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Simplified Construction Estimate
Table of Contents
CHAPTER – 1 CONCRETE
CHAPTER – 2 MASONRY
CHAPTER – 3 METAL REINFORCEMENT
CHAPTER – 4 LUMBER
CHAPTER – 5 FORMS, SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING
CHAPTER – 6 ROOFING MATERIALS
CHAPTER – 7 TILE WORK
CHAPTER – 8 HARDWARE
CHAPTER – 9 STAIRCASE
CHAPTER – 10 PAINTING
CHAPTER – 11 AUXILIARY TOPIC
Mensuration Formula
Construction Terminologies
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1-1 Plain and Reinforced Concrete
Concrete is either Plain or Reinforced. By definition, Plain Concrete is

an artificial stone as a result of mixing cement, fine aggregates, coarse
aggregates and water. The conglomeration of these materials producing a
solid mass is called plain concrete.
Reinforced Concrete on the other hand, is a concrete with reinforced

embedded in such a manner that the two materials act together in resisting
forces.
The different types of cement used in construction are:
1. The ordinary portland cement
2. The rapid hardening portland cement which is preferred when high

early strength is desired.
3. The blast furnace or sulphate cement which is used on structures

designed to resist chemical attack.
4. The low heat portland cement used for massive section designed to
reduce the heat of hydration.
5. The portland pozzolan cement with a low hardening characteristic

concrete.
6. The high alumina cement.

The high alumina cement is sometimes called Aluminous Cement
Fundu. Its chemical composition is different from that portland cement
having predominant alumina oxide contents of at least 32% by weight. The
alumina lime ratio is within the limit of 0.85% to 1.3%.
This type of cement has a very high rate of strength development as

compared with the ordinary portland cement. Aside from its rapid
hardening properties , it can resist chemical attack by sulphate and weak
acids including sea water. It can also withstand prolonged exposure to high
temperature of more than 1,000° C. Alumina cement however, is not
advisable for mixing with any other types of cement.
The main composition of cement are:
1.60 to 65% Lime
18 -25% Silica
3 - 8% Alumina
3 - 5% Iron Oxide
2 - 5% Magnesia
1 - 5% Sulfur Trioxide
AGGREGATES
Aggregates that are used for concrete work are classified into two
categories:
1. Coarse Aggregates such as crushed stone, crushed gravel or natural

gravel with particles retained on a 5mm sieve.
2. Fine Aggregates such as crushed stone, crushed gravel, sand or

natural sand with particles passing on a 5mm sieve.
Size of aggregates. For coarse aggregate (gravel), the maximum nominal
size are usually 40mm, 20mm, 14mm, 10mm diameter. The choice from the
above sizes depends upon the dimensions of the concrete member
particularly the spacing of steel bars reinforcement. Good practice however,
demands that the maximum size of the coarse aggregate (gravel) should not
exceed 25% of the minimum thickness of the member nor exceed the clear
distance between the reinforcing bars and the form.
The aggregates should be small enough for the concrete mixture to flow
around the reinforcement. This is referred to as workability which is ready
for compacting.

1-2 THE PRINCIPLES OF CONCRETE MIXING
The purpose in concrete mixing is to select an optimum proportion of

cement, water and aggregates to produce a concrete that will meet the
following specification requirements:
1. Workability of concrete
2. Strength
3. Durability
4. Economy
The proportion that will be finally adopted in concrete mixing has to be

established by actual trial and adjustments process in order to attain the
desired strength of concrete required. The process would be as follows:
1. The water cement ratio is first determined at the first hour of mixing
to meet the requirements of strength and durability.
2. The aggregate cement ratio is then chosen and established to satisfy

the workability requirements.
Laboratory test results showed that the water-cement content ratio is the
most important consideration in mixing because it influences not only the
strength and durability of the concrete but also the workability of fresh
concrete being poured inside th forms. Concrete mixture which are in paste
form is preferred than those that are flowing with water.
The ACI requirements for concrete are enumerated as follows:

1. Fresh concrete shall be workable. Meaning - that fresh concrete could
flow freely around the reinforcements and fill all the voids inside the form.
2. That, the hardened concrete shall be strong enough to carry the design
load.
3. That, hardened concrete could withstand the conditions to which it is

expected to perform.
4. The concrete should be economically produced.
Concrete Mixture may be Classified as either:
a. Designed Mixture
b. Prescribed Mixture
Designed Mixture. Where the contractor is responsible in selecting the

mixture proportion to achieve the required strength and workability.
Prescribed Mixture. Where the designing engineer specify the mixture

proportion. The contractor's responsibility is only to provide a properly
mixed concrete containing the right proportions as prescribed.

1-3 THE UNIT OF MEASURE
Prior to the adoption of the Metrication otherwise known as System

International (SI), solid concrete structure is estimated in terms of cubic
meter although the components thereof such as cement, aggregates and
water measured in pounds, cubic foot and gallons per bag respectively.
TABLE 1-1 CONVERSION FROM INCHES TO METER
Accurate Approximate Accurate Approximate

Number Number
Value Value Value Value
1 .0254 .025 21 .5334 .525

2 .0508 .050 22 .5588 .550
3 .0762 .075 23 .5842 .575
4 .1016 .100 24 .6096 .600
5 .1270 .125 25 .6350 .625
6 .1524 .150 26 .6604 .650
7 .1778 .175 27 .6858 .675
8 .2032 .200 28 .7112 .700
9 .2286 .225 29 .7366 .725
10 .2540 .250 30 .7620 .750
11 .2794 .275 31 .7874 .775
12 .3048 .300 32 .8128 .800
13 .3302 .325 33 .8382 .825
14 .3556 .350 34 .8636 .850
15 .3810 .375 35 .8890 .875
16 .4064 .400 36 .9144 .900
17 .4318 .425 37 .9398 .925
18 .4572 .450 38 .9652 .950
19 .4826 .475 39 .9906 .975
20 .5080 .500 40 1.0160 1.000
Lately however, after the adoption of the SI unit of measures, the 94
pounds per bag cement which is equivalent to 42.72 kilograms was changed
and fixed at 40 kilogram per bag. Such changes therefore, requires
adjustment of all measurements relative to the proportion of concrete.
The traditional wooden box used to measure the sand and gravel is 12
inches wide by 12 inches long and 12 inches high having a net volume of
one cubic foot. very recently, a 50 kilograms cement was released in the
market for commercial purposes. This new development was already
incorporated in our tables and illustrations which would be noticed in the
variation of values presented in Table 1-2. The values presented in Table
1-1 could be useful in two ways:
1. One for the accurate conversion of length from English to Metric
2. The approximate value which will be generally used in our

simplified methods of estimating.
For Instance:
A.) In solving problems, the probability of committing error is high if

more number is being used.
Example:
It is easier to use .10 meter (the approximate equivalent of 4 inches) than

.1016 the exact equivalent of 4" be it by multiplication or by division
processes.
8 = 80 by inspection and analysis

.10
8 = 78.7 by long process of division

.1016
B.) To memorize the values given on Table 1-1 is a waste of time and
not a practical approach. A simple guide will be adopted so that one could
easily determine the equivalent values from English to Metric or vice versa.
Example:
1. To convert Meter to Feet.... Divide the length by .30
Say 6.0 m. = 20 ft. >>>HELP

.30
2. To convert Feet to Meter.... Multiply by .30
Say, 30 feet x .30 = 9.0 meters >>>HELP
3. To convert Inches to Meter:...Just remember the following values

of equivalent:
Take note that all length in inches are divisible by one of these four
numbers and could be easily converted to meters by assuming up their
quotient equivalent.
Example:
a.) What is the meter length equivalent of 7 inches?
By simple analysis, 7 inches could be the sum of four and 3
Therefore:
4 inches = .10 m.
3 inches = .75 m.
Answer .175 meter
>>>HELP
b.) how about 21 inches?
5 x 4" = 20"
5 x .10 = .50 m.
plus 1" = .025 m.
Answer = .525 m.
>>>HELP
PROBLEM EXERCI
Using the above simple guide, convert the following numbers to meter or
vice versa.>>>
Inches to Meter Meter to Feet and Inches

47" 2.75
66 3.35
128 5.98
349 8.77
587 12.49

1-4 CONCRETE PROPORTION
The most common and easy way of proportioning concrete is by the

volume method using a measuring box for sand and gravel as explained in
Section 1-3. The reasons behind its traditional acceptance and use is the
convenience in measuring and and fast handling of the aggregates from the
stock pile to the mixer.
The volume method of concrete proportioning had long been practiced in

most all types of concrete construction and time have proven it to be
effective and successful. However, in construction where space for
materials stock piling and mixing does not permit, ready-mixed concrete is
the most practical solution.
FIGURE 1-1
TABLE 1-2 CONCRETE PROPORTION

Class Mixture Cement Sand Gravel
40 kg./
48 kg./ Bag Cu. M. Cu. M.
Bag
AA 1 : 1 1/2 : 3 12.0 9.5 .50 1.0
A 1 : 2 : 4 9.0 7.0 .50 1.0
B 1 : 2 1/2 : 5 7.5 6.0 .50 1.0
C 1 : 3 : 6 6.0 5.0 .50 1.0
It is interesting to note that the volume of sand and gravel for all classes
of mixture is constant at .50 cu. m. and 1.0 cu. m. respectively. This is true
on the assumption that the cement paste enters the void of the sand and at
the same instance the combination of these two materials fills the void of
the gravel and thereafter, forming a solid mass called concrete equivalent to
one cubic meter.
Base from actual concreting work, one cubic meter of gravel plus one
half cubic meter sand mixed with cement and water will obtain a little bit
more than one cubic meter solid concrete. The small excess over one cubic
meter will be considered as contingency.
Comments
In actual concreting and masonry work, there are several factors that
might affect the accuracy of the estimate. Some of which are enumerated as
follows:
1. Inaccurate volume of delivered aggregates which is very common.

Delivery truck measurements must be checked to assure that the volume of
aggregates delivered is exactly as ordered.
2. Dumping of aggregates on uneven ground surface and grass areas

reduces the net volume of the aggregates.
3. Improper measuring of the aggregates during the mixing operation.

this is common practice when the work is on its momentum where laborers
fails to observe the right measuring of aggregates being delivered to the
mixer.
4. The cement and fine aggregate for grouting concrete joints is often
overlooked in the estimating process.
5. Cement waste due to bag breakage is usually caused by reckless

hauling and handling.
6. Pilferages of materials, although this could be avoided through an

effective construction management.
Ordering of coarse aggregate must be specific as to:
a.) Kind of gravel, either crushed stone or natural gravel from the
creek.
b.) The minimum and maximum size of the stone must be specified. It
should be free from mixed sand because sand is cheaper than gravel.
Natural gravel from the creek requires screening to obtain a well graded
coarse aggregate. remember that screening involves additional cost of labor
and reduction in the net usable volume of gravel.

1-5 CONCRETE SLAB
The discussions from cement to concrete proportions plus the Tables

presented could be more meaningful and appreciated if accompanied by
illustrations or examples of actual applications.
ILLUSTRATION 1-1
A proposed concrete pavement has a general dimensions of 4 inches

thick, 3.00 meters wide and 5.00 meters long. Determine the number of
cement in bags, sand and gravel in cubic meters required using class C
mixture.
FIGURE 1-2 CONCRETE SLAB
SOLUTION:
1. Determine the volume of the proposed concrete pavement. Convert 4
inches to meter = .10 m. (see Table 1-1)
V = .10 x 3.00 x 5.00

V = 1.5 cubic meter
2. Refer to Table 1-2. Using 40 kg. cement class "C" mixture;

Multiply:
Cement : 1.5 x 6.0 = 9.0 bags

Sand : 1.5 x .50 = 0.75 cu. m.
Gravel : 1.5 x 1.0 = 1.50 cu. m.
Take note that the computation is for 40 kg cement. Suppose that there is
no available 40 kg. cement and what is available is 50 kg. per bag. How
many bags will be ordered using the later?
SOLUTION:
1. Knowing the volume to be 1.5 cu. m.
2. Refer again to Table 1-2. Under 50 kg cement class "C" mixture;

Multiply:
Cement : 1.5 x 5.0 = 7.5 bags
Sand : 1.5 x .50 = .75 cu. m.
Gravel : 1.5 x 1.0 = 1.5 cu. m.
3. Since we cannot buy 7.5 bags cement , order 8 bags at 50 kg per bag.
ILLUSTRATION 1-2
A barangay road 6.00 meters wide and one kilometer long after base
preparation requires concreting . Find the number of bags cement, sand and
gravel in cubic meters required using class "A" concrete if the slab is
designed at 6 inches thick.
FIGURE 1-3
SOLUTION:
1. Determine the volume of the concrete pavement.

Convert 6" to meter = .15 m.; 1 - kilometers is 1,000 m.
V = thickness x width x length

V = .15 x 6.00 x 1,000 m.
V = 900 cu m.
2. Refer to Table 1-2. Using 40 kg. cement;
Cement : 900 x 9.0 = 8,100 bags

Sand : 900 x .50 = 450 cu. m.
Gravel : 900 x 1.00 = 900 cu. m.
3. If there is no available 40 kg. cement, a 50 kg. cement requires :
Cement : 900 x 7.0 = 6,300 bags

Sand and Gravel = The same as computed above.
PROBLEM EXERCISE
A concrete road 15 meters wide 5 kilometers long is designed with a

thickness as shown in the following cross section. Specifying class "A"
concrete, determine the quantity of 40 kg. cement, sand and gravel required.
If there is no available 40 kg cement, how many bags at 50 kg. per bag
would be needed instead?
FIGURE 1-4

1-6 ESTIMATING CONCRETE SLAB BY THE AREA

METHOD
Estimating concrete slab by the area method is much easier than the
Volume Method explained in Sec. 1-5. However, this could be done easily
with the aid of Table 1-3 which really offer the quantity of cement, sand and
gravel per square meter depending upon the required thickness of the slab.
TABLE 1-3 QUANTITY OF CEMENT, SAND AND GRAVEL FOR

SLAB AND WALLS PER SQUARE METER
Mixture Class Sand Gravel
Thick
40 kg Cement 50 kg Cement
cm. cu. m. cu. m.
A B C A B C
5.0 .450 .375 .300 .350 .300 .250 .0250 .050
7.5 .675 .563 .450 .525 .450 .375 .0375 .075
10.0 .900 .750 .600 .700 .600 .500 .0500 .100
12.5 1.125 .938 .750 .875 .750 .625 .0630 .125
15.0 1.350 1.125 .900 1.050 .900 .750 .0750 .150
17.5 1.575 1.313 1.050 1.225 1.050 .875 .0880 .175
20.0 1.800 1.500 1.200 1.400 1.200 1.00 .1000 .200
22.5 2.030 1.688 1.350 1.575 1.350 1.125 .1125 .225
25.0 2.250 1.875 1.500 1.750 1.500 1.250 .1250 .250
27.5 2.475 2.063 1.650 1.925 1.650 1.375 .1380 .275
30.0 2.700 2.250 1.800 2.100 1.800 1.500 .1500 .300
ILLUSTRATION 1-3
Adopting the problem of Illustration 1-1 and 1-2 using the Area Method
with the aid of Table 1-3 the solution will be :
Solution for Illustration 1-1
1. Solve for the pavement area.
Area = width x length

A = 3.00 x 5.00 m.
A = 15 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 1-3. For a 10 cm. (4") slab using class "C" Mixture
using 40 kg. cement;
Multiply :
Cement : 15 x .60 = 9.0 bags

Sand : 15 x .05 = .75 cu. m.
Gravel : 15 x .10 = 1.5 cu. m.
3. Compare this quantity to that of Illustration 1-1, the results are the
same.
Solution for Illustration 1-2
1. Find the area of the barangay concrete road.
A = width x length
A = 6.00 x 1,000 m.
A = 6,000 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 1-3. Using class "A" concrete for a 15 cm. thick
concrete slab ;
Multiply :
Cement : 6,000 x 1.350 = 8,100 bags

