
is measured in two until 40GHz. An example of relay station can be seen in
Figure 9.18.
Figure 9.18: Wave relay station

Microwave technique is used for high volume communication and long

distances. Parabola discs and towers require high costs to be built. Therefore, the
cost of a microwave system is expensive and it is for long distances. This
technique is suitable for communication between tall buildings in city areas,
especially when the cost of installing optical fibre cable is so expensive. Now,
microwave systems are often used to link up networks between buildings inside
campuses and towns.
For a medium-size microwave system, the cost is medium, can be divided into
subchannels and can be extended to long distances, but it can be easily disturbed
by noise from weather and electricity and need to overcome the line of sight
problem, as well as geography. The use of microwave also follows tight rules in
order to avoid overlapping.
9.6.5 Satellite System

The satellite approach is used when the transmission distance is long and there
exists many obstacles. Data or signals that are carried via the satellite are in the
microwave form for representing voice, data and video. Satellite is an electronic
device that contains up to 100 transponders (small, specific radios) that receive,
strengthen and resend the signals.
Satellite acts as a relay station between one earth station and another earth
station. The signal frequency that is uplink to satellite is different from the signal
frequency that is downlink to the earth station. Types of satellites are classified
according to their locations from the earthÊs surface and also the signal frequency
to uplink and to downlink. Example of satellite is shown in Figure 9.19.

Figure 9.19: Satellite
Satellite system is expensive but cost-effective for sending large volumes of data.
The satellite coverage area on earth is called footprint. The position between
satellites needs to follow certain rules to avoid signal disturbances between each
other. There are three advantages and seven disadvantages of using satellite
system, as presented in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2: The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Satellite System
Advantages Disadvantages
Can cover wide area of Signals become weaker/noisier at long distances
earth
High loading Useful for seven to 10 years duration, beyond which, it will
run out of real orbit
Low cost for each user Data transmitted can be heard by anyone, except for
encrypted data
Satellite transmissions can be disturbed by other people
High cost for installation and transmission
Requires parabola and decoder
Delays in receiving signals

9.6.6 Infrared
Infrared technology is a data transmission in the form of infrared radiation,
without going through wires. This approach is limited to one small area only and
is based on the line of sight. The transmission rate is about 10Mbps. This
technology can be used for wireless computer network. Another application
example is a remote control unit of a TV.
9.6.7 Radio
Radio frequency technology that utilises the wireless transmission is divided into
two, i.e. high frequency and low frequency. High frequency radio technology,
such as cellular radio, can penetrate office walls but has limited coverage. Low
frequency radio technology utilises the radio spectrum technology, has a big
penetrating power, wide coverage but has a problem of disturbances. Radio
spectrum technology utilises the normal radio frequency such as amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM) and short wave. This technology
is normally used for pagers.
Pager is actually a radio receiver that receives a message or signals at a certain

frequency sent by a sender.
Cellular radio technology is designed for mobile computing and often uses
mobile phone, also called the cellular telephone. In Malaysia, there are many
cellular telephone operators like Celcom, Digi and Maxis. This cellular
technology uses radio frequency and cell sites. Cell site is a geographical area of a
circular shape that operates the cellular phone inside a specified physical area.
Users move from one cell to another cell. Each cell is linked to the master cell site
that provides a link to the normal telephone network. Normally, data transfer
rate for the cellular radio is up to 19,200bps.
Cellular radio technology can also use low earth orbit satellite. Examples of
cellular radio satellites are Iridium and Teledesic. Cellular radio technology has
progressed and various latest cellular technologies have been introduced in the
world.

9.6.8 Telephone Network

The telephone network used by the public is called „public switched telephone
network‰ that handles voice. Public switched telephone network is also
sometimes called plain old telephone service (POTS). Now, public switched
telephone network has used various media such as optical fibre, microwave
system and satellite system. Data inside public switched telephone network can
be sent by dial-up lines, leased lines or dedicated lines.
 Communication normally involves people only. Besides that, it also occurs

between people and computer, and computer and computer ă this electronic
form of communication is known as data communication.
 The sender is the message transmitter or the place where a message begins.
The sender may be a person, software application, machine that can create
messages or replies without human assistance, system user, sensor, staff card
reader or other input devices.
 A message can be in the form of files, requests, replies, status, controls or

mail.
 The receiver may be a computer, terminal, printer, people, remote control

device and others.
 A message is carried from sender to receiver via the communication media.