Sand : 6,000 x .075 = 450 cu. m.
Gravel : 6,000 x .150 = 900 cu . m.
3. Compare this result with that of Illustration 1-2. The answers are the
same. Thus, solving for the quantity of cement, sand and gravel for
pavement and walls can be done in two different ways. By the Volume
Method and the Area Method.
PROBLEM EXERCISE
1. By the area method, determine the quantity of cement, sand and

gravel of the proposed concrete parking area 5 inches thick with a general
dimensions of 50 meters by 120 meters using class A mixture.
FIGURE 1-5
2. By the Volume and Area method, determine the quantity of cement,

sand and gravel of the concrete pavement 4 inches thick using class B
concrete.
FIGURE 1-6

1-7 CONCRETE COLUMN
Estimating the quantity of materials for concrete post, column and the
like structures is done in two different ways :
1. By the Volume Method

2. By the Linear Meter Method
ILLUSTRATION 1-4
A reinforced concrete square column is 12 meters long with a cross

sectional dimensions of 16 by 16 inches. Determine the cement, sand and
gravel content of the column if it is poured with class "A" concrete.
SOLUTION :
A. By the Volume Method

1. Convert first all measurements form inches to meter, then find the
volume of the column. Refer to Table 1-1.
16 inches = .40 meters
2. Solve for the cross sectional area of the column
Area = .40 x .40

A = .16 sq. m.
3. Determine the volume of the column :
Volume = Area x Height

V = .16 x 12 meters
V = 1.92 cubic meters
4. Refer to Table 1-2. Using a 40 kg. cement class "A" concrete

Multiply :
Cement : 1.92 x 9.0 = 17.28 say 18 bags

Sand : 1.92 x .50 = 0.96 say 1.0 cu. m.
Gravel : 1.92 x 1.0 = 1.92 say 2.0 cu. m.
5. Order: 18 bags cement at 40 kg. per bag

1.0 cu. m. sand
2.0 cu. m. gravel
ILLUSTRATION 1-5
A concrete column is 7 meters high with a cross sectional dimensions of

20 x 24 inches. Determine the quantity of cement, sand and gravel content
of the column if there are 8 columns in the row using class "A" concrete.
FIGURE 1-7
SOLUTION
1. Find the volume of one column. convert first all dimensions from
inches to meters. (Refer to Table 1-1 use approximate value)
20 inches = .50 m.
24 inches = .60 m.
2. Solve for the cross sectional area of the column.
Area = .50 x .60 = .30 sq. m.
3. Find the volume of the 8 columns.
Volume = .30 x 7.00 ht. x 8 columns

V = 16.8 cu m.
4. Refer to Table 1-2. Using 40 kg. cement class "A" mixture

Multiply :
Cement : 16.8 x 9.0 = 151.2 say 152 bags
Sand : 16.8 x .50 = 8.4 cu. m.
Gravel: 16.8 x 1.0 = 16.8 cu. m.

1-8 ESTIMATING CONCRETE COLUMN BY THE LINEAR

METER METHOD
Another way of estimating the quantity of materials for concrete column

is by the Linear Meter Method. Under this method, the length of the column
is first determined, then with the aid of Table 1-4, the quantity required is
found by multiplying the length by the corresponding value of cement, sand
and gravel.
ILLUSTRATION 1-6
Adopting the problem of Illustration 1-5 where there are 8 columns at 7

meters high each, we have:
SOLUTION :
1. Find the total length of the 8 columns:
8 pcs. x 7.00 m. = 56 meters
2. Refer to Table 1-4. Along 50 x 60 cm. column, using 40 kg cement

class "A" concrete :
Multiply :
Cement : 56 x 2.700 = 151.2 say 152 bags

Sand : 56 x .150 = 8.4 cu. m.
Gravel : 56 x .300 = 16.8 cu. m.
3. Comparing this result to that of Illustration 1-5, the answers are the
same.
PROBLEM EXERCISE
1. From the following figure and data, solve for the quantity of cement
sand and gravel by the volume method and by the linear meter method
using class "A" concrete
FIGURE 1-8

POST,
BEAM AND GIRDER PER METER LENGTH
Mixture Class Sand

Size Gravel
40 kg. Cement 50 kg. Cement cu.
cm. cu. m.
m.
A B A B
15 x 15 .203 .169 .158 .135 .011 .023
15 x 20 .270 .225 .210 .180 .015 .030
15 x 25 .338 .281 .263 .225 .019 .038
15 x 30 .405 .338 .315 .270 .023 .045
15 x 35 .473 .394 .369 .315 .026 .053
15 x 40 .540 .450 .420 .360 .030 .060
20 x 20 .360 .300 .280 .240 .020 .040

20 x 25 .450 .375 .350 .300 .025 .050
20 x 30 .540 .450 .420 .360 .030 .060
20 x 35 .630 .525 .490 .420 .035 .070
20 x 40 .720 .600 .560 .480 .040 .080
25 x 25 .563 .469 .438 .375 .031 .063

25 x 30 .675 .563 .525 .450 .038 .075
25 x 35 .788 .656 .613 .525 .044 .088
25 x 40 .900 .750 .700 .600 .050 .100
25 x 45 1.013 .844 .788 .675 .056 .113
25 x 50 1.125 .938 .875 .750 .063 .125
30 x 30 .810 .675 .630 .540 .045 .090

30 x 35 .945 .788 .735 .630 .053 .105
30 x 40 1.080 .900 .840 .720 .060 .120
30 x 45 1.215 1.013 .945 .810 .068 .135
30 x 50 1.350 1.125 1.050 .900 .075 .150
35 x 35 1.103 .919 .858 .735 .061 .123

35 x 40 1.260 1.050 .980 .840 .070 .140
35 x 45 1.418 1.181 1.103 .945 .079 .158
35 x 50 1.575 1.313 1.225 1.050 .088 .175
35 x 55 1.890 1.575 1.470 1.260 .105 .210
40 x 40 1.440 1.200 1.120 .960 .080 .160

40 x 45 1.620 1.350 1.260 1.080 .090 .180
40 x 50 1.800 1.500 1.400 1.200 .100 .200
40 x 55 1.980 1.650 1.540 1.320 .110 .220
40 x 60 2.160 1.800 1.680 1.440 .120 .240
45 x 45 1.823 1.519 1.418 1.215 .101 .203
45 x 50 2.025 1.688 1.575 1.350 .113 .225
45 x 55 2.228 1.856 1.733 1.485 .124 .248
45 x 60 2.430 2.025 1.890 1.620 .135 .270
50 x 50 2.250 1.875 1.750 1.500 .125 .250

50 x 55 2.475 2.063 1.925 1.650 .138 .275
50 x 60 2.700 2.250 2.100 1.800 .150 .300
55 x 60 2.970 2.475 2.310 1.980 .165 .330

55 x 70 3.465 2.888 2.695 2.310 .193 .385
55 x 80 3.960 3.300 3.080 2.640 .220 .440
55 x 90 4.455 3.713 3.465 2.970 .248 .495
55 x
4.950 4.125 3.850 3.300 .275 .550
100
60 x 60 3.240 2.700 2.520 2.160 .180 .360

60 x 70 3.780 3.150 2.940 2.520 .210 .420
60 x 80 4.320 3.600 3.360 2.880 .240 .480
60 x 90 4.860 4.050 3.780 3.240 .270 .540
60 x
5.400 4.500 4.200 3.600 .300 .600
100
65 x 60 3.510 2.925 2.730 2.340 .195 .390

65 x 70 4.095 3.413 3.185 2.730 .228 .455
65 x 80 4.680 3.900 3.640 3.120 .260 .520
65 x 90 5.265 4.388 4.095 3.510 .293 .585
65 x
5.850 4.875 4.550 3.900 .325 .650
100
70 x 70 4.410 3.675 3.430 2.940 .245 .490

70 x 80 5.040 4.200 3.920 3.360 .280 .560
70 x 90 5.670 4.725 4.410 3.780 .315 .630
70 x
6.300 5.250 4.900 4.200 .350 .700
100
75 x 70 4.725 3.938 3.675 3.150 .263 .525
75 x 80 5.400 4.500 4.200 3.600 .300 .720
75 x 90 6.075 5.063 4.725 4.050 .338 .675
75 x
6.750 5.625 5.250 4.500 .375 .750
100
80 x 80 5.760 4.800 4.480 3.840 .320 .640

80 x 90 6.480 5.400 5.040 4.320 .360 .720
80 x
7.650 6.375 5.950 5.100 .525 .850
100
85 x 80 6.120 5.100 4.760 4.080 .340 .680

85 x 90 6.885 5.738 5.355 4.590 .385 .765
85 x
7.650 6.375 5.950 5.100 .425 .850
100
90 x 90 7.290 6.075 5.670 4.860 .405 .810

90 x
8.100 6.750 6.300 5.400 .450 .900
100
95 x 90 7.695 6.413 5.985 5.130 .428 .855

95 x
8.550 7.125 6.650 5.700 .475 .950
100
100 x
9.000 7.500 7.000 6.000 .500 1.000
100

1-10 RECTANGULAR COLUMN
The procedure of estimating rectangular column is practically the same

as that of the square column. It could either be by the volume method or the
linear meter methods. The choice depends upon the convenience of the
estimator.
ILLUSTRATION 1-9
A series of eight rectangular concrete column with a typical cross

sectional dimensions of 40 x 60 centimeters is supporting a beam. The
columns has a clear height of 5.00 meters from the floor line of the beam.
Using class "A" concrete mixture, determine the quantity of cement, sand
and gravel required.
FIGURE 1-12
SOLUTION ( By the Linear Meter Method )
1. Determine the total length of the eight columns.
8.00 x 5.00 m. ht. = 40 meters
2. Refer to Table 1-4. Along the 40 x 60 column size using 40 kg.

cement class "A" concrete mixture;
Multiply:
Cement : 40 x 2.160 = 86.4 say 87 bags

Sand : 40 x .120 = 4.8 say 5 cu. m.
Gravel : 40 x .240 = 9.6 say 10 cu. m.

1-12 CIRCULAR COLUMN
Estimating the quantity of materials for circular column is typically the

same as that of the volume method for the square and rectangular column
using Table 1-2. However, Table 1-5 was also prepared for the circular
column problem to avail of the Linear Meter Method of estimating.
TABLE 1-5 QUANTITY OF CEMENT, SAND AND GRAVEL PER

METER LENGTH OF CIRCULAR COLUMN
Size Mixture Class Sand Gravel

40 kg. Cement 50 kg. Cement
cm cu. m. cu. m.
A B A B
25 .422 .368 .344 .295 .025 .059
30 .636 .530 .495 .424 .035 .071
35 .866 .722 .673 .577 .048 .096
40 1.131 .942 .880 .754 .063 .126
45 1.431 1.193 1.113 .954 .080 .159
50 1.767 1.473 1.374 1.178 .098 .196
55 2.138 1.782 1.663 1.425 .119 .238
60 2.545 2.121 1.979 1.696 .141 .282

65 2.986 2.488 2.323 1.991 .166 .332
70 3.464 2.866 2.694 2.309 .192 .385
75 3.976 3.313 3.093 2.651 .221 .442
80 4.524 3.770 3.519 3.016 .251 .503
85 5.107 4.256 3.972 3.405 .284 .567
90 5.726 4.771 4.453 3.817 .318 .636
100 7.069 5.890 5.498 4.712 .393 .785
FIGURE 1-14
ILLUSTRATION 1-11
A circular concrete column has a diameter of 60 cm. and 6.00 meters

high. Find the quantity of cement, sand and gravel required if there are five
columns of the same size in a row.
SOLUTION - 1 ( By the Volume Method )
1. Solve for the cross sectional area of the circular column.
A = пr² A = 0.7854 x D² ( Formula )

A = 0.7854 x .60²
A = .283 sq. m.
V = 5 pcs. x .283 x 6m. ht.

V = 8.49 cu. m.
3. Refer to Table 1-2. Using 40 kg. cement class "A" mixture;

Multiply :
Cement : 8.49 x 9.0 =76.4 say 77 bags

Sand : 8.49 x .50 = 4.25 say 5 cu. m.
Gravel : 8.49 x 1.0 = 8.49 say 9 cu. m.
SOLUTION - 2 ( By the Linear Meter Method )
1. Determine the total length of the 5 circular column
L = Number of column x Height

L = 5 pcs. x 6.00 m.
L = 30 meters
2. Refer to Table 1-5. Along 60 cm. column diameter under 40 kg

cement, using class "A" mixture ;
Multiply :
Cement : 30 x 2.545 = 76.3 say 77 bags

Sand : 30 x .141 = 4.2 say 5 cu. m.
Gravel : 30 x .282 = 8.4 say 9 cu. m.
PROBLEM EXERCISE
1. A building has 12 octagonal column and 18 hexagonal column 9.00

meters high with a cross sectional dimensions as shown in the following
figure. Using class "A" concrete, determine the quantity of cement, sand
and gravel required.
FIGURE 1-15
2. From the following figure, determine the quantity of cement sand and
gravel using class "A" concrete. (use the volume method)
FIGURE 1-16

1-13 CONCRETE PIPES
Estimating the quantity of materials for concrete pipe is done through

the following processes.
1. Find the net volume of the concrete. That is, by subtracting the
volume occupied by the hole from the gross volume of the pipe.
2. Knowing the net volume, refer to Table 1-2 to get the quantity of
cement, sand and gravel or;
3. Use Table 1-6.
FIGURE 1-17
ILLUSTRATION 1-12
A road construction requires 12 pieces of 90 cm. diameter concrete pipes

for drainage purposes. Determine the quantity of cement, sand and gravel
necessary for the manufacture of said pipes using class "A" concrete.
(excluding reinforcement which will be discussed later in Chapter - 3)
FIGURE 1-18
SOLUTION - 1 (By the volume Method)
1. Solve for the gross volume of the concrete pipe.
Volume = 0.7854 D²h

V = 0.7854 x 1.102 x 1.00 m.
V = 0.95 cu.m.
2. Solve for the volume of the hole.
V = 0.7854 x d²h
V = 0.7854 x.90² x 1.00 m.
V = .636 cu. m.
3. Subtract the result of step 2 from step 1 to get the net volume of the
concrete pipe.
Vn = .95 - .636 = .314 cu. m.
4. Total volume of the 12 pipes
Vt = 12 x .314 = 3.77 cu m.
5. Refer this volume to Table 1-2. Using 40 kg. cement class "A" mixture
;
Multiply :
Cement : 3.77 x 9.0 = 33.93 say 34 bags.
Sand : 3.77 x .50 = 1.88 say 2 cu. m.
Gravel : 3.77 x 7.0 = 3.77 say 4 cu. m.

PIPE IN BAGS AND CUBIC METER RESPECTIVELY
Diameter Cement in Bags

Sand Gravel
cm. Class of Mixture
cu. m. cu. m.
D d A B
25 15 .283 .236 .016 .032
30 20 .354 .295 .020 .040
40 25 .689 .575 .038 .077
45 30 .796 .663 .044 .088
55 40 1.000 .840 .056 .112
60 45 1.114 .928 .062 .124
65 50 1.220 1.016 .068 .136
80 60 1.980 1.650 .110 .220
85 65 2.121 1.768 .118 .236
90 70 2.262 1.885 .126 .251
100 80 2.545 2.121 .141 .283
110 90 2.828 2.357 .157 .314
120 100 3.111 2.592 .173 .346
145 120 4.683 3.903 .260 .520
175 150 5.743 4.786 .319 .638
SOLUTION - 2 (By Linear Meter Method or Per Pipe)

1. Take note that a 90 cm. pipe refers to the hole diameter. For the
purpose of estimating the volume of concrete, we consider the outside
diameter of the pipe which is 110 centimeters. Thus
2. Refer to Table 1-6. Along the 110 cm. diameter pipe, under 40 kg.
cement class "A" mixture ;
Multiply :
Cement : 12 pipes x 2.828 = 33.93 say 34 bags
Sand : 12 pipes x .157 = 1.88 cu. m.
Gravel : 12 pipes x .314 = 3.77 cu. m.
PROBLEM EXERCISE
1. A building design has a spiral reinforced concrete column 5.00 meters

high with a general cross sectional diameter of 24 inches. Determine the
required materials by the volume method using class "A" concrete.
a.) The number of cement at 40 kg. per bag
b.) The number of cement at 50 kg. per bag
c.) The quantity of sand and gravel in cubic meter.
2. A road drainage system requires 80 pieces of 24 inches and 50 pieces

of 36 inches concrete pipes. As a contractor, how many bags of 40 kg.
cement, sand and gravel you need to manufacture the above pipes? Should
there be no available 40 kg. cement, how many bags at 50 kg will you order
instead ?
3. A commercial building has 36 pieces heptagonal and 12 pieces

octagonal columns with a diameter of 36 inches and 48 inches respectively.
If the columns are 14 meters high, solve for the required cement, sand and
gravel using class "A" concrete.
4. A concrete road 7.20 meters wide 8 inches thick one 10 kilometers long
specify class "A" concrete. List down the cement, sand and gravel required.
5. From the following figure, list down the concrete materials required for
:
a.) Floor slab b.) Concrete beam c.) Girder
FIGURE 1-19
6. Using class "A" mixture, list down the concrete materials for the
following:
FIGURE 1-20

2-6 ADOBE STONE
Adobe stone is commonly used for fencing materials as substitute to concrete hollow
blocks for economic reasons. Lately however, the used of the adobe stone was no longer
limited to the ordinary zocalo and fencing work but also extensively used as finishing and
decorative materials for exterior and interior of buildings.
Space for FIGURE 2-13
The use of adobe stone for buttresses, cross footings, fences and stairs
minimizes the use of mortar filler. Plastering is sometimes disregarded specially when the
design calls for exposure of the natural texture of the stones.
TABLE 2-9 QUANTITY OF CEMENT AND SAND FOR ADOBE MORTAR PER
SQUARE METER*
No. 40 kg. Cement 50 kg. Cement

Sand
Com. Size per Class of Mixture Class of Mixture
cu. m.
sq. m. B C D B C D
15 x 15 x
12 .281 .211 .176 .222 .164 .141 .024
45
15 x 20 x
10 .252 .189 .158 .200 .147 .126 .021
45
15 x 30 x
11 .228 .171 .143 .180 .133 .114 .019
30
15 x 30 x
8 .208 .156 .130 .165 .122 .104 .017
40
15 x 30 x
6.5 .190 .143 .119 .151 .111 .095 .016
45
Average thickness = 20 mm
TABLE 2-10 QUANTITY OF ADOBE STONE, CEMENT AND SAND FOR

BUTTRESSES AND FOOTINGS
Cement Mortar per Stone Sand

BUTTRESS and FOOTING 40 kg. Cement cu. m.
Buttress No. Number Class of Mixture
cross of of stone B C D
section course per m ht
section course per m. ht.
30 x 45 2 12 .027 .021 .017 .0023

45 x 45 3 18 .029 .022 .018 .0025
45 x 60 4 24 .027 .021 .017 .0023
45 x 75 5 30 .032 .024 .020 .0026
45 x 95 6 36 .034 .025 .021 .0028
ILLUSTRATION 2-7
From Figure 2-14, compute for the quantity of stone, cement and sand
using class “C” concrete.
FIGURE 2-14
SOLUTION
A. ADOBE STONE
1. Determine the length of the fence minus the space occupied by the buttresses.
Length = 15.00 m. – ( .30 x 3 post )

L = 40.1 meters.
2. Solve for the net area of the wall.
Net area = 14.10 m. x 2.00 m. ht.

An = 28.20 meters
3. Refer to Table 2-9. Using a 15 x 15 x 45 cm. adobe stone;

Multiply :
28.20 x 12 = 338.4 say 339 pcs.
B. BUTRESS
1. The total height of the four posts :
m. x 4 post = 8.00 m.
2. Refer to Table 2-10. Using a 30 x 45 buttress;

Multiply :
8.00 x 12 pcs. per meter height = 96 pieces

Add the stone footing per buttress = 4 (see table 2-10)
96 + ( 4 pcs. x 4 posts ) = 112 pcs.
3. Length of the fence minus the space occupied by the buttress footing.
15.00 m. – ( .45 x 3 ) = 13.65 m.
4. Multiply by 6 stone per meter length ( See Table 2-10 )
13.65 m. x 6 = 82 pcs.
C. CEMENT MORTAR
1. Fence wall area = 28.20 sq. m.

Refer to Table 2-9. Using class “C” mixture 40 kg. cement
Multiply :
Cement : 28.20 x .211 = 5.95 say 6 bags

Sand : 28.20 x .024 = .68 say 7 cu. m.
2. Buttress (post) and Footing = 112 pieces

Refer to Table 2-10. Using class ”C” mixture 40 kg. cement
Multiply :
Cement : 112 x .021 = 2.35 say 3 bags

Sand : 112 x .0023 = .26 cu. m.
3. Fence Footing = 82 pcs. Refer to Table 2-10. Using class “C” mixture ;
Multiply :
Cement : 82 pcs. x .021 = 1.72 say 2 bags.

Sand : 82 pcs. x .0023 = .18 cu. m.
D. CEMENT PLASTER ( One Face )
1. Find the total surface area of the wall plus the surface area of the buttresses to be
plastered.
Length = 15.00 m. + 2 (.15) + ( .15 x 6 )

L = 16.2 m.
Area = 16.2 m. x 1.50 m. height

A = 24.3 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 2-11. Using 40 kg. cement class “C” mixture ;

Multiply :
Cement : 24.3 x .225 = 5.5 say 6 bags

Sand : 24.3 x .025 = .61 cu. m.
3. This is for one side plaster only. However, if two sides will be plastered, double the
quantity.
TABLE 2-11 QUANTITY OF CEMENT AND SAND FOR PLASTERING MORTAR

PER SQUARE METER
Side Bag Cement and Mixture Class Sand

40 kg. Cement 50 kg. Cement cu. m.
B C D B C D
One face .300 .225 .188 .238 .175 .150 .025
Two faces .600 .450 .375 .476 .350 .300 .025
PROBLEM EXERCISE
1. From the following figure, using class “B” mortar mixture prepare the bill of
materials.
a.) 15 x 20 x 45 adobe stone
b.) Buttresses and Footing
c.) Cement Mortar and Plaster
d.) Sand
FIGURE 2-15

3-7 POST AND COLUMN REINFORCEMENT
The reinforcement of post and column to be considered in this study of

estimate are :
1. The Main or Vertical reinforcement

2. The Lateral Ties or
3. The Spiral Ties for circular column
The quantity and length of the main reinforcement is determined by the

"Direct Counting Method" giving special attention to the additional length
for :
a. Lap joints of end splices

b. Allowance for bending and or hook
c. Additional length for beam depth and floor thickness if the height
indicated in the plan is from floor to ceiling.
d. Distance from floor to footing.
e. Provisions for splices of succeeding floors.
FIGURE 3-10
3-8 BEAM AND GIRDER REINFORCEMENTS
The Direct Counting so far is the best method in determining the main
reinforcement of beams and girders. However, in determining the length of
steel bars, the following physical conditions of the beam in relation with
their support must be considered.
1. Verify the plan if the span of the column where the beam is resting
indicates the following conditions :
a.) Center to center of the column

b.) Outer to center of the column
c.) Outer to outer of the column
d.) Inside to Inside span
2. Verify the splicing of the reinforcement if it is adjusted to the

commercial length of steel bars. Have this in mind, the "lesser the splice the
lesser is the cost."
3. Identify the bars with bend and hook, for adjustment of their order
length .
FIGURE 3-11 SPAN OF BEAM

4-1 WOOD
Wood is that fibrous substance which composes the trunk and the
branches of a tree that lies between the pith and the bark. The versatility of
using wood in every construction has lifted its present importance and high
demand in almost all types of construction.
Even with the introduction of new materials and methods of

construction, wood is evidently much in use. Wood, because of its strength,
light weight, durability and ease of fastening become one of the most
important building materials.

4-13 STUDS
Stud is the structural member in building construction where the

siding or partition boards are fastened. It is sometimes referred to as ribs of
wooden walls or partitions. Lumber intended for studs should be straight
and uniform in width of either S2s or S4s for uniformity of wall thickness.
The advantages of using S2s and S4s lumber are :
1. Lumber are straight, uniform in thickness and of good quality.
2. It is economical in terms of labor cost.
3. The work progress is not affected or delayed.
There are two methods presented on how to find the quantity of studs
at a given vertical and horizontal spacing.
1. The Direct Counting Method
2. The Square Meter Method
The Direct Counting Method is done by counting the number of

vertical and horizontal member from a detailed plan. In the absence of a
detailed drawing plan, an imaginary counting through arithmetical
computation will do as an alternative.
The Area or Square Meter Method is by simply finding the area of

the wall multiplied by the values given on Table 4-3 corresponding to the
size and spacing of the studs.
TABLE 4-3 NUMBER OF BOARD FOOT OF STUDS AND

NAILING JOIST PER SQUARE METER
Lumber Spacing in Centimeters (center to center)
Size In. 30 x 30 30 x 60 40 x 40 40 x 60 60 x 60
1x2 4.230 3.256 3.208 2.771 2.333
2x2 8.460 6.513 6.417 5.445 4.667
2x3 12.688 9.769 9.625 8.312 7.000
2x4 16.920 13.026 12.833 11.083 9.333
2x5 21.146 16.282 16.042 13.854 11.667
2x6 25.375 19.539 19.250 16.625 14.000
ILLUSTRATION 4-9
A wall partition 6.00 meters long and 2.60 meters high specify the
use of 2" x 4" studs spaced at 60 centimeters on center both ways. Find the
total board foot required.
SOLUTION ( By Direct Counting )
1. Find the number of Vertical Studs.
6.00 m. = 10 + 1 = 11
.60
( What we get is the number of spacing . Add 1 to find the
exact number of studs.)
2. Find the number of Horizontal Studs.
2.50 m. = 4.2 + 1 = 5.2 say5 pcs. at 6.00 m. long

.60
3. Order :
Vertical Studs 11 pcs. – 2" x 4" x 10' = 73.3

bd. ft.
Horizontal Studs 5 pcs. – 2" x 4" x 20' = 66.6

bd. ft.
Total…...... 139.9
bd. ft.
SOLUTION ( By the Area Method )
1. Solve for the area of the wall partitions.
A = 6.00 x 2.5
= 15 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 4-3. Using 2" x 4" at 60 cm. spacing;
Multiply :
15 x 9.333 = 140 bd. ft.
Comment
Comparatively, computation by the Area Method with the aid of

Table 4-3 instantly gives a result in board foot. Unlike the first solution the
number of pieces and length were known outright ahead of the board foot.
However, as to which method will be used, depends upon the choice and
purpose of the estimator.
There are instances where small discrepancies arises between the

results of the methods. This is due to the adjustment of lumber from odd to
even length. Naturally, if length is adjusted to the next even length the
number of board foot will also increase while the area covered remains the
same. Under this circumstances, small discrepancies between the two
methods cannot be avoided but to a negligible amount.
ILLUSTRATION 4-10
A partition wall measures 8.00 meters long by 2.70 meters high

specify the use of 2" x 3" studs with a general spacing at 40 centimeters for
vertical and 60 cm. for horizontal center to center distance. List down the
necessary wall studs.
FIGURE 4-18
SOLUTION 1 ( By Direct Counting )
1. Find the number of Vertical Studs
8.00 = 20 spacing + 1 = 21 studs.

.40
2. Convert the height from meter to feet. Divide by .30.
2.70 = 9 ft.
.30
3. Order : 21 pcs. 2" x 3" 10 ft. = 105 bd.ft.

4. Find the number of Horizontal Studs.
2.70 = 4.5 + 1 = 5.5 pcs. at 4.00 m.

.60
5. Since the wall is 8.00 m. long, multiply by 2
5.5 x 2 = 11 pcs.
Summary
21 pcs. 2" x 3" x 10' = 105 bd ft.
11 pcs. 2" x 3" x 14' = 77 bd ft.
Total…………….. 182 bd. ft.
SOLUTION 2 ( By the Area Method )
1. Solve for the area of the wall partition.

8.00 m. x 2.70 m. = 21.6 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 4-3. Using 2" x 3" studs at 40 x 60 spacing;
Multiply :
21.6 x 8.312 = 179.54 say 180 bd. ft.
3. Note the difference of 2 bd. ft. between the solutions which

is negligible.

5-1 FORMS
The structural members of a building are built-up into its desired

shape and dimension through the use of form. Form is a temporary
boarding, sheating or pan used to produced the desired shape and size of
concrete.
Concrete mixture is generally semi-fluid that reproduces the shape of
anything into which is poured. Thus, concrete forms should be water tight,
rigid and strong enough to sustain the weight of concrete. It should be
simple and economically designed in such a manner that they are easily
removed and re-assembled without damage to themselves or to the
concrete.
Selection of forms are based on :
1. Cost of the materials

2. The construction and assembling cost
3. The number of times it could be used.
4. Strength and resistance to pressure and tear and wear.
Classification of Forms :
A. Materials
1. Wood
2. Metal
3. Plastic
4. Composite
B. Shape
1. Straight
2. Circular
C. Solid or Hollow Cast

1. Single
2. Double
D. Methods of Construction
1. Ordinary
2. Unit
E. Uses
1. Foundation
2. Wall
3.Steps
4. Beams and Girders
5. Slab
6. Sidewalks, etc.
F. Construction of Forms consist of :

1. Retaining board
2. Supporters or studs
3. Braces
4. Spacer
5. Slab
6. Bolts and nails
G. Types of Post and Wall Form

1. Continuous
2. Full unit
3. Layer unit
a. Continuous
b. Sectional

5-2 GREASING OF FORMS
Forms are constantly greased before it is used. The purposed of

greasing the form is to make the water proof. Thus, preventing the
absorption of water in the concrete which causes swelling and warping.
Greasing of forms also prevent adherence of concrete into the pores of the
wood.
Crude oil is the most economical and satisfactory materials for this
purpose. The crude oil is mixed with No. 40 motor oil to a proportion of 1:3
mixture or with varying viscosity according to the temperature. Thicker
mixture is recommended on warm weather. However, greasing of forms
should not be allowed after the steel bars have been set to its position. Metal
forms also need oil application to prevent rust formation.

5-3 SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING
Scaffolding is a temporary structure of wooden poles and planks providing

platform for working men to stand on while erecting or repairing of building. It is
further defined as a temporary framework for other purposes.
Staging on the other hand, is a more substantial framework progressively built-

up as tall building rises up. The term staging is applied because it is built up in stages
one storey at a time.
Numerous accidents in building construction usually happened because of faulty

construction method and insufficient supports and braces. One tragic incident
happened in the construction of the Film Palace in Metro Manila where several lives
including the supervising engineer were buried alive in cement and rubbles when the
forms and staging swayed and rammed down in total collapse.
Staging is not simple as others may think of it. It requires special skill and
experienced men to do work. Incidentally, the primary cause of accidents and failure
of the framework is the use of inferior quality of lumber, inadequate support and
braces, nails and others for economy or negligence. Definitely, poor quality lumber
has no place in horizontal members of staging work if the builder is aware of the value
of life and property involved in building construction. Lumber intended for temporary
structure to support heavy load such as concrete should be selected from straight grain
of wood free from shakes or knots and other defects.
The used of coconut lumber is gaining wide acceptance due to the scarcity of wood
and the prohibitive price of lumber. However, extra care should exercised in selecting
the quality of the coco lumber. Those with or near the bank is considered harder and
stronger in quality. Closer spacing of the supports and braces should be always in
mind when using coco-lumber as scaffolding. Do not rely to much on coco-lumber
fastened with nails always remember the principles of post and lintel type of
construction.
The different parts of staging to consider are :
1. Vertical support
2. Footing base (as needed)
3. Horizontal and diagonal braces
4. Block and wedges support
5. Nails
FIGURE 5 – 1
Cost is the primary consideration in selecting the kind of materials to be used as

form. Cost is a broad term in construction which under this particular item refers to:
1. Initial investment on materials

2. Assembling cost
3. The number of times it could be used.
4. Durability of the materials to resist pressure and tear and wear.
The common material used as forms for all types of construction during the time
of lumber abundancy as early as 1960’s is the T & G. Unfortunately, with the present
condition of our forest where the price of wood is highly prohibitive like gold, using a
T & G lumber as form is very costly unless its use is extremely necessary. Presently,
the materials being used as form is either plywood or metal sheet.
The use of plastic as form is the next alternative after wood and metal
considering its weight, durability and recycling properties. However, the problem to
be encountered is the cost of fabrication. Ordering the desired size and form in few
quantities might turn out to be more expensive than the used of plywood and metal
sheet which could be fabricated on site without delay.
5-4 PLYWOOD AS CONSTRUCTION FORM
Plywood is a versatile construction metal. It is not only use as wall

partitions but cabinet, furnitures, boat building as well as forms for
reinforced concrete construction.
Plywood thickness varies from:
a. 4 mm.
b. 6 mm.
c. 12 mm.
d. 20 mm.
Commercial sizes of:
a. 90 x 180 cm.
b. 120 x 240 cm.
Plywood as form has the following advantages:
1. It is economical in terms of labor cost.