The media is the channel or vehicle for carrying the message.
 Cellular radio technology concept has becoming more popular now. Many
communication companies like Maxis, Celcom and DiGi uses this technology.

Analogue signal Media

Asynchronous transmission Microwave system
Coaxial cable Networking
Coder Radio
Communication Receiver
Data communication Satellite system
Decoder Sender
Digital signals Simplex
Fibre optic cable Synchronous transmission
Full-duplex Telephone network
Half-duplex Twisted pair wire
Infrared system

Topic  Information
10 Technology
Issues and
Opportunities
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss seven impacts of information technology (IT) and its ethical
usage;
2. Identify threats to computer security;
3. Elaborate four types of computer security;
4. Discuss personal issues in IT; and
5. Describes the concept of ergonomics and green computing in IT.
 INTRODUCTION
Now, we are vigorously going through the process of information revolution
where the information technology (IT) has revolutionised our capability of
extracting, manipulating, storing, communicating and presenting information.
As discussed in the previous topics, IT is not only made up of computer
hardware and software, but also people with the know-how and people as users
of the technology.

222  TOPIC 10 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ISSUES AND OPPORTUNITIES
Because of human element with different behaviour, IT and information system

(IS) can be used for doing good and bad. In this topic, we shall study and see
how human element creates various issues in this field and the opportunities
presented to us by IT.
Next, we will describe four types of computer security and personal issues.
Finally, we will look at the concept of ergonomics and green computing in IT.
10.1 PROFESSIONALISM, ETHICS AND

SOCIETY
IT revolution has generated a lot of controversy. This controversy has raised
questions about what is (and what is not) ethical with regards to the activities
involving IT.
Ethics is about behaviour and moral conduct; whether it brings good or bad
influences on human beings.
In another word, ethics is a philosophy that deals with the principles of doing
good and bad, especially in the context of morality.
Morality is a traditional belief or religious belief in the conduct of doing right

and wrong.

TOPIC 10 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ISSUES AND OPPORTUNITIES  223
When this issue is raised, you may be asking, what is the relationship between
ethics and IT? The advancement of IT has created a world without borders. We
can now interact with anyone regardless of location, while data too can be moved
from one location to another. Even your confidential data that used to be kept in
your drawer before, can be easily opened now, if they have been converted into
the electronic form. Behind these facilities provided by IT, we need to be aware of
irresponsible parties who take advantage of our carelessness in using IT in our
daily activities. Now, it is very important to emphasise the ethical aspect of IT to
user of this technology.
In most organisations, computers are used to help the management to ensure

smooth and efficient running. Top management too can use IT in making
important strategic decisions. Ethical problems are often discussed in the human
resource management, whereby, IT has opened up new ways of doing ethical
and unethical businesses electronically. IT users are now confronted with series
of ethical issues, especially when they perform duties in the office. Examples are:
(a) Does the management need to monitor staff activities electronically?
(b) Is there a need to see all the e-mails of junior staff to ensure that they do not
use e-mails for personal objectives?
(c) Is all staff allowed to access files of other people?
(d) Is it possible to sell customer information to other people?