2. It is light weight and handy.
3. It has smooth surface which may not require plastering.
4. Less consumption of nails.
5. Ease of assembling and disassembling.
ILLUSTRATION 5 – 1
Six concrete posts 4.00 meters high with a uniform cross sectional
dimensions of 30 x 30 centimeters specify the use of 12 mm. marine
plywood on a 2” x 2” wood frame. Prepare the bill of materials.
FIGURE 5 – 2 PLYWOOD FORM ON 2 X 2 FRAME
SOLUTION
1. Solve for the lateral surface of one column
A = .30 x 4 sides x 4.00 meters height

= 4.8 sq. m.
2. Total area of the six columns

Total area = 4.8 x 6 = 28.8 sq. m.
3. Refer to Table 5-1. Using 1.20 x 2.40 plywood (4’ x 8’)

Multiply :
28.8 x .46 = 13.2 say 14 pcs.
4. Solve for the frame. Refer to Table 5-1. Using 2” x 2” lumber.

Multiply :
28.8 x 13.50 = 388.8 say 389 bd. ft.
5. The height of the post is the length of the frame, thus
Order: 389 bd. ft. 2” x 2” x 14 ft.
Tip: To get per pcs.:
2” X 2” x 14’ = 4.6 bd. ft.

12
388.8 = 84.52 pcs. say 84 pcs.

4.6
TABLE 5-1 QUANTITY OF PLYWOOD FORM AND ITS FRAME

FOR COLUMNS PER SQUARE METER LATERAL AREA
Plywood Number Size of Frame Ribs

Size of Pieces * Board Ft. Per
In Meter Square Meter
2“x2“ 2“x3“
.90 x 1.80 .84 13.50 21.00
1.20 x 2.40 .46 13.50 21.00
The values given under the frame or ribs are computed from the
longitudinal rib type form (see Figure 5-2) considering its economical
advantages.

5-5 FORMS OF CIRCULAR COLUMN
The plain galvanized iron sheet otherwise known as plain G.I. sheet
is the most common material used as sheeting for circular, oval, elliptical or
other types considering its versatility forming any shape of geometrical
design. Where G.I. sheet is specified as form for a cylindrical column,
wood board and build-up supporters are necessary to form the
circumferential arc frame. The standard dimension of the plain G.I. sheet is
90 centimeters wide by 2.40 meters long.
Estimating Procedure:
1. Find the circumference of the circle where :
C = 3.1416 x diameter
2. Multiply the circumference by the column height. C x ht.
3. Divide the result found in step 2 by 2.16 the effective covering area of
one G.I. sheet.
4. Where extra cuts could not be avoided, an allowance to 5 to 10% or a

minimum of one sheet is sufficient.
5. Solve for the number of supporters of rib. Divide the circumference by

.10 if the spacing is 6 inches.
6. Provide 2 pieces circumferential supporter for every joint of the unit form
which is equivalent to 90 centimeters the width of one G.I. sheet.
ILLUSTRATIONS 5 – 2
Determine the required number of plain G.I. sheet for 6 circular
columns 4.50 meters high each with a uniform cross-sectional diameter of
60 centimeters using 2” x 2” supporters.
SOLUTION: (USING A SECTIONAL LAYER UNIT FORM)
1. Solve for the circumference of one column.
C= 3.1416 x .60 m. = 1.88 m.
2. Multiply by the column height to find the surface area.
Area = 1.88 x 4.50 = 8.46 sq. m.
3. Find the area of the 6 columns.

Multiply:
Total surface area = 8.46 x 6 = 50.76 sq. m.
4. Find the number of sheet required. Divide by the effective covering of

one sheet = 2.16
50.76 = 23.5
2.16
5. Consider 10% waste allowance
23.5 x 1.10 = 25.85 say 26 pcs.
6. Solve for the 2” x 2” frame of one form at 10 cm. spacing
1.88 circumference = 18.8 say 19 pcs. + 2 = 21

.10
7. For 6 columns: 21 x 6 = 126 pcs. of 2” x 2” lumber.

126- 2” x 2” x 16 ft. column ht. = 672 board ft.
8. Circumferential semi-circular supporter of 2” x 2”
14.50 column ht. = 5 pcs. x 2 = 10 pcs.
.90 unit form
The unit form is always in pair so we multiply by 2.
9. Total for 6 columns : 60 pcs. .80 x -3/4” Plywood

3 pcs. on each plywood.
= 20 PCS. ¾ “ x 4’ x 8’ Marine plywood
10. Order:
26 pcs. 90 x 240 (36” x 8’) plain G.I. sheets
126 pcs. 2” x 2” x 16 ft. = 672 bd. ft.
20 pcs. 3/4 “ x 4’ x 8’ marine plywood
FIGURE 5 -3 CIRCULAR FORM
Comment:
For particular purposes, we adopted the layer unit form from for
circular column 90 cm high based on the width of plain G.I. sheet when the
form requires repetitive use (see Figure 5-3) One layer unit form refers
to one section of the form. For instance, if the height of the circular column
is 2.70 meters, there will be 3 layers of unit form at 90 centimeters high.
This type of form is use for ease of assembling and dismantling without
greater damage to the form and to the concrete. For one time use of form,
the continuous or full unit type is satisfactory.
TABLE 5-2 QUANTITY OF CEMENT AND FORM FOR

CIRCULAR COLUMN LAYER UNIT TYPE
Lumber Spacing of Rib Supporter
Sizes Board Foot per G.I. Sheet as Form
Inches 10 cm 15 cm 20 cm
1x2 13.0 9.0 7.0
2x2 26.0 18.0 14.0
2x3 39.0 27.0 21.0
¾ “ plywood 0.77 0.77 0.77
ILLUSTRATION 5-3
Solving the problem of Illustration 5-2 using Table 5-2

Number of columns 6 pcs.
Height 4.50 m.
Diameter .60 m.
Lumber supporter 2” x 2”
Circumference 1.88 m.
SOLUTION
1. Find the lateral surface area of the 6 circular columns.
A = 1.88 x 4.50 height x 6 column
A = 50.76 sq. m.
2. Divide by the effective covering area of one G.I.

sheet: .90 x 2.40 = 2.16 sq. m.
50.76 = 23.50 pcs

2.16
3. Consider 10% allowance: 23.50 x 1.10 = 25.85 say 26
4. Solve for the supporter frame or ribs at .10 cm.

Refer to Table 5-2 Using 2” x 2” lumber:
Multiply:
26 pcs. x 26.0 bd. ft. = 676 board foot.
(Note the difference of 4 bd. ft. which is insignificant)
5. Solve for the circumferential supporter frame using ¾ x 4’x8’ plywood.

Refer to Table 5-2 .
Multiply:
26 plain sheet x 0.77 = 20 pcs.
6. Order: 26 pcs. .90 x 2.40 m. plain G.I. sheet

676 bd. ft. 2” x 2” x 16’ ft. lumber
20 pcs. ¾ “ x 4’ x 8’ marine plywood
Comment:
Take note that in the above solution we need 20 pcs. marine plywood
for 6 columns having 5 layer unit forms per cost. On the other hand, if we
use a continuous form, only 2 pieces of .80x .80 marine plywood will be
needed for each form. Thus, for the 6 columns what is needed is only 12
pcs. .80 x .80 or a total of 4 pieces ¾ “ x 4’ x8’ marine plywood.

5-6 FORM FOR BEAM AND GIRDER
Form for beam and girder is composed of only three parts. One
bottom form and two side forms ordinarily made of plywood board
supported by 2” x 2” or 2” x 3” wood frame. This type of form is rigidly
supported with sufficient vertical and diagonal bracing to carry the heavy
lad of concrete that weighs approximately 65 kilograms per cubic foot. The
ease of dismantling is the primary consideration in assembling of forms.
The freedom from pain and difficulty in removing the form depends on how
it is fastened.
TABLE 5-3 FORM FOR BEAM AND GIRDER
Plywood Width of Form Bd. ft. of Frame per Sq. M.

Size cm of Beam – 3 sides
Others
Cm. 20, 30, 40, 60
number per sq.m. 1x2 2x2 2x3
120 x 240 0.40 .43 3.2 6.4 9.50
ILLUSTRATIONS 5 – 4
Eight concrete beams with cross sectional dimensions of 30 by 60

centimeters has a uniform clear span of 4.50 meters. Using a ½ “ x 4’ x 8’
plywood form on 2 x 2 lumber frame, list down the required materials.
SOLUTION
A. Plywood Form
1. Find the surface area of the two sides of beam.
Area = 2 ( .60 x 4.50 m. ) = 5.40

FIGURE 5-4
A = 5.40 sq. m. x 8 beams

A = 43.20 sq. m.
2. Find the area of the bottom surface of the beam.
A = .30 x 4.50 m. x 8 beams

A = 10 8 sq. m.
3. Add 1 and 2 to find the total area.
Total Area = 43.20 + 10.8

= 54 sq. m.
4. Refer to Table 5-3. Using a 120 x 240 (4’ x 8’) plywood under column
width of form;
Multiply:
54 sq. m. x 0.40 = 21.6
say 22 pcs. ½ “ x 4’ x 8’ plywood
B. 2” x 2” Frame
1.The total area of the bottom and two sides of the beam is 54 sq. m. Refer
to Table 5-3. Using 2” x 2” frame:
Multiply:
54 sq. m. x 6.4 = 346 board ft.
2. Order: 22 pcs. 1/2 ‘ x 4 ‘ x 8’ plywood

346 bd. ft. 2” x 2” x 16 ft.
ILLUSTRATIONS 5-5
Ten concrete beam with a general dimensions 0f 30 x 50 cm. has a

uniform clear span of 6.00 meters. If 12 mm ( ½ “ x 4’ x 8’) marine
plywood will be used as form on a 2” x 3” lumber, prepare the bill of
materials.
FIGURE 5-5
SOLUTION
1. Find the bottom surface area of the beam.
A = .35 x 6.00 m. span x 10 beam

A = 21 sq. m.
2. Find the area of the two sides of the beam.
A =2 sides ( .55 x 6.00 ) x 10 beams

A = 66 sq. m.
3. Add 1 and 2 to get the total surface of the area.
Total = 21 + 68
= 87 sq. m.
4. Refer to Table 5-3. Under column Others, determine the number of

plywood forms required.
Multiply :
87 sq. m. x .43 = 37.41 say 38 pcs. plywood
5. Find the required frame. Refer to Table 5-3. Under 2” X 3” lumber

frame;
Multiply:
87 sq. m. x 9.50 = 826.5 say 827 board ft.
6. Order: 38 pcs. ½ “ x 4’ x 8’ marine plywood

827 bd. ft. 2” x 3”

5-7 ESTIMATING THE SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING
Estimating the materials for scaffolding and staging is someone

difficult considering the volume and various parts involved. The
computation requires time and wider imagination in counting the different
parts of the structure such as the vertical and horizontal support, the
diagonal braces plus the blocks and wedges which are not shown even on a
detailed plan of the building.
The usual practice of most estimator is to make an estimate by either
the quantity of the materials or by the lump sum amount in the bill of
materials for forms and staging. Table 5-5 was prepared to facilitate the
process of estimating scaffolding and staging.
FIGURE 5-6
TABLE 5-4 QUANTITY OF LUMBER FOR SCAFFOLDING AND

STAGING
Lumber Column Beam Flooring

Size Board Ft. per Meter Ht. Bd. Ft. per Meter Ht. Board ft.
per
Vertical Horizontal Brace Vertical Horizontal Sq.M.
2” x 2” 4.70 21.00 11.70 4.00 4.70 6.10
2” x 3” 7.00 31.67 17.50 6.00 7.00 9.10
2” x 4” 9.35 42.25 23.35 8.00 9.35 12.10
ILLUSTRATION 5-6
One section of a reinforced concrete building has 9 columns with a clear

height of 4.00 meters as shown on Figure5-6. Determine the required
staging under the following specifications.
Vertical support …………………2” x 3” lumber

Horizontal brace ………………...2” x 2” lumber
Diagonal Brace …………………2” x 2” lumber
SOLUTION
A. Scaffolding for columns
1. Find the total length of the 9 columns;
4.00 m. x 9 = 36 meters
2. Refer to Table 5-4 .Using 2” x 3” vertical support ;

Multiply :
36 x 7.00 = 252 board ft. 2” x 3” x 14 ft.
To get number of pieces:

2” x 3” x 14’ = 7
12
252 = 36 pcs.
7
3. Find the horizontal support, refer to Table 5-4. Using 2 x 2 lumber
Multiply:
36 x 21.00 = 756 bd. ft. 2” x 2” lumber
To get the number of pieces:

2” x 2” x 16 ‘ = 5.3
12
756 = 142.6 or 143 pcs.

5.3
4. Diagonal braces. From Table 5-4

Multiply:
36 x 11.7 = 421 bd. ft. 2” x 2” lumber
To get the number of pieces:

2” x 2” x 16’ = 5.3
12
421 = 79.43 say 80 pcs.

5.3
B. Scaffolding for Beams
1. Find the total length of the beams
L = (4.50 x 6 pcs.) + (4.00 x 6 pcs.)

L = 27 + 24
= 51 meters
2. Refer to Table 5-4. Using 2” x 3” vertical and horizontal support

Multiply:
a.) For vertical support using 2” x 3” lumber
51 x 6 = 306 bd. ft.

b.) For horizontal brace using 2” x 2”;
Multiply:
51 x 4.7 = 240 bd ft. 2” x 2” lumber
C. Scaffolding for Slab
1. A= 4.50 x 4.00 x 4 units

Area = 72 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 5-4. Using 2” x 3” support;

Multiply:
72 x 9.10 = 655 bd. ft. 2” x 3” lumber
D. Floor Slab Form
1. Floor Area divided by the Area of one plywood = 2.88
72 sq. m. = 25 pcs. 4’ x 8’ plywood

2.88
Comment
1. In our computation of the floor Slab Form, the gross area of the floor
which is 72 sq. m. was divided by 2.88 the area of one commercial size
plywood resulting to 25 pieces. The space occupied by the beam was not
subtracted to be considered as allowance in cutting and assembling of the
form.
2. In the construction multi-storey building, the transfer of the forms and

scaffoldings, from one floor to the next is an inevitable normal operation
wherein wastage of materials cannot be avoided due to tear and wear. Thus,
percentage of waste varies depending upon the following factors.
a. The difference in height between floors may require adjustment of the

vertical support.
b. The difference in sizes of beams and girders also requires adjustment
of the forms.
c. The tear and wear of forms and scaffolding are caused by the
dismantling, transferring and re-assembling.
d. Reckless use and handling of the materials includes the making of
firewood and pilferages during the period of construction.
e. The use of inferior quality of lumber result to high, percentage of
waste and risk to the workers.
f. The percentage of waste in dismantling, transferring and re-assembling
the form varies from 10 % to 20 % per floor depending upon the
physical condition of the structure, the quality of the materials and the
manner of how they are handled.
PROBLEM EXERCISE
1. A building has 24 rectangular columns and 8 circular columns 5.80

meters high with a cross sectional dimensions of 15 inches by 22 inches and
10 inches radius respectively. Solve for the number of 12 mm x 120 x 240
cm. ( ½ “ x 4’ x 8’) plywood form and the corresponding frame thereof
using 2” x 2” lumber.
FIGURE 5-7
2. From the following figure, prepare the bill of materials for
a.) ½ “ x 4’ x 8’ marine plywood form

b.) Scaffoldings for columns, beams and slab using 2” x 3” for major
support and 2” x 2” lumber for diagonal and horizontal braces.
FIGURE 5-8

6-1 GALVANIZED IRON SHEET
Galvanized iron sheet is either Plain or Corrugated. Plain G.I. Sheet is

widely used for roofing, gutter, flashing, down spout, ridge, hip roll and many
other tinsmithing work. Plain G. I. sheet standard commercial size is 90
centimeters wide by 240 centimeters long. Corrugated G.I. sheet on the other hand,
is commonly used for roofing and siding materials having standard width of 80
centimeters with varying length from 1.50 to 3.60 meters at an interval of 30
centimeters. Long span corrugated sheet up to 6.00 meters is also available.
Corrugated G.I Roof Sheet
FIGURE 6-1 CORRUGATED G.I. SHEET
TABLE 6-1 STANDARD WEIGTH OF GALVANIZED IRON SHEET

IN KILOGRAMS
Gauge Thick LENGTH IN METERS AND FEET

No. Cm. 1.5 m. 1.8 m. 2.1 m. 2.4 m. 2.7 m. 3.0 m. 3.60 m.
5 ft. 6 ft. 7 ft 8 ft. 9 ft. 10 ft. 12 ft.
14 .203 22.36 26.83 31.30 35.78 40.25 44.72 53.66
15 .180 20.25 24.30 28.35 32.40 36.45 40.50 48.60
16 .163 18.44 27.76 25.39 29.02 32.64 36.27 43.52
17 .147 16.43 19.72 23.00 26.29 29.58 32.86 39.43
18 .132 14.73 17.67 20.62 23.56 26.51 29.45 35.34
19 .117 13.03 15.63 18.24 20.84 23.45 26.05 31.27
20 .102 11.32 13.58 15.85 18.11 20.38 22.64 27.17
21 .094 10.43 12.52 14.60 16.69 18.78 20.86 25.03
22 .086 9.62 11.54 13.46 15.38 17.31 19.23 23.08
23 .079 8.73 10.47 12.22 13.96 15.71 17.45 20.94
24 .071 7.91 9.49 11.07 12.66 14.24 15.82 18.29
25 .064 7.03 8.43 9.84 11.24 12.65 14.05 16.86
26 .056 6.19 7.43 8.66 9.90 11.14 12.38 14.86
27 .051 5.76 6.91 8.06 9.22 10.37 11.52 13.82
28 .048 5.33 6.39 7.46 8.52 9.59 10.65 12.78
29 .043 4.90 5.88 6.86 7.84 8.82 9.80 11.76
30 .041 4.48 5.37 6.27 7.16 8.06 8.95 10.74
The thickness of galvanized iron sheet is measured in terms of Gauge

number from 14 to 30. The sheet becomes thinner as gauge number becomes
larger. For roofing materials, gauge 26 is the most extensively used for various
tinsmithing work although gauge 24 is specified for gutters, valley rolls and
flashing.
How to distinguish the difference in thickness between the consecutive
gauges from 14 to 30 is so difficult even with the aid of caliper. Gauge is
expressed in terms of hundredth of an inch and the only way by which one could
be sure that he is buying the right thickness of the sheet is by weight measure.
Table 6-1 is presented for this purpose.
Comment :
Before making an estimate of corrugated G.I. roofing sheets, the following

important data should be considered first.
1. Verify the specifications for side lapping if it is 1- ½ or 2 ½ corrugations.
2. If it is 1 ½ corrugations, the effective width covering per sheet is .70 meters

or .60 meters for 2 ½ corrugations.
3. The standard end lapping joint is from 25 to 30 cm.
4. The spacing between purlins should be proportionally adjusted to the length

of the G.I. sheets to avoid unnecessary cutting of the sheets. In short, the
length of the roof sheet shall govern the spacing distance of the purlins. For
this purpose, refer to Table 6-2.
5. A good roofing design are those that minimizes the end lapping. Always
specify longer length of roofing sheet for economical reasons.
FIGURE 6-2
TABLE 6-2 EFFECTIVE COVERING OF G.I. ROOFING SHEETS

PURLINS
SPACING AND NUMBER OF FASTENERS PER SHEET
Length Effective Width Covering Purlins Number of

Feet-Meter Side Lapping Spacing Nails or
cm. Rivets
1–½ 2–½ Per sheet
6” – 1.80 .70 .60 .75 .14
7” – 2.10 .70 .60 .60 .18
8” – 2.40 .70 .60 .70 .18
9” – 2.70 .70 .60 .60 .22
10” – 3.00 .70 .60 .67 .22
12” – 3.60 .70 .60 .66 .26
Procedures in Estimating G.I. Roof Sheet and its Accessories
1. Determine the length of the purlins along the gutter line. The distance is
perpendicular with the roof direction.
2. Divide this length by the effective width covering of one G.I. sheet which is
70 centimeters for 1 – ½ side lap corrugations or 60 centimeters for 2- ½ side
lap corrugations. The result is the number of corrugated G.I. sheets for one
row.
3. Determine the length of the rafter or top chord. Choose the right combination
of roofing sheets that will satisfy this length considering the 30 centimeters
standard and lapping.
4. Multiply the result found in step -2 by each length of G.I. sheet combination
as found in step -3.
5. Determine the number of G.I. nails or rivets and washer in kilograms using
Table 6-2 and Table 6-3.
6. Take note that the number of plain G.I. anchor strap and lead washer is the
same as the quantity of the rivets. The G.I. washer is double the quantity of
the rivets ( see Table 6-3)
7. Solve for the number of plain G.I. sheets required for anchor strap with the
aid of Table 6-4.
TABLE 6-3 QUANTITY OF ROOF ACCESSORIES IN KILOGRAMS
Materials Number of pieces per Kilogram

G.I. Roof Nails 120
G.I. Rivets 180
G.I. Washers 126
Lead Washers 75
Umbrella Nails 120
TABLE 6-4 SIZE AND QUANTITY OF STRAPS IN ONE PLAIN G.I.
SHEET
Size of Purlins Size of G.I. Strap Number of Strap

Inches Inches In One Plain Sheet
2” x 3” !” x 9” 384
2” x 4” 1” x 10” 342
2” x 5” 1” x 11” 312
2” x 6” 1” x 12” 288
ILLUSTRATION 6-1
From the Figure 6-3, find the number of corrugated G.I. roof sheets and its
accessories required if the side lapping specify 1 – ½ corrugations with 30 cm. end
lapping on a 2” x 3” purlins.
FIGURE 6-3
SOLUTION
A. Corrugated G.I. Sheet
1. Divide the length of the gutter by the effective covering of one sheet. Refer to
Table6-2 under 1 ½ corrugation the value is .70.
Divide:
14.00 m. = 20 sheets in one row
70
2. The length of the rafter is 6.00 meters. Thus, a combination of 3.60 m. and
2.70 m. long G.I. Sheet or 12 ft. x 9 ft.
Order :
20 pcs. 32” x 12’ corrugated G.I. sheet and
20 pcs. 32” x 9’ corrugated G.I. sheet
B. Rivets
1. Refer to Table 6-2. For a 12 ft. and 9 ft. long roof sheet,
Multiply:
For 12 ft. long : 20 x 26 = 520 pieces
For 9 ft. long : 20 x 22 = 440
Total rivets …………. 960 pieces
2. Convert to kilograms. Refer to Table 6-3,

Divide :
9.60 pieces = 5.3 say 5.5 kilograms
180
C. G.I. Washers
1. Double the number of rivets;

960 x 2 = 1,920 pcs.
2. Convert to kilograms. Refer to Table 6-3 for G.I. washers

Divide:
1,920 = 15.24 say 15.5 kilograms
126
D. Plain G.I. Strap on 2” x 3” Purlins
1. Total number of rivets = 960 pieces
2. Refer to Table 6-4. Using a 2” x 3” purlins,

Divide:
960 = 2.5 pieces plain G.I. sheet
384
E. Lead Washers
1. The number of rivets is the number of lead washer = 960
2. Refer to Table 6-3 For lead washers;

Divide :
960 = 12.8 say 13 kilograms
75
SUMMARY
20 pcs. 32” x 12 ft. corrugated

G.I. sheet
20 pcs. 32” x 9 ft.
5.5 kg. G.I. rivets
15.5 kg. G.I. washers
13.0 kg. lead washers
2.5 pcs. plain G.I. sheets
ILLUSTRATION 6-2
From Figure 6-4, find the number of corrugated G.I. sheets including the
umbrella nails required if the roof sheets are laid at 2 – ½ side lap corrugations and
30 centimeters end lapping on a 2” x 3” purlins.
FIGURE 6-4
SOLUTION
A. Corrugated G.I. Sheets
1. Determine the number of roof sheet. Refer to Table 6-2, Using 2 ½

corrugations;
Divide:
18.00 m = 30 pcs.
.60
2. The length of the rafter is 6.00 meters or a combination of 3.60 and 2.70
meters. (12’ and 9’) roof sheet (see Table 6-5) multiply each sheet length by
the result of step -1.
30 pcs. 32” x 12 ft. and

30 pcs. 32” x 9 ft. G.I. roof sheets.
3. Take note that this is only one side of the roof. For two sides, double the
quantity.
2 x 30 = 60 pcs x 32 x 12 ft
2 x 30 = 60 pcs. x 32 x 9 ft.
B. Umbrella Nails
1. Determine the number of umbrella nails for the 12 ft. and 9 ft. roof sheets.
Refer to Table 6-2;
Multiply :
60 pcs. of 1 ft. x 26 = 1,560 pieces
60 pcs. of 9 ft. x 22 = 1,320 pieces
Total……...2,880 pieces
2. Convert to kilograms. Refer to Table 6-3;

Divide:
2,880 = 24 kilograms of umbrella nail
120
ILLUSTRATION 6-3
From Figure 6-5, find the number of corrugated G.I. sheets, G.I roof hails,
and lead washers required if the side lapping specify 2 - ½ corrugations.
SOLUTION
A. Corrugated G.I. Sheet
1. Determine the number of roof sheet. Refer to Table 6-2;

Divide :
12.90 m. = 21.5 say 22 pcs.
.60
FIGURE 6-5
2. Determine the length of the rafter = 4.80 m. or 16ft. Refer to Table 6-5. For
16 ft. it requires a combination of 10 ft. and 7 ft. or 9 ft. and 8 ft. Thus, Order:
22 pcs. of 32” x 10 ft. and
22 pcs. of 32” x 7 ft. roofing sheets
3. Again, take note that this is only for one side of the roof. To include the other
side, double the quantity.
2 x 22 = 44 pcs. of 32” x 9’ and
2 x 22 = 44 pcs of 32” x 8’ roof sheets.
B. Roof Nails and Lead Washers
1. Solve for the quantity of roof nails. Refer to Table 6-2;

For 3.00 m. (10 ft.) sheet: 44 x 22 = 968 pcs.
For 2.10 m. (7 ft.) sheet: 44 x 18 = 792 pcs.
Total roof nails………………… 1,760 pcs
2. Convert 1,760 pcs. into kilograms. Refer to Table 6-3;

Divide:
1,760 = 14.7 say 15 kilos G.I. roof nails
120
1760 = 23.5 say 24 kilos lead washers.

75
ILLUSTRATIONS 6-4
From Figure 6-6, find the number of corrugated roof sheets, rivets, washers,
lead washers, including the plain G.I. strap required if the roof is laid at 2 – ½ side
lap corrugations and 30 cm. end lapping on a 2” x 4” purlins.
FIGURE 6-6
SOLUTION
A. Roofing Sheets
1. Determine the number of roofing sheet in one row along the 18.00 m. length
of the gutter. Refer to Table 6-2 for 2 - ½ side lap corrugation.
Divide:
18.00 m. = 30 pcs.
.60
2. Determine the length of the rafter. For a 6.00 meters long, choose a
combination of 12 ft. and ft. roof sheet. See Table 6-5,
30 pcs. of 32” x 12 ft. and

30 pcs. of 32” x 9 ft. corrugated G.I. sheet
3. Take note that the above quantity is only for one side of the roof. To include
the other side double the quantity.
2 x 30 = 60 pcs. 12 ft. and
2 x 30 = 60 pcs. 9 ft. roofing sheets
4. Considering that the roof is a hipped type, wastage on cutting can not be
avoided, hence add 5% allowance if the angle of the hip is 45° and 10° if not
45°. The percentage allowance shall be multiplied to the total number of
sheets. Get a longer sheet to avoid excessive waste in cutting. Thus,
60 + 60 = 120 pcs. x 5% = 6 pcs. of 12 ft.
5. Order : 66 pcs. 32” x 12 ft. and

60 pcs. 32” x 9 ft. corrugated G.I. sheets
B. G.I. Rivets
1. Determine the number of rivets. Refer to Table 6-2;

Multiply:
For 12 ft. sheet: 60 x 26 = 1,560 pcs.
For 9 ft. sheet: 60 x 22 = 1,320 pcs.
Total number of rivets……2,880 pcs.
2. Convert to kilograms: Refer to Table 6-3;

Divide:
2,880 = 16 kilograms
180
C. G.I. and Lead Washers
1. Double the number of rivets = 2880 x 2 = 5,760 pcs.

Refer to Table 6-3,
Divide:
5760 = 45.7 say 46 kilograms
126
2. Lead washer is the same number as the rivets. Refer to Table 6-3
Divide:
2,880 pcs. = 38.4 say 39 kilograms
75
D. Plain G.I. Anchor Strap
1. Refer to Table 6-4. The Size of G.I. strap on a 2” x 4” purlins is 1" x 10" .
2. Number of strap is equal to the number of rivets = 2,880.

Solve for the number of plain sheet. Refer to Table 6-4.
Divide:
2,880 = 8.42 say 9 pcs. 36” x 8 ft. plain G.I. sheet
342
TABLE 6-5 COMBINATION OF CORRUGATED G.I. ROOF SHEETS

ON A GIVEN RAFTER LENGTH
RAFTER NO. OF COMBINATION OF ROOF SHEET

LENGTH SHEET LENGTH OF METERS (FEET)
3.00 1 3.00 (10’)
3.30 1 3.30 (11’)
3.60 1 3.60 (12’)
3.90 2 2.10 ( 7’ ) and 2.10 ( 7 ’)
4.20 2 2.40 ( 8’ ) and 2.10 ( 7’ )
4.50 2 2.40 ( 8’ ) and 2.40 ( 8’ )
4.80 2 3.00 (10’) and 2.10 ( 7’ )
5.10 2 3.00 (10’) and 2.40 ( 8’ )
5.40 2 3.00 (10’) and 2.70 ( 9’ )
5.70 2 3.00 (10’) and 3.00 (10’ )
6.00 2 3.60 (12’) and 2.70 ( 9’ )
6.30 2 3.60 (12’) and 3.00 (10’ )
6.60 2 3.60 (12’) and 3.30 (11’ )
6.90 2 3.60 (12’) and 3.60 (12’ )
7.20 3 3.00 (10’) and 2.40 ( 8’ ) and 2.40
(8’)
7.50 3 3.00 (10’) and 3.00 (10’ ) and 2.10
(7’)
7.80 3 3.00 (10’) and 3.00 (10’ ) and 2.40
(8’)
8.10 3 3.60 (12’) and 3.00 (10’ ) and 2.10
(7’)
8.40 3 3.60 (12’) and 3.00 (10’ ) and 2.40
(8’)
8.70 3 3.60 (12’) and 3.60 (12’ ) and 2.10
(7’)
9.00 3 3.60 (12’) and 3.60 (12’ ) and 2.40
(8’)
3. Solve for the common wire nails to fasten the anchor strap.
2,880 straps x 3 nails per strap = 8,640 pcs.
4. Convert this to kilograms. 1 kilo of 4 d, 32 mm, CW nails approximately 695

pcs.
Divide :
8,640 = 12.43 say 13 kilograms 4d CW nails.