There are many aspects of ethical practices in our society with regards to the
application of IT. For example, using IT creates an impact on the society and this
gives rise to ethical considerations in many other areas. IT has both positive and
negative effects on the society in many fields. Now, let us see further details of
the impacts of IT on society in the following Table 10.1:
Table 10.1: Seven Impacts of Information Technology in Society
Impact Details
Societal IT can address the needs of people on the street and provide solutions to
solutions several problems in our society. Societal networking software like e-mail,
Facebook and chatting help people to communicate and interact easily
and quickly making distance quite a trivial matter. The world also has
been transformed into a virtual global village and without borders.
Employment The impact on workers who feel financially threatened, such as in
factories where the management reduces staff size because of some
processes being replaced by robots. Similarly, in the banking field when
they use automated teller machine (ATM) and online banking, which
make the traditional cashiers redundant.
Working When the used of IT improves, so does the quality of work and
conditions environment. What used to be physical has now become largely mental
work.
Health Where the use of IT hardware can endanger its users, such as spoiling
eyesight, exposure to radiation and strain on the back.
Privacy Where personal information, computerised comparison, information
mining and e-mails are exposed to personal trespassing.
Individuality In system development, one must think of human factor, ergonomic
factor and the possibility of information system failure.
Crime This can happen as a result of a wide use of IT, such as cloning credit
cards and siphoning money out of a bank account.
An example of the IT ethical issue is described as follows:
„A software engineer claims that he/she could complete a software

development job within 10 months, whereas to be completely finished, he/she
needs about 12 to 15 months. The main reason why he/she did not mention 12
or 15 months is that it might be unacceptable to the customer.‰

This is unethically done in the interest of the business. Many ethical risks may
arise when IT is implemented as a result of information error, trespassing privacy
and environmental pollution.
Recognizing that individuals need specific standards for the ethical use of
computers, a number of computer-related organisations have established IT
codes of conduct. An IT code of conduct is a written guideline that helps
determine whether a specific computer action is ethical or unethical.
Ten points that have been proposed by the Computer Ethics Institute as a guide
for users and computer professionals are:
Figure 10.1: Ethics guideline for users and computer professionals

If all computer users follow all these proposed guidelines, we may not worry
about security. Therefore, as discussed, ethics is a standard moral conduct while
computer ethics is a guideline for using computers so as to be morally acceptable
in our society. We can generalise the ethics of using computers into four main
issues, as shown in Figure 10.2.
Figure 10.2: Four ethics on the use of computers
Table 10.2: Four Issues in Ethics of Computer Usage
Issues Details
Individuality Collection and use of data for an individual.
Accuracy Responsibility of data collectors to ensure that data is true and accurate.
Ownership Someone who owns data and has a right over the software.
Accessibility The responsibility of someone who has the data to control, about who
can use the data.
The Centre for Democracy and Technology controls the issue of individuality
and legality. To know the details of this organisation, please visit the website
www.cdt.org.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Nowadays, there are companies that monitor Internet activities and

websites. Most of these firms sell a list of mails and detailed personal
profiles without permission. How do you safeguard yourself? Share
your answers with your classmates.

10.2 COMPUTER SYSTEM CONTROL AND

SECURITY ISSUES
Will there be bad consequences with the advancement of technology? Experts on
IT agree that our society needs to be careful with the potential negative impact of
technology on security and individual issues. We also need to pay attention to
the negative impact on the environment, as a result of the products generated by
computers. Let us pay attention to these issues one by one.
10.2.1 Threats to Computer Security

Security can be defined in several ways. In the context of computers and
information systems security can be define as:
Computer and information security is the protection of data from accidental

or deliberate threats, which might cause unauthorized modification,
disclosure or destruction of data. It also refers to the protection of information
system from degradation (or non-availability) of services.
The most important source in a computer is the data. Therefore, it should be

protected and stored properly and correctly. Data confidentiality and
information stored depends on how computer is controlled from criminal threats,
natural disasters and other threats.
Thus, as a whole we can say that the security of the computer and information
system is important not only in preventing intruders, but also to prevent internal
threats from becoming more severe.
So, can you list down what are the things that can threaten the computer
security? Among the things that can threaten computer security are computer
crimes, computer virus, electronic vandalism, natural disasters and other
calamities. The threats to computer security are shown in Figure 10.3.