695
SUMMARY
66 pcs. 32 “ X 12 ft corrugated G.I.
sheet
60 pcs. 32 “ x 9 ft “ “
“
9 pcs. 36 “ x 8 ft. Plain G.I. sheet
16 kg. G I. rivets
39 kg. G.I. washers
13 kg. 4d ( 1- ½ “) common wire
nails
Comment :
The estimating procedure for a hipped roof is the same as that of the lean–to
or gable type roofing considering the effective covering of one sheet as constant
divisor. However, a little variations might occur in actual tinsmithing work under
the following considerations.
1. If the hipped roof is not pattern at 45 degrees, extra cut of the G.I. roofing
sheet is inevitable.
2. Error might be committed in cutting and or lapping of the roof sheets.
Under any of the preceding circumstances, an allowance of 5% to 10% is

necessary.

6-2 GUTTER, FLASHING, RIDGE, HIPPED AND VALLEY ROLL
I n building construction, these items are categorized under the tinsmithing work. estimating these type
of accessories is simply determining the number of plain G.I. sheet needed fabricate the gutter, flashing and
the different rolls according to the shape as shown on the plan.
The primary consideration in tinsmithing work is economy which simply mean: “To utilize every inch
of the tin sheet”. As much as possible, any unwise cutting of the tin sheet should be avoided. Cutting should
start from the widest to the narrowest part of the roof accessories. Experienced tinsmith do start cutting from
the gutter, then to the flashing down to the smallest plain G.I. strap to avoid waste.
Estimating Procedures :
1. Determine the total length of the gutter in meter.

2. Divide this length by 2.35 meter to find the number of gutter required. (2.35 m. is the effective length
of one gutter.)
3. Find the total width of one gutter. ( see the detailed plan.)
4. Divide .90 meter (36 inches width of one plain G.I. sheets by the result of step-3 to find out how many
gutter could be made out from one plain G.I. sheet. The fractional value or extra cut will be reserved for
other smaller parts.
5. Divide the result of step-2 by the result of step-4. the result is the required number of G.I. sheets.
FIGURE 6-7
ILLUSTRATIONS 6-5
From Figure6-7, find the number of plain G.I. sheets required to fabricate the open gutter as illustrated.
SOLUTION
1. Find the total length of the gutter.
Length = 2 (18.00 ) + 2 ( 10.00 )

= 36.00 + 20.00
L = 56.00 meters.
2. Divide the length by 2.35 meters the effective length of one gutter.
56.00 = 23.82 say 24 pcs.

2.35
3. The total width of the gutter is 52.5 centimeters (see cross section of gutter). Subtract 52.5 from 90
centimeters the standard width of one plain G.I sheet.
90 cm. – 52.5 = 37.5 cm. extra cut.
This 37.5 centimeters excess cut from one plain G.I. sheet could be set aside momentarily to be considered in
making other roof accessories such as flashing, downspout, anchor strap for riveting etc. Thus, only one gutter
at 2.40 m (8 ft.) long could be made out from one plain G.I sheet.
4. Therefore, order :
24 pcs. 90 cm. x 240 cm.(36” x 8 ft.) Plain G.I. sheet.
Comment :
It will be noted that the standard commercial width of one plain G.I. sheet is 90 cm. or 36 inches. The
total width of one gutter is 52.5 cm., subtracting 52.5 from 90 will result to an extra cut of 37.5 centimeters.
This simply mean that only one gutter could be made out from one plain G.I. sheet with an excess cut of 37.5
centimeters. The 37.5 centimeter excess does not necessarily mean to be considered as waste because there are
several parts in the tinsmithing work that requires smaller cut or dimensions such as flashing, down spout and
straps.
ILLUSTRATION 6-6
From the following Figure 6-8, find the number of plain G.I. sheet required to fabricate the gutter, ridge roll
and flashing.
FIGURE 6-8
SOLUTION
A. ) Gutter
1. Find the total length of the roof gutter. From Figure 6-8, the total length is =20 meters.
2. Refer to Table 6-6. Divide this length by the effective length of one gutter.
20 m = 8.5 say 9 pcs. gutter

2.35
3. Determine the total width of one gutter. From Figure 6-8, the total width is = 45 cm. Divide the width of
the plain G.I. sheet by 45 cm.
90 cm.= 2 pcs
45
4. This simply mean that 2 pcs. gutter could be made out from one plain G.I. sheet. Thus, divide the result
of step 2 by 3.
9 pcs. = 4.5 say 5 pcs. plain G.I. sheet

2
B.) Flashing
1. Determine the total length of the flashing. From Figure 6-8,

Multiply:
4 x 4.50 m. = 18 meters
2. Find the number of flashing. Refer to Table 6-6;

Divide :
18 m. = 7.8 say 8 pcs.
2.30
3. Width of plain G.I. sheet divided by width of flashing
90 cm = 2 pcs. of flashing in one plain G.I. sheet

45
4. Divide the result of step 2 by step 3. to find the number of plain sheet required for flashing.
8 = 4 pieces
2
C.) Ridge Roll
1. Find the total length of the ridge roll = 10 meters.

Refer to Table 6-6, for ridge roll;
Divide :
10.00 m. = 4.5 pcs. ridge roll

2.20
2. Determine how many ridge roll can be made out from one plain G.I sheet.
90 cm. = 2 pcs.
45 cm.
3. Divide step- 1 by step – 2 tofind the number of plain G.I. sheet required.
4.5= 2.25
2
5. Order 2 pcs. .90 m x 2.40 m. (36” x 8’) plain G.I. sheet. Get the balance of .25 from the excess cut of
gutter.
Summary
For Gutter ; 5 pcs. 90 cm. x 240 cm. plain G.I. sheet

Flashing ; 4 pcs. 90 cm. x 240 cm. plain G.I. sheet
Ridge Roll ; 2 pcs. 90 cm. x 240 cm. plain G.I. sheet
Total ; 11 pcs. plain G.I. sheets
TABLE 6-6 ROOF ACCESSORIES
ITEM Effective Length in Meters

Gutter 2.35
Flashing 2.30
Ridge Roll 2.20
Valley Roll 2.30
Hipped Roll 2.20
Soldering Lead ¼ bar (.25) per Solder Joint
Moriatic Acid 10 cc per Soldering Lead
D.) Valley and Hipped Roll
The estimating procedure for valley and hipped roll is the same as that of the gutter, flashing and ridge roll
with the aid of Table 6-6.
TABLE 6-7 CORRUGATED PLASTIC ROOF SHEET
Commercial Size Effective Width Covering

In. / Ft. Meter Corrugation
1–½ 2–½
26” x 8’ .650 x 2.40 .46 m. .31 m.
29” x 8’ .725 x 2.40 .53 m. .38 m.

6-3 ASBESTOS ROOFING
Unlike galvanized iron roofing sheet where accessories from gutter

down to the smallest anchor straps are made on site out from the standard
size of plain G.I. sheet, estimating asbestos roofing material is much simpler
because all the roof accessories and parts to be used such as gutter, ridge, hip
and valley rolls are factory made ready for installation.
Different Kinds of Asbestos Roofing
1. Standard corrugated sheet

2. 4-V Corrugated sheet
3. Kanaletas
4. Placa Romana
5. Tencor corrugated sheet
6. Ardex lightweight corrugated sheet
a. Standard Ardex
b. Super Ardex
Estimating Procedures:
1. The number of corrugated asbestos roofing is determined by dividing

the gutter length by the effective width covering of one sheet.
2. In finding the number of flashing, gutter, ridge, hip and valley roll,
divide the total length by the effective length of the accessories.
3. Other parts such as ridge end cap, apron flashing, gutter corner, down
spout and fittings are determine by direct counting. They are already
made according to factory standard sizes.
ILLUSTRATION 6-7
From Figure 6-9 , find the standard asbestos roofing sheet including its
accessories required.
FIGURE 6-9
SOLUTION
A.) Standard Corrugated Sheet
1.Find the total length of the gutter.
2 x 26.00 m. = 52.00 meters.
2.Refer to Table 6-8. Divide 52.00 meters by the effective width of one
sheet :
52.00 m. = 62 pcs. standard asbestos sheet.
.838
B.) Gutter
1. The total length of the ridge roll is = 26.00 m. Refer to Table 6-8, divide
by the effective length of gutter.
2 x 26.00 m. = 22.26 pcs.

2.336 m.
C.) Ridge Roll
1. The total length of the ridge is = 26.00 meters. Refer to Table 6-8 for
ridge roll.
Divide:
26.00 m. = 31.0 ridge roll
.838
D.) Flashing
1.Find the total length of the flashing ( see figure)

3.00 m. x 4 sides = 12 meters
2. Refer to Table 6-8,For outside flashing

Divide:
12.00 m = 5.25 say 6 pcs. outside flashing

2.286
E.) Ridge End Cap
1. From Figure 6-9 by actual count, there are 2 pieces ridge end cap. Thus,
order 2 pcs.
Summary
62 pcs. 1.20 x 3.00 Standard
corrugated sheet
23 pcs. standard
gutter
31 pcs. standard ridge
roll
6 pcs. standard
flashing
2 pcs. standard ridge end
cap
TECHNICAL DATA FOR ESTIMATING ASBESTOS

ROOFING
** Standard Corrugated Sheet
TABLE 6-8 STANDARD CORRUGATED SHEETS
Length 1.20 x 3.00 m.

End lapping : Below 20 degrees .30 m.
Above 20 degrees .15 m.
Effective width .838 m.
Ridge Roll effective length .838 m.
Gutter effective length 2.336 m.
Outside flashing 2.286 m.
Hip roll 1.676 m.
FIGURE 6-10 STANDARD CORRUGATED SHEET
** 4-V Corrugated Sheet
TABLE 6-9 CORRUGATED SHEET TECHNICAL DATA
Standard Length 2.438 meters

Effective width .965 meters
Ridge Roll effective length .965 meters
Outside Flashing effective length 2.286 meters
FIGURE 6-11 4-V CORRUGATED SHEET
**Kanaletas
TABLE 6-10 KANALETAS
ITEM Length in Meters

Length 7.315 m.
Eaves Flashing .885 m.
Outside Flashing Effective 2.40 to 3.00 m.
Length
FIGURE 6-12 KANALETAS
**Placa Romana
TABLE 6-11 PLACA ROMANA

Standard Length .812 meters
Effective length .600 meters
Standard Width 1.180 meters
Effective length 1.100 meters
End Lap .200 meters
Side Lap .080 meters
Ridge Roll effective length 1.100 meters
Ridge Flashing effective length 1.100 meters
Eaves Flashing effective length 1.100 meters
FIGURE 6-13 PLACA ROMANA
**Tencor
TABLE 6-12 TENCOR CORRUGATED SHEET
ITEMS Length in Meters

Standard length 2.44 m.
Lapping .15 or .30 m.
Effective Length 2.29 or 2.14 m.
Standard Width .748 m.
Effective Width .675 m.
Outside Flashing 1.50 to 3.00 m.
Minus Lapping .15 m.
Ridge Roll .953 m.
FIGURE 6-14 TENCOR CORRUGATED SHEET
**Ardex
TABLE 6-13 ARDEX CORRUGATED SHEET
MEASUREMENT
ITEM
Standard Super
Standard Width .52 m. 1.05 m.
Effective Width .45 m. .97 m
Nominal Length .75 to 3.15 m. 2.40 to 3.60 m.
Ridge Roll effective length .95 m. .95 m.
Outside Flashing 1.50 to 2.00 m. 1.50 to 3.00 m.
Side Lapping .15 m. .15 m.
FIGURE 6-15 ARDEX

6-4 COLORBOND KLIP-LOK
Colorbond is a corrosion resistant zinc coated steel sheet prepainted

steel ribbed tray roofing and walling with the following special features.
FIGURE 6-16
1. Concealed fastening
2. Lock action rib design
3. Attractive fluted rays
4. Near flat roof slopes
5. Less supports-wider
spaced
6. Strong lightweight steel
7. Custom cut long lengths
Technical Data
Steel base thickness 0.60 mm

Total coated thickness 0.63 mm
Weight per meter length of panel 2.66 kg.
Weight per covered area 6.55 kg / m²
Length available up to 15 meters
Longer length through special order up 35 meters
to
Overall width .427 m.
Effective width coverage .406 m.
TABLE 6-14 RECOMMENDED FASTENERS

(TWO FASTENERS REQUIRED PER CLIP)
Fastening over
Support member Normal Fastening Insulation up to 100 mm
(4”)
Steel up to 3/32” No. 10-16 x 5/8” wafer No. 10-16 x 7/8” (22
(2.5mm) thick head self drilling and mm) wafer head self
tapping screw drilling and tapping
screw
Steel 3/32” to 3/16 No. 10-24 x 5/8” wafer No. 10-24 x 7/8 (22
2.5 – 5 mm thick head self drilling and mm) wafer head self
tapping screw drilling and tapping
screw
Steel over 3/16 No. 10-24 x 5/8” wafer No. 10-24 x 7/8 (22
(5mm thick) head thread cutting mm) hole for No. 10-24
screw. Drill 4.5 mm x 7/8” wafer head self
drilling and tapping
screw
Hardwood 2” x 9 G (50 x 3.75 2 1/2 “ x 9 G (60 x 3.75
mm) counter sunk head mm) counter sunk head
G.I. spiral nail or No. G.I. spiral nail or No. 10
10-12 x 1” (25 mm) – 12 x 1 3/4 “ (45 mm)
type 17 wafer head self type 17 wafer head self
drilling wood screw drilling wood screw
Softwood No. 10-12 x 1 3/4 “ type No.10-12 x 1 3/4 “
17 wafer head self (45mm) type 17 wafer
drilling wood screw head self drilling wood
screw
6-5 BANAWE HORIZONTAL METAL TILE
Technical Data
Nominal width .228 m.
Length 12.19 m.
Minimum roof slope 15 degrees
FIGURE 6-17 CROSS SECTION OF BANAWE METAL TILE

6-6 MARCELO ROOFING SYSTEM
FIGURE 6-18
Technical Data
Width 1.14 m.
Length 1.11 m.
Effective Area coverage per sheet .92 sq. m.
Number of fastener per sheet first 15 pcs. per sheet
row
Succeeding rows 10 pcs. per sheet
Average No. of fasteners per sheet 12 pcs. per sheet

6-7 COLORBOND CUSTOM ORB
FIGURE 6-19
Technical Data:
Normal width .86 m.
Effective coverage .76 m.
Length 1.35 m.
Longer length Special order
Maximum recommended length for
Continuous sheet without expansion joints
24 m.

6-8 MILANO LONGSPAN STEEL BRICKS
FIGURE 6-20
Technical Data:
Steel base thickness (No. 26) 0.40 mm.

Total coated thickness 0.46 mm
Weight per sq. m. 4.53 kg.
Weight per length 3.44 kg.
Effective coverage 0.67 m.
Length up to 6.00 m.
Recommended roof slope 10° min.

6-9 COLORBOND TREMDEX HI-TEN
FIGURE 6-21
Technical Data :
Steel base thickness 0.40 m.

Total coated thickness 0.46 m.
Weight
Per unit area 4.28 kg. / sq. m.
Per unit length 3.26 kg. / sq. m.
Normal width 0.83 m.
Effective width coverage 0.76m.
Available length up to 15 m.
Minimum slope
Single sheet 3 degrees
Roof with end lap 5 degrees
Fasteners :
1. For Hardwood: Use Type 17 self drilling wood screw No. 12 x 50 mm.
hexagonal head with neoprene washer.
2. For Softwood: Add 12 mm to length of screw.
3. There should be four fasteners per sheet at all supports.
4. For side lap fastener, use Type S point self drilling screw No. 10 x 16
mm. hexagonal head with neoprene washers.
5. Teks self drilling screw to steel support up to 4.5 mm. thick use No. 12
x 45 mm. hexagonal head with neoprene washer.

6-10 BRICK TILE ROOFING
Technical Data :
Weight per place

Description Number required
in kilograms
Marceille Type (flat) 3.60 14.0 per sq. m.
Ondula Type (wavy) 4.00 15.0 per sq. m.
SR. ( Standard Ridge) 2.80 2.5 per Ln. m.
Half Marceille 2.00 1.0 per Ln. m.
JRT – 1 3.00 13.0 per sq. m.
JRT – 2 3.75 4.0 per sq. m.
JRT – 3 3.20 1.0 per Ln. m.
JRT – 4 3.20 1.0 per Ln. m.
JRT – 5 2.20 4.0 per Ln. m.
SRT – 1 4.00 13.0 per sq. m.
SRT – 2 2.20 1.0 per Ln. m.
SRT – L 2.25 1.0 per Ln. m.
SRT – R 2.25 1.0 per Ln. m.
JSR – 1 2.00 1.0 per Ln. m.
JSR – 2 3.00 4.0 per Ln. m.
SRT – U 1.75 25.0 per sq. m.
SRT – T 1.50 25.0 per sq. m.
PROBLEM EXERCISE
From the following Figure, using 2 – ½ corrugations and 30 cm. end

lapping on a 2” x 4” purlins, solve for the following materials.
1. Number of corrugated G.I. roof sheets
2. Number of rivets, washers, and lead washers in kilograms
3. Number of plain G.I. sheet for anchor strap
4. Number of plain G.I. sheet for:
a. Gutter and flashing
b. Ridge, hip and vallery roll
c. Number of nails to fasten the anchor straps in kilograms.
FIGURE 6-22
7-1 CERAMIC TILE
Ceramic Tile is one of man’s oldest building material continuously

in use due to its unique, functional and decorative properties. Ceramic tiles
offer an almost unlimited choice of patterns and colors which does not fade
and is practically indestructible.
Decorative ceramic tiles were widely used during the period of the
Medieval Islamic Architecture from Persia to Spain and was extended up to
the period of the contemporary Architecture.
Ceramic Tiles are Classified into :
1. Glazed Tiles
2. Unglazed Tiles
Glazed tiles – are principally used for walls and light duty floors.
Unglazed tiles – are hard, dense and homogeneous composition, primarily

used for floors and walls.
Various Types of Tiles
1. Porcelain Tiles – are made from the pressed dust processed into fine
smooth dense and shapely formed face.
2. Natural Clay Tiles – are made from either the pressed method or the
plastic method from dust clay that produce a dense body with distinctive
slightly textured appearance.
3. Ceramic Mosaic Tiles – are mounted on a 30 cm. x 30 cm. paper as

binder of the tiles to facilitate its laying or setting.
4. Quarry Tiles – are made through the plastic extraction process from
natural clay or shale.
5. Faience Mosaic Tiles – are tiles less than 15 square centimeters in facial
form.
6.Special Purpose Ceramic Tiles :
a.) Non-slip tiles

b.) Ship or gallery
c.) Frost proof tiles
d.) Conductive tiles
FIGURE 7 – 1
From Figure 7 – 1, determine the quantity of the following materials :
a.) 10 x 20 cm. glazed wall tiles

b.) 20x 20 cm. unglazed floor tiles
c.) Cement and sand for mortar
d.) White cement for joint filler
SOLUTION -1 (BY FUNDAMENTAL METHOD)
1. Solve for the wall area

A = 1.50 x (5.00 + 3.00)
A = 1.50 x 8
A = 12 square meters
2. Solve for the wall glazed tiles. Wall area divided by the area of one tile
12 square meter = 12
.10 x .20 .02
= 600 pcs. 10 x 20 cm ( 4” x 8”) glazed tiles.
3. Solve for the floor tiles. Floor area divided by the area of one tiles.
Floor Area : A = 5.00 x 3.00

One tile Area : a = .20 x .20
15 = 375 pcs.
.04
4. Solve for cement mortar and paste filler.
Total area of wall and floor = 12 + 15 = 27 sq. m
5. Refer to Table 7 – 1 along Portland cement paste mortar:

Multiply :
Cement mortar: 27 sq. m. x .076 = 2.0 bags
White cement : 27 sq. m. x .50 = 13.5 say 14 kg.
6. For breakage allowance, 5 to 10% is satisfactory.
TABLE 7-1 QUANTITY OF TILES PERS SQUARE METER

CLASSIFICATION SIZE NUMBER OF PIECES
PER
IN. CM. SQ. FT. SQ. M.

MOSAIC TLES 12 X12 30 X 30 1.0 11.1
GLAZED AND 3” X 3” 7.5 X 7.5 16.0 177.80

UNGLAZED
TILES 4” X 4” 10 X 10 9.0 100.0
4 ¼ X 4 ¼ 10.6 X 10.6 8.0 88.4
4” X 8” 10 X 20 4.5 50.0
6” X 6” 15 X 15 4.0 44.5
8” X 8” 20 X 20 2.25 25.0
8” X 16” 20 X 40 1.125 12.5
9” X 9” 22.8 X 22.8 1.78 19.14
10” X 10” 25 X 25 1.44 16.0
12” X 12” 30 X 30 1.0 11.1
5 PT. HEX. TILES 2 5 6.0 / ft. 20.0 / m
4 PT. HEX. TILES 2 5 4.9 / ft. 16.0 / m.
External corner bead – By direct count

Internal corner bead – By direct count
Portland Cement paste mortar --------- .076 bags per sq. m.
White cement filler paste ---------------- 5 kg. Per sq. m
SOLUTION – 2 (BY THE AREA METHOD)
A = 1.50 x (5.00 + 3.00)

A = 1.50 x 8
A = 12 square meter
2. Refer to Table 7-1. Using 10 x 20 glazed tiles;

Multiply:
12 sq. m. x 50 pcs. = 600 pcs
3. Solve for the floor area.

Floor area = 5.00 m x 3.00 m
A = 15 sq. m.
4. Refer to Table 7-1. Using a 20 x 20 cm. floor tiles;

Multiply:
15 sq. m. x 25 pcs =375 pieces
5. Solve for the cement mortar and paste filler
Total area of wall and floor = 12 + 15

Total Area = 27 sq. m.
6. Refer to Table 7-1. Along Portland cement mortar and filler

Multiply:
Cement mortar: 27 sq. m. x .076 = 2.0 bags
White cement: 27 sq. m. x .50 = 13.5 say 14 kg.
7. For cutting and breakage allowance, 5% to 10% is satisfactory.
ILLUSTRATION 7-2
From Figure 7-2, determine the quantity of the following materials.
a. Mosaic floor tiles

b. 10 x 10 cm. (4” x 4”) glazed wall tiles
c. Internal bead and capping
d. Internal corner bead
e. External corner bead
f. Ordinary cement
g. White cement
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF A COMFORT ROOM
FIGURE 7-2
SOLUTION
A.) Mosaic Floor Tiles
1. Solve for the floor area
A=1.50 m. x 2.00 m.
A= 3.0 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 7-1. Using 30 cm. x 30 cm. mosaic tiles;

Multiply:
3.0 sq. m. x 11.1 = 33.3 say 34 pcs.
B.) Glazed wall tiles
1. Solve for the lateral area of the wall.
Perimeter = 2(2.00) + 1.50 + (1.50 - .60) = 6.40 m.

Wall area = 6.40 x 1.50 ht. = 9.6 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 7-1. Using 10 x 10 cm. (4” x 4”) glazed tiles;
Multiply:
9.6 x 100 = 960 pcs. Wall tiles
3. Add 5% allowance for cutting and breakage;
960 x .05 = 48 says 50 pcs.
4. Order: 960 + 50 = 1,010 pcs. 10 x 10 cm. glazed tiles.
C.) Internal Bead
1. Solve for the length or perimeter of inside corner
2 (2.00 m) + 2 (1.50 m) = 7.00 meters.
2. Solve for the length of 4 vertical corners.
4 x 1.50 m. ht. = 6.00 meters
3. Add 1 and 2 to get the total length of the inside corners.
7.00 + 6.00 =13.00 meters
4. Divide this length by the length of the internal bead or tile which
is 10 centimeters.
13.00 m. = 130 pcs. 10 cm. internal bead

.10
D. Capping
1. Solve for the perimeter of the wall tiles.
P = 2 (2.00) + (1.50 +.90) = 6.40 m.

2. Add capping along door jamb. +
1.50 m. x 2 sides.................... 3.00 m.

Total ………………. 9.40 m.
3. Divide by one capping or tile length.
9.40 = 94 pcs.
.10
4. Add 2 to 5%allowance for breakage.
E. Internal Corner Bead
By the direct counting, there are 4 corners, order 4 pieces.
F. External Corner Bead
By direct counting, order 4 pieces.
G. Ordinary and White cement for paste and filler
1. Solve for the total floor and wall area
3.00 + 9.6 = 12.6 sq. m.
2. Solve for the ordinary cement. Refer to Table 7-1 :

Multiply:
12.6 x .076= .95 says 1.0 bag cement
3. Solve for the white cement filler. Refer to Table 7-1 :
12.6 x .50 kg. Per sq. m.

= 6.3 say 7 kilograms white cement
Summary
34 pcs. 30 x 30 (12” x 12”) mosaic
tiles
960 pcs. 10 x 10 (4” x 4”) glazed wall
tiles
130 pcs. 10 cm. Internal bead
94 pcs. 10 cm. Capping
4 pcs. Internal corner bead
4 pcs. External corner bead
1 bag cements 40 kg. Ordinary
cement
7 kilograms white cement

7-2 MARBLE TILES
Marble is a hard metamorphic limestone white or colored and

sometimes streaked or mottled in a crystalline or granular state and capable
of taking high polish. It is used in sculpture, furnitures, topping slab and
floor etc.
Marble as construction materials have been extensively ancient time

of the Greek to the Roman Empire down to the modern and used from the
contemporary Architecture.
ILLUSTRATION 7-3 FLOOR PLAN
From the figure 7-3, solve for the number of 30x 60 cm. marble tiles
required including the cement and sand for class “B” mortar mixture.
FIGURE 7-3
SOLUTION
A-1 = 20.00 x 7.00 = 140 sq. m.

A-2 = 10.00 x 7.00 = 70 sq. m.
Total Area …..210 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 7-2. Using 30 x 60 cm. marble tiles;
Multiply:
210 sq. m. x 5.6 = 1,176 pcs.
3. Add 3-5 % allowance for breakage.
4. Solve for cement mortar using class B mixture. Refer to Table 7-

2; Multiply :
Cement: 210 sq. m. x .30 = 63 bags
Sand: 210 sq. m. x .025= 5.25 cu. m.
5. Solve for Polymer liquid, hardener and kalsomine powder.

Refer to Table 7-2.
Polymer liquid: 210 x .035 = 7.35 says 8 gallons

Hardener : 210 x .030 = 6.30 says 7 quarts
Kalsomine powder: 210 x .045 = 9.40 says 10 kilos
TABLE 7-2 QUANTITY OF MARBLE TILESAND MORTAR PER

SQUARE METER
SIZE NUMBER CEMENT BAGS SAND

CM. PER SQ.M. MIXTURE
A B C CU. M.
15 x 30 22.3 .45 .30 .225 .025
20 x 20 25.0 .45 .30 .225 .025
20 x 40 .45 .30 .225 .025
30 x 30 11.1 .45 .30 .225 .025
30 x 60 5.6 .45 .30 .225 .025
40 x 40 6.3 .45 .30 .225 .025
60 x 60 2.8 .45 .30 .225 .025
Polymer Liquid ……………….. .035 gallons per square meter

Hardener ……………………... .030 quarts per square meter
Kalsomine powder …………… .045 kilograms per sq. m.
*Cement mortar computed at an average thickness of 2.5 cm. (1 “)

7-3 VINYL AND RUBBER TILES
The standard specifications for vinyl and rubber tiles provides that:
“It shall be non-fading, odorless and non-slip even when wet
and shall be strong enough to withstand the ordinary tear and wear,
cleaning and moving of furniture’s without damage and shall be self
dealing.”
Tiles shall be laid to conform with the manufacturer’s specifications

which partly states that:
a) Adhesive cement shall be applied to the floor every after the tiles
are laid on the surface.
b) Tiles are pressed with linoleum roller to avoid blisters.
c) After completion, all worked shall be cleaned of cement, dirt and
other substances.
d) Apply two-coat of wax and polish to smooth shiny finish.
TABLE 7-3 VINYL AND RUBBER TILES
NUMBER PER GALLONS OF

STOCK SIZE
SQ. M. ADHESIVE
PER SQ. M.
.20 x .20 ( 8” x 8” 25.00 .042
)
.225 x .225 ( 9” x 9” 19.75 .042
)
.25 x .25 (10” x 16.00 .042
10”)
.30 x .30 (12” x 11.11 .042
12”)
.40 x .40 (16” x 6.25 .042
16”)
.60 x .60 (24” x 2.78 .042
24”)
ILLUSTRATION 7-4
An office room with a general dimension of 7.00 x 9.00 m. is

undergoing renovation. Determine the number of 30 x 30 cm. vinyl tiles
required including its adhesive for installation.
SOLUTION
1. Solve for the floor area
7.00 x 9.00 = 63 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 7-3. Using a 30 x 30 cm vinyl tiles;

Multiply:
63 sq. m. x 11.11 = 700 pcs.
3. Solve for the adhesive cement. Refer for Table 7-3;

Multiply:
63 x .042 = 2.65 say 3 gallons.

7-4 GRANOLITHIC FLOOR
Granolithic floor is a marble type mosaic floor finish that uses

Portland cement as base materials. It has characteristics of durability, beauty
and variety installed in either by:
a. Monolithic or Cast-in-place
b. Pre-Cast
Monolithic or Cast-in-place means massively, solid, single and

uniform floor finish cast in place. A mixture of cement and marble chips to
a proportion of 1:3 is casted on top of a rough floor slab surface to an
average thickness of 1.25 cm. The floor is then grinded after it has attained
sufficient hardness to withstand abrasion and vibration caused by the
grinding machine. Grinding of the floor surface should not be allowed
earlier than 48 hours after casting.
Pre-cast refers to granolithic tiles in various dimensions

hydraulically pressed and molded in a factory. The distinctive difference
between the cast in place and the pre-cast installation is the manner and
place of casting or molding. The former being installed on site and the latter
at the factory site. Thus, pre-cast is installed in a tile form while cast–in-
place is installed in a fresh mixed form.
Normally, a dividing hard brass strips with alloy zinc are installed in
between tiles to control and localize any shrinkage or flexure cracks. The
dividing strip thickness ranges from 1.56 mm to 3.12 mm. or thicker
depending upon the design and specifications.
TABLE 7-4 GRANOLITHIC FLOORING

CEMENT
STOCK PIECES BAGS SAND BRASS
SIZE PER PER SQ. M. CU. M. DIVIDER
M. SQ. M. MIXTURE PER SQ. M. METER / SQ.
A B M.
.20 x .20 25.00 .338 .225 .018 10.8
.25 x .25 16.00 .338 .225 .018 8.9
.30 x .30 11.11 .338 .225 .018 8.0
.40 x .40 6.25 .338 .225 .018 5.8
.60 x .60 2.78 .338 .225 .018 3.4
ILLUSTRATIONS 7-5
For an 8.00 m. by 10.00 meters room that specify cast in place

granolithic floor, list down the materials required.
FIGURE 7-4
SOLUTION
1. Determine the floor area.
A = 8.00 x 10.00
A = 80 sq. m.
2. Determine the quantity of white cement required.
80 x .172 = 13.76 say 14 bags
(Note: the value of .172 and .0125 is a constant number for white
cement and marble chips respectively per square meter of mortar at 1.25
cm. thick.)
3. Determine the quantity of marble chips required.
80 x .0125 = 1.0 cu. m. marble chips.
SOLUTION By Pre-Cast Installation
1. Find the floor area:

A = 10 x 8
A = 80 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 7-4. Using a 40 x 40 granolithic tiles;

Multiply:
80 sq.m. x 6.25 = 500 pcs.
3. Using class B mortar , refer to Table 7-4;

Multiply:
Cement : 80 x .225 = 18 bags
Sand : 80 x .0188 = 1.5 cu. m.
4. Solve for the brass divider. Refer to Table 7-4;Multiply:

80 sq. m. x 5.8 = 464 meters.