Figure 10.3: Threats to computer security
Now, let us look at these threats in more depth, beginning with computer
criminals, followed by computer crime and disaster.
(a) Computer Criminals ă Computer crimes are the unauthorised works of

criminals who use specific knowledge in computer technology. Computer
criminals can be classified according to the description in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3: Four Categories of Computer Criminals
Categories Description
Staff The largest category of computer criminals is done by those who
can easily access computers. They are normally staff who know the
companyÊs secrets. By far, this is the biggest threat to security ă
dishonesty and incompetence of employees. Auditing should be
able to detect these problems before they become too late.
Outside Not only staff but suppliers and customers can also access the
Users companyÊs computer system, for example, bank customers who
use the ATM. Similar to staff, authorised users can obtain secret
password or look for alternative ways of committing computer
crimes.
Crackers Crackers are people who gain unauthorised access to a computer
system for the purpose of fun and facing challenges of computers.
Vandals Vandals perform the same thing like hackers but for the purpose of
vengeance. They may intend to steal technical information or to
introduce what is called a logical bomb, i.e. a computer program
that destroys the computer.

(b) Computer Crimes ă What about computer crime? What do you understand
about it? Computer crimes are the work done by criminals who have
specialised knowledge in the field of technology computer. Do you know
how computer crimes are classified? You can refer to Table 10.4.
Table 10.4: Four Categories of Computer Crimes
Destruction Workers who are not happy with their employers may try to
destroy the computer, programs or files. Crackers and vandals
can produce and spread dangerous programs such as viruses. A
virus is a program that spreads via network and operating
system. It always move from one computer to another through
floppy disc copies, programs downloaded from the Internet or e-
mail circulation.
Theft Theft can happen on hardware, software, data and services.
Hardware theft can happen in the computer laboratory, where
thieves can enter and steal computer equipment inside the
laboratory. Professional thieves may steal important company
data and information, and sell them to outsiders. They may also
steal services provided by the company and use them for personal
gains. Without realising it, we may also steal some software. This
happens whenever we borrow Microsoft C or other software from
friends and copy them into our own computer at home. Actually,
the copying we have done was not accompanied by authorised
permissions. According to the Copyright Act (Amended) 1997,
the doer can be sued according to law and can be punished,
imprisoned or punished and imprisoned at the same time.
Manipulation A cracker may succeed in entering a network and leaving a
message, damaging the display, data or information. This can
cause anger to computer users. According to Computer Crime
Act 1997, unauthorised access on computer material is punishable
for up to RM50,000, imprisonment for up to five years or both.
Cloning These are carried out by members of criminal gangs who run
businesses but use computer technology for evil purposes, e.g.
copy, clone and imitate passports, identity cards, driving licenses
and copyrights.

(c) Disasters ă There are also other factors that can harm a computer system
and data security. Here are FOUR other disasters that could threaten the
security of computer systems and data (Table 10.5).
Table 10.5: Four Disasters that Could Threaten Computer

Systems and Data Security
Natural Disaster Natural disasters cannot be avoided and predicted, for
example, fire, flood, wind, typhoon and earthquakes. A
copy of the programs, data and information needs to be
stored at a safe location to avoid loss of important
information.
Sabotage In a country that is rocked by political problems, riots, war
or sabotage, these may involve destruction of computer
systems sabotaged by the unsatisfied parties.
Technological The use of computer systems causes us to be too dependent
Failure on technology and sometimes, this technology may not be
able to perform the required jobs. This may be due to
excessive voltage because of lightning, absence of
electricity, short circuit and other factors. If we do not make
copies, data may be lost.
Human Error As human beings, we may make plenty of mistakes. Data
entered may contain errors. Programs developed may also
have mistakes. There are several mistakes in system
designs and this may cause systemÊs procedures to be
disorganised.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. What are the three types of computer crimes? Which is the most
extreme in terms of economic and social development? Explain.
2. What are the differences between crackers and vandals?

10.2.2 Controls for Computer Security

Security of information, hardware and software need to be safeguarded against
unauthorised use and destruction because of trespasses, sabotage and natural
disasters. We can see why the security issue is a constantly expanding field. The
four types of controls to ensure quality and security of computer-based systems
are shown in Figure 10.4.
Figure 10.4: Four types of computer security controls
(a) Information System Controls ă This puts controls on the information

system itself. This type of control uses the method or device that ensures
accuracy, originality and ownership of the information system. The
information system controls are shown in Table 10.6.
Table 10.6: Information System Controls
Control Example
Security codes, data entry screen, error signals and control
Input control
totals.
Processing Software control, hardware control and checkpoint control.
control
Output control Security codes, control total, list control and user feedbacks.
Security codes, storage files, library method and database
Storage control
administration.

(b) Program Control ă This is a control on the program that runs in the
computer. Control of this type is a method of determining how information
services organisations operate with guaranteed security. Among the
controls performed are:
(i) Division of work ă Into system development, computer operations

and others, as different groups;
(ii) Standard method and documentation ă Regularly updated, for

example, ISO 9002 system;
(iii) Authorisation requirement ă Used for all requests of system

development, program and computer alterations, which need to be
approved first and such alterations need to be signed by doers, so as
to be easily recognised; and
(iv) Disaster recovery ă Needs to be planned in facing natural disasters,

human errors and technical failure of computer systems.
(c) End-User Computing Control ă This is a method for systems that are
developed in accordance with organisational policies, i.e. a method of
informing users when changes occur and there is a need for training. This
control is much needed for critical applications.
(d) Control on Physical Facilities ă This control is a method for safeguarding

the physical facilities and their content from loss or being destroyed. It is
normally based on things:
(i) We own like keys and identity cards;
(ii) We know like passwords, identity card (IC) numbers;
(iii) We do like signatures; and
(iv) Related to our bodies like voice and thumb prints.

Here are four examples of the physical facilities control described in Table 10.7.
Table 10.7: Four Examples of the Physical Facilities Control
Category Description
Encryption and Encryption is a method used to alter a message into a certain
Firewall form so that nobody can read the message except the receiver.
Encryption issue is important for e-commerce implementation.
An example of a free software for encrypting documents is Pretty
Good Privacy (PGP). Firewall is a computer program or a host
computer with the function of controlling a computer network
from attacks by outsiders. This technique is widely used by
organisations to prevent attacks by vandals from the Internet.
Physical Protection It is given for physical protection in facing natural disasters, such
Control as using soft bags for small laptop computers to reduce damage
from shaking and falling.
Biometric Control It uses security characteristics of finger prints, voice and others,
based on individualÊs biometric profile.
Control on It uses a fault-tolerant technique to overcome failures that may
Computer Failure be due to electricity, damages in electric circuits, programming,
device and human errors.
As computer users, we are advised to use computers in proper ways and some
good guidelines that should be followed are:
(a) When sharing information or data, ensure that they are done carefully to
avoid virus from spreading;
(b) Be careful when downloading and installing doubtful software source

because it may contains trojans, malware, spying application or any
application that attempts to steal data quietly or cause damage to the
computer;
(c) Do not make unauthorised copies of software;
(d) Examine and delete virus regularly by using antivirus software;

(e) If the information is sensitive, make sure that the computer and its files are
secured;
(f) If there is sensitive information, secure the computer and its files;
(g) Make copies frequently;
(h) When sending sensitive information via the Internet, encrypt the
information; and
(i) Be prepared for the worst situations, for example:
(i) Computers cannot boot because of virus;
(ii) Hard disk cannot be accessed;
(iii) Important files suddenly cannot be read because of operation system

fails to identify the file format;
(iv) Computer shuts down suddenly or printer failure;
(v) All files are attacked by virus and cannot be rescued; and
(vi) Processor, keyboard and various major hardware failures.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
State some of the actions to can be taken to safeguard computer

security.
10.2.3 Information Privacy

Information privacy refers to the right of individuals and companies to deny or
restrict the collection and use of information about them. In the past, information
privacy was easier to maintain because information was kept in separate
locations. Each retail store had its own credit files. Each government agency
maintained separate records. Doctors had their own patient files.

Today, huge databases store this data online. Much of the data is personal and
confidential and should be accessible only to authorised users. Many individuals
and organisations, however, question whether this data really is private. That is,
some companies and individuals collect and use this information without your
authorisation. Web sites often collect data about you, so that they can customize
advertisements and send you personalised e-mail messages. Some employers
monitor your computer usage and e-mail messages.
IT has facilitated the process of data collection and storage. For example, bank
stores data on every customer which includes age, marital status, total savings,
total loans, saving conducts and others. Universities keep student records which
include academic achievements, co-curricular activities, types of studies, types
of financial support, age, parent occupations, nationality and others. Road
Transport Department (JPJ) keeps car owners names and their detailed
particulars. All these are cases where individual privacy can be misused by the
keepers of information.
If customers have credit cards, the bank will have data on spending habits,
methods of debt repayments, types of purchase, income and others. Therefore,
bank and road transport officers may use these data to sell to some interested
parties for marketing and other purposes. All these data from banks, universities
and Road Transport Department are personal private data which can be used for
evaluating an individualÊs way of life.
Privacy issues can be:
(a) Who has the right over these data?
(b) Can the bank sell personal data on individuals to other companies for
marketing purposes?
(c) Can a bank provide information on individual savings to other banks for
the purpose of loan approvals?
(d) How can individuals determine that their personal data are accurate?
(e) Can the Road Transport Department sell information about cars and their
owners?

The Internet has opened up this issue of privacy even more widely. With the
Internet, users can use e-mails for communications.
Privacy issues that may arise from the use of e-mails are:
(a) Whether the contents of e-mails are secured against intrusion?
(b) Whether the contents of e-mails are regarded as personal items that cannot
be publicised to other parties?
(c) Whether the employer has the right to read e-mails of his/her employees?
(d) Whether the government has the right to filter e-mail contents?
(e) Can the contents of e-mails be used in court as evidence?
Actually, e-mails that are sent through the Internet are not safe, as anyone from
anywhere can simply read them. The e-mail is like a piece of postcard. All e-mail
messages are open for all to read. A number of techniques have been introduced
to ensure safety of messages inside e-mails. A technique is to encrypt the
message, whereby it is converted into a form of codes, but the codes will be
reconverted back to the actual message upon reaching its destination. Research
on encryption is still ongoing and various techniques have been devised to better
safeguard against intrusion by irresponsible persons.
Another example is the use of multi-purpose smart cards. MyKad is a prime

project that has been developed for the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia
(MSC Malaysia). This card contains information on identity card numbers,
driving licence numbers, passport information, ATM, Touch Ân Go and health
information. The smart card that has been introduced is a kind of smart card with
multiple purposes. Before this, most of the smart cards that have been introduced
all over the world were multi-purpose, such as for boarding transit train systems,
toll payments and calling prepaid phones. The smart card being used in Malaysia
is a smart card that contains personal information. Such cards have been
introduced in other countries before, but they were not successful.
Privacy issues that arise as a result of using the smart card are:
(a) The validity of information contained in the smart card;
(b) Data security against intrusion by other parties if the card is lost or stolen;
and
(c) How to update data inside the smart card?

Nowadays, privacy is an ethical issue because many records stored by the non-
governmental organisations are not covered by existing laws. In spite of that,
individuals have shown that they are very concerned with the control of who has
the right over personal information and how it is used.
10.3 COMPUTER AND HEALTH

Users are a key component in any information system. Thus, protecting users is
just as important as protecting hardware, software and data. The widespread use
of computers has led to some important user health concerns. Users should be
proactive and minimise their chance of risk. The following sections discuss health
risks and preventions, along with measures users can take to keep the
environment healthy.
10.3.1 Computer and Health Risks

A repetitive strain injury (RSI) is an injury or disorder of the muscles, nerves,
tendons, ligaments and joints. Computer-related repetitive strain injuries
includes tendonitis and carpal tunnel syndrome. Repetitive strain injuries are the
largest job-related injury and illness problem today.
For this reason, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has
developed industry-specific and task-specific guidelines designed to prevent
workplace injuries with respect to computer usage.
Tendonitis is inflammation of a tendon due to repeated motion or stress on that

tendon. Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is inflammation of the nerve that connects
the forearm to the palm of the wrist. Repeated or forceful bending of the wrist
can cause carpal tunnel syndrome or tendonitis of the wrist. Symptoms of
tendonitis of the wrist include extreme pain that extends from the forearm to the
hand, along with tingling in the fingers. Symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome
include burning pain when the nerve is compressed, along with numbness and
tingling in the thumb and first two fingers.
Long-term computer work can lead to tendonitis or carpal tunnel syndrome.

Factors that cause these disorders include prolonged typing, prolonged mouse
usage or continual shifting between mouse and keyboard. If untreated, these
disorders can lead to permanent physical damage.

You can take many precautions to prevent these types of injuries. Take frequent
breaks during the computer session to exercise your hands and arms. To prevent
injury due to typing, place a wrist rest between the keyboard and the edge of
your desk. To prevent injury while using a mouse, place the mouse at least six
inches from the edge of the desk. In this position, your wrist is flat on the desk.
Finally, minimise the number of times you switch between mouse and keyboard,
and avoid using the heel of your hand as a pivot point while typing or using the
mouse.
Another type of health-related condition due to computer usage is computer

vision syndrome (CVS). You may have computer vision syndrome if you have
sore, tired, burning, itching or dry eyes; blurred or double vision; distance
blurred vision after prolonged staring at a display device; headache or sore neck;
difficulty shifting focus between a display device and documents; difficulty
focusing on the screen image; colour fringes or after images when you look away
from the display device; and increased sensitivity to light. Eyestrain associated
with computer vision syndrome is not thought to have serious or long-term
consequences.
People who spend their workday using the computer sometimes complain of
lower back pain, muscle fatigue and emotional fatigue. Lower back pain
sometimes is caused from poor posture. Always sit properly in the chair while
you work. To alleviate back pain, muscle fatigue and emotional fatigue, take 15
to 30 minutes break every two hours do stand up, walk around, stretch and relax.
Another way to help prevent these injuries is to be sure your workplace is
designed ergonomically.
10.3.2 Ergonomics
Did you know that the use of a computer can make a person more productive in
the work or otherwise? Based on the effect, scientists and experts have developed
an interest in doing more research in this area, known as ergonomics.
Ergonomics is the study of ways on how to ensure that humans can handle
computer and other equipment in an easy to use manner to minimise
movement, energy, strain and ensure healthy life.

Do you know why equipment should be tailored to the needs of users?

Adjustment of the equipment according to user requirements is important to
users so that the opposite case would not happen in which consumers would had
to adapt to any equipment to do the job.
It is concerned with adapting work (equipment) to suit workers and not to force
workers to adapt themselves to the work (equipment). It is also known as human
factor engineering, i.e. study or science of design to ensure a working
environment that is healthy, safe and entertaining. Such an environment will
upgrade staff morale, productivity and avoid putting health at risk.
In Figure 10.5, a proposed sketch is shown for the ideal situation while using
computers.
Figure 10.5: Ideal situation while using computers

10.3.2 Green Computing

Green computing involves reducing electricity and environmental waste while
using a computer. People use and often waste resources, such as electricity and
paper, while using a computer. Society has become aware of this waste and is
taking measures to prevent it.
In the US, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Department of Energy

(DOE) has set up the Energy Star programme to promote efficient energy use in
the computer industry. Have you seen or heard about this Energy Star?
Figure 10.6 shows the logo for this programme. Normally the logo will be
attached to any equipment or hardware that involved in this programme.
Figure 10.6: Sticker or logo for Energy Star

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org
This programme encourages manufacturers to create energy-efficient devices

that require little power when they are not in use. For example, many devices
switch to sleep or power save mode after a specified number of inactive minutes
or hours.
In a study conducted by Environmental Protection Agency, 30%ă40% of

computer users operate their machines during the day, night and weekend. The
Environmental Protection Agency also estimates that during 80% of monitor
time, it is left on without anyone looking at it.

Do you know what the basic elements of this green concept are? The basic
elements of green computing consist of a system unit, display and
manufacturers. Further details on the „green‰ methods used by each of these
elements are described in Table 10.8.
Table 10.8: Three Green Computing Method
Category Detail
System Unit Often used in portable computers, where the system unit:
 Is using a processor that requires minimum amount of energy
usage.
 Is using a processor and hard disk drives that save energy and able
to be in the idle mode when not in use.
 Does not have air fan.
Displays  Use displays that save electrical energy.
 Use display units that replace cathode ray tube (CRT) with flat
panels using special low energy monitors.
 Use software that can alter screen displays into idle mode when
not in use.
Manufacturers  Computer manufacturers like Intel, Apple and Compaq use
chemical elements that are less dangerous in their production such
as chlorofluorocarbon (CFC).
 Poisonous nickel and other heavy metals have begun to be
eliminated or reduced in manufacturing processes.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
1. What are activities that you can do to avoid eye stress, headache,
pain in the backbone and neck that are related to computers
usage?
2. State several physical health problems that are related to frequent

use of computers.

To reduce the environmental impact of computing further, users simply can alter
a few habits. Figure 10.7 listed 11 green computing suggestions for you to
contribute to green computing effort.
Figure 10.7: Eleven green computing suggestion
 There are many effects of information technology on society, either positive

or negative. Among them are the effects on work, health, personal and crime.
Therefore, we need to have etiquette in the use of IT.
 Ethics is about behaviour and moral conduct; whether it brings good or bad
influences on human beings.
 There are four ethical uses of computers: individuality, accuracy, ownership

and accessibility.
 Many ethical risks may arise when IT is implemented as there could be a

wrong information, personal aggression and environmental pollution.

 There are 10 items proposed by the Computer Ethics Institute guide for users
and computer professionals. Among them are do not use computer to harm
other people, do not disturb others computer work and do not intrude into
the others computer files.
 There are three things that can threaten the safety of the computer:
− Computer criminals: staff/employees, external users, crackers, vandals;
− Computer crime: destruction, theft, manipulation and cloning; and
− Disaster: nature, sabotage, technological failures and human error.
 Security of information, hardware and software need to be safeguarded

against unauthorised use and destruction because of trespasses, sabotage and
natural disasters.
 There are four types of control in computer security: information system

control, program control, control over end users and control of physical
facilities.
 Encryption is a method used to alter a message into a certain form so that

nobody can read the message except the receiver.
 Private issue revolves around the collection and storage of data consumers;
that has the right, usefulness, safety, reliability and so.
 Ergonomics is the study on how to ensure that human can operate a

computer and other equipment easily and efficiently by reducing the
movement, energy and strain/load.
 Computer use can cause users to experience health problems. This can be
overcome with the right techniques and methods.
 The green computing concept is the use of computer hardware energy

efficiently and effectively.
 There are three basic elements of green computing: system unit, display and
producers where these elements use various methods of environmentally
friendly, energy saving and etc.

Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) Green computing

Computer vision syndrome (CVS) Health
Copyrights Issues
Crimes Privacy
Electronic vandalism Repetitive strain injury (RSI)
Encryption Risks
Ergonomics Security
Ethics Threats

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Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

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CBCT2203

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Marini Abu Bakar (Leader)

Mohd Zahari Awang

Translator: Mohd Zahari Awang

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, July 2007

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2013, CBCT2203

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Introduction to Information Technology 1

Topic 2 Central Processing Unit (CPU) 20

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 3 Input and Output 40

Topic 4 Secondary Storage 63

Topic 5 Computer Software 79

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

5.6 Types of Operating Systems 93

Topic 6 Programming Language 127

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 7 The Internet 145

Topic 8 Software on the Internet 173

Topic 9 Communication 197

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

9.2 Basic of Data Communication 202

Topic 10 Information Technology Issues and Opportunities 221

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Describe the meanings of Information Technology (IT) and information era;

3. Describe the components of IT;

4. Explain the components of computer, computer hardware, software and

5. Discuss the development of the Internet; and

6. Discuss the ethical issues, opportunities and the role of information

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 6 discusses programming language. Computer programs are developed by

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 9 explains the important component in the development of information

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 INFORMATION ERA

Table 1.1: Descriptions of Agricultural, Industrial and Information Eras

Industrial Work processes are simplified through mechanisation and automation,

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 1.2: The environment during agricultural era

Figure 1.3: The environment during industrial era

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1.2: Evolution of Agricultural, Industrial and Information Era

Evolution Agricultural Era Industrial Era Information Era

Source: Adapted from Senn (1998)