7-5 CEMENT TILES
Cement tile is a mixture of cement, sand and water hydraulically

pressed, locally manufactured in the following commercial sizes:
25 mm x 15 x 15 cm. 1” x 6” x 6”
25 mm x 20 x 20 cm. 1” x 8” x 8”
25 mm x 25 x 25 cm. 1” x 10” x 10”
25 mm.x 30 x 30 cm 1” x 12” x
12”
Estimating the quantity of cement tiles required includes the mortar

assumed at an average thickness of 20 mm. (3/4 “). The methods applied in
estimating cement tiles is either:
1. The unit measure method

2. By Area method using Table 7-4
ILLUSTRATION 7-6
Find the number of 20 x 20 cm. cement tiles required for a school
classroom with a general dimensions of 7.00 x 9.00 m. using class B mortar
mixture.
FIGURE 7-5
SOLUTION
A= 7.00 x 9.00
A= 63 square meters
2. Refer to Table 7-4. Using a 20 x 20 cement tiles ;

Multiply:
63 sq. m. x 25 =1,575 pieces
3. Refer again to Table 7-4. Using class B mortar;

Multiply :
Cement : 63 x .225 = 14.20 say 15 bags
Sand: 63 x .018 = 1.13 say 1.5 cu. m.

7-6 WOOD TILES
Wood tile is a combination of wood pieces in various dimensions

with thickness that ranges from 6 mm. to 8 mm. Wood tiles are carefully
laid at a time
On a plane smooth surface concrete floor slab applied with good kind
of white glue. The tiles is then grinded with no. 330 and 100 sand paper 24
hours after setting to produce a fine and smooth even surface. Sandpaper
dust is then mixed with wood glue and used as filler of tile joints.
Wood Tiles is Estimated as follows :
1. Solve for the net floor area to be covered with wood tiles in
square meter.
2. Wood tile is normally sold in a square foot. Thus, multiply the
floor area found by 10.76 to get the equivalent in a square foot.
3. Multiply the floor area by .165 to get the number of wood glue in
gallons per square meter.
ILLUSTRATIONS 7-7
An office room measuring 12.00 meters wide and 20.00 meters long
specify wood tile flooring. Prepare the bill of materials.
FIGURE 7-6
SOLUTION
1. Find the area of the floor.
A= 12.00 x 20.00
A= 240 sq. m.
2. Convert to feet because wood tile is purchased in square foot.

Multiply by 10.76.
A= 240 x 10.76
A= 2,583 square foot.
3. Add 5 % allowance for cutting and edging.
2,583 x .05 =129.15 say 130

4. Add step 2 and 3.
2583 + 130 = 2,713

Order: 2,713 square foot wood tiles.
5. Determine the wood glue at .165 gallon per square meter.
240 sq. m. x .165 = 39.6 say 40 gallons.

7-7 PEBBLES AND WASHOUT FINISH
Pebbles are small roundish stone used for walls and floor finishes
called washout and pebbles respectively. Pebble stone is mixed with pure
cement to a proportion of either 1 : 2 or 1:3 mortar mixture then applied to a
well prepared wall or floor slab. With the use of water sprinkler, the pebble
mortar applied on the wall or floor slab is then washed with water to a desired
texture before the concrete finally set. Twenty four hours later, the pebble
surface is then scrubbed with a steel brush and a solution of water and muriatic
acid to obtain the desired natural stone finish.
ILLUSTRATION 7-8
A wall roughly plastered has general dimensions of 2.00 meters high

and 10 meters long require stone pebbles washout finish. List down the
materials required.
FIGURE 7-7
SOLUTION

A = 2.00 x 10.00
A = 20 sq.m
2. Determine the thickness of the stone pebble finished say 16 mm.

(5/8”) or .016 m. ; Multiply by the wall area.
20 x .016 =.32 cu. m.
3.Refer to Table 2-1. Using class “B” mixture;

Multiply :
Cement : .32 x 12.0 = 3.84 say 4 bags
Pebbles: .32 x 1.0 = .32 cubic meter stone pebbles
PROBLEM EXERCISE
1. A public comfort room has a floor dimensions of 4.00 meters wide

and 10 meters long. The floor is finished with 20 x 20 cm. marble tiles 2.00
meters high. Solve for :
a.) Number of 10 x 20 cm. marble tiles for wall

b.) Number of 20 x 20 cm. unglazed ceramic floor tiles.
c.) Cement mortar using class A mixture
d.) Quantity of Polymer liquid, hardener and kalsomine powder as
filler for the marble joints.
Make a sketch floor plan and elevation before computing for the
materials.
2. From the following floor plan and elevation of a swimming pool,

solve for the number of tiles required using 10 x 10 cm. glazed tiles for
the walls and 20 x 20 cm. unglazed floor tiles including the mortar and
white cement joint filler.
FIGURE 7-8
3. From the following floor plan, solve for the number of wood tiles in
square foot including the white glue, polymer liquid, hardener and kalsomine
powder required.
FIGURE 7-9

8-1 BOLTS
Bolt is a pin rod with a head at one end and threaded at the other
end to receive a nut.
The Different types of Bolt used in Construction are:
1. Machine bolt
2. Countersunk bolt
3. Key Head bolt
4. Stud bolt
Machine bolt has a head at one end and a short thread at the other
end.
Countersunk bolt has a beveled head fitting into a countersunk hole.
Key head bolt has a head shaped end fitted to a groove which will
not turn when the nut is screwed into the other end.
Stud bolt is a headless bolt threaded at both ends.

8-2 SIZE AND LENGTH OF BOLTS
The length of a bolt required is the sum of the thickness of the

pieces being connected plus 12 mm or (1”). With respect to the size or the
diameter of the bolt, depends upon the thickness of the object to be bolted.
The following are Important reminders about your bolt:
1.) Lumber up to 5 cm. thick use ….. 6 mm ¼ “ diameter

2.) 7.5 cm. thick (3”) lumber use …...10 mm. 3/8 “ diameter
3.) 10 cm. (4”) thick lumber use …….12 mm ½ “ diameter
4.) Drill hole is 1.5 mm (1/16”) larger than the bolt diameter unless
snug fit is necessary.
5.) Always use washers under head and nut of machine bolt.
6.) For carriage bolt, use washer under nut only.
7.) Use toggle bolt for attaching fixture to plaster wall.
8.) Use expansion bolt for fastening to masonry.
9.) For fastening exposure, use brass or cadmium plated finish bolt.
TABLE 8-1 U.S STANDARD THREAD OF BOLTS
Length
DIAMETER OF BOLTS
Inches ½ 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1¼
mm. 12 16 20 22 25 28 31
10.0 1.44 2.45 3.64 5.24 7.23 9.78 12.60

12.5 1.69 2.85 4.21 6.01 8.24 11.06 14.18
15.0 1.94 3.24 4.78 6.78 9.26 12.33 15.76
17.5 2.19 3.64 5.35 7.55 10.27 13.61 17.35

20.0 2.45 4.03 5.92 8.32 11.29 14.89 18.93
22.5 2.70 4.43 6.49 9.09 12.30 16.1 20.51
25.0 2.95 4.82 7.06 9.86 13.31 17.44 22.09

27.5 3.20 5.22 7.63 10.63 14.33 18.72 23.67
30.0 3.46 5.61 8.20 11.40 15.34 20.00 25.26
32.5 3.71 6.01 8.77 12.17 16.36 21.27 26.84

35.0 3.96 6.40 9.34 12.94 17.37 22.55 28.42
Estimating Procedure in Determining the Length of Bolts

FIGURE 8-5
A.) Wooden Post Anchored by post strap. The length of the bolt is
equal to the width of the post plus the two thickness of the post
strap plus 20 mm allowance for the thread and nut.
L= Width of post + 13 mm +20 mm
FIGURE 8-6
B.) Post and Single Beam is equal to the width of the Post plus the
thickness of the beam.
Length of bolt = Width of post + thickness of beam
FIGURE 8-7
Post with two Beams of the Same Thickness. The length of the
bolt is equal to the width of the post plus two thickness of the beam minus
20 mm dap. (There are two dap opposite the column sides but only one is
subtracted because the other 20 mm dap is reserved for the thread that will
receive the nut.)
Length of bolt = Width of Post + 2 beam thickness -20 mm.

FIGURE 8-8
Post and Two Beams of Different Thickness. Length of Bolt is equal to

the Width of the post plus t-1 + t-2 minus 20 mm.
Length of Bolts on Trusses
FIGURE 8-9
Length of Bolts is equal to the thickness of the members in layer
plus 20 mm allowance to receive the nut.
TABLE 8-2 WEIGHT OF BOLTS WITH SQUARE HEADS AND

HEXAGONAL NUTS PER 10 BOLTS
Diameter of 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 3/4 7/8 1
Bolts 6 7 9 10 12 14 16 19 22 25
No. of thread 20 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 9
Per Inch
Diameter of 5 6 8 9 11 12 13 18 19 22
Top Drill 13 1 5 23 27 15 17 32 3 55
64 4 16 64 64 64 32 64 4 64

8-3 SCREW
In carpentry work, screw is sometimes used instead of nails due to

the following advantages:
1. Greater holding power
2. Neat in appearance
3. Less chance of injuring the materials
4. Ease of removal in case of repair
How to Choose Screw
1. Select one that is long enough wherein one half to two thirds of
its length will enter the best in which will threads are embedded.
2. The length of the screw should be 1/8” or 3 mm less than the

combined thickness of the boards being joined.
3. Use fine thread screw for hard wood and coarse for soft wood.
How to Use the Screw
1. Always drill lead hole for the screw.

2. Hole on top board should be slightly larger than the shank in
second board slightly smaller than the threaded portion.
3. In soft wood, bore to depth half the length of the thread.
4. In hard wood, bore nearly as deep as the length of the screw
5. For lag screw, drill hole two thirds its length then drive in with
hammer, an finally tighten with wrench.
How to Buy Screw
1. Screws are classified by gauge (thickness) and length. Each gauge
has a variety of different lengths which may be obtained up to 12
cm. (5 inches).
2. When ordering screw, specify head shape (e.g. round head), finish
(brash), gauge number and length from 2 to 5 centimeters.
3. Square headed lag screw comes in diameter of 6 mm. to 25 mm.
(1/4 to 1 inch) with its length from 4 cm. to 30 cm. (1 1/2 “ to 12
inches.)

8-4 WOOD SCREW
Wood screw is a screw nail with handed coarse thread to give a

grip.
Materials Used
1. Iron
2.Steel
3. Brass
4.Copper
5.Bronze
6.Aluminum
Shape of the Head

1. Flat 8. Headless
2. Round 9.Slotted
(wood screw)
3. Fillister 10. Square
(log screw)
4. Oval 11.
Hexagonal
5. Winged 12. Clove
6. Bung 13. Grooved
7. Punched
Shape of the Point

1. Standard
2. Full length
3. Coarse
Duty
1. Wood (light duty)
2. lag (heavy duty)
Finish
1. Bright 6.
Bronzed
2. Blued 7.
Coppered
3. Nickel plated 8.
Japanned
4. Silver plated 9.
Lacquered
5. Brass 10.
Galvanized
TABLE 8-4 STANDARD WOOD SCREW AND NUMBER PER

KILOGRAMS
Inches 1/2 1 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4 4 1/2 5 6

mm 12 25 37 50 62 75 87 100 112 125 150
Number 6,211 3,443 2,329 1,779 1,414 1,186 1,126 910 739 655 515
FIGURE 8-10 STANDARD WOOD SCREW POINT
The Three Shapes of Screw Point are :
1. Gimlet Point – Is used on wood and coach screw.
2. Diamond Point – Is used when more driving is done before

turning as in drive and log screw.
3. Conical Point – Same as the diamond point.

8-5 NAILS
The first handmade nails were used in the United States which
lasted up to the end of the Colonial Period. In France, light nails for
carpenters were made by hand and hammer out of steel wire as early as the
days of Napoleon 1. In 1851, the wire nails was first introduced by William
Herser of New York. Twenty five years later in 1876, Father Goebel
introduced the manufacture of wire nails. And at last part of the 18th
century, twenty three patents for nail making a machine were approved in
the United States which was later introduced in England.
Kinds of Nails as to :
1. Cross-Sectional Shape
a.) Cut (rectangular) b.) Wire (circular)
2. Size
a.) Tacks b.) Sprigs c.) Brads d.)
Nails e.) Spike
3. Materials
a.) Steel b.) Brass c.) Copper
4. Finish
a.) Plain b.) Coated c.) Galvanized d.) Blued
5. Service
a.) Common b.)Flooring c.) Finishing d.)
Roofing e.) Boat
FIGURE 8-14 LENGTH OF NAIL
(Actual Size)
2d to 60 d. For general construction----------------------------------

Common nail
2d to 40 d. For light construction household use---------------------
--Box
2d to 40 d. For Interior trim------------------------------------------
Casing
2d to 20 d. For Cabinet work furnitures-------------------------------
Finishing nail
2d to 20 d. Flooring construction -------------------------------------
Cut
3/16 “ to 3“ For light work moldings----------------------------------
-Wire brad
6” to 12 “ For heavy construction ------------------------------------
Spike
Tacks
Tacks are small sharp pointed nails with tapering sides and a thin
flat head. Tacks are nails chiefly used in fastening carpets and flashing of
anything materials.
FIGURE 8-17
TABLE 8-5 NUMBER OF WIRE TACKS PER KILOGRAM

Inches Length (mm) Number per Kilogram
1/8 3 35,200
3/16 5 23,465
1/4 6 17,600
5/16 8 14,080
3/8 10 11,732
7/16 12 8,800
9/16 14 5,865
5/8 16 4,400
11/16 17 10,120
3/4 19 2,930
13/16 20.5 2,514
7/8 22 1,200
15/16 24 1,953
1 25 1,760
1-1/16 27 1,599
1-1/8 28 1,465
Sprigs
Sprigs are small headless nails sometimes called barbed dowel pins.
The regular size of sprigs ranges from 12 mm. to 5.0 cm. gauge No.8 wire
or 4 mm diameter.
Brads
Brads are small slender nails with small deep heads. The common
variety is made in sizes from 2.5 cm. (2d) to 15 cm (6d) in length. Flooring
brads ranges from 5 cm. to 10 cm. long.
TABLE 8-6 FLOOR BRADS TECHNICAL DATA
Size Length Gauge Dia. Head Approx. Gauge No. of

mm No. Gauge No./ kg. No. Nails
Per kg.
6d 50 11 6 322 12 14,500
7d 32 11 6 277 12 12,500
8d 37 10 5 200 11 9,000
9d 44 10 5 173 11 7,800
10d 75 9 4 131 10 5,900
12d 81 8 3 95 9 4,300
16d 87 7 2 76 8 3,450
20d 100 6 1 57 7 2,600
Nails
Nail is a popular name for all kinds of nail except those extreme size
such as Tacks and Spike. The most generally used nails are called common
nails of sizes from 2.5 cm. to 15 cm.
Spikes
An ordinary spike is a stout piece of metal from 7.5 cm. to 30 cm. in

length much thicker in proportion than a common nail.
Spikes much in used in fastening railroads rails, construction of
docks, piers and other works using larger timber.
There are two kinds of Spike;
1.The flat head, diamond point
2.The oval head, chisel point
FIGURE 8-18 Boat Spike
Are small kind of nail driven mostly in a hard timber with a clear
cut sharp chisel point.
TABLE 8-7 COMMON WIRE NAILS TECHNICAL DATA
SIZE GAUGE LENGTH APPROXIMATE

NUMBER
No. Inches mm. Per kg. Per keg.
2d 15 1 1/14 25 1,831 82,400
3d 14 1 1/2 31 1,177 53,000
4d 12.5 1 1/2 37 666 30,100
5d 12.5 1 3/4 44 580 26,100
6d 11.5 2 50 382 17,200
7d 11.5 2 1/4 56 344 15,500
8d 10.25 2 1/2 63 208 9,400
9d 10.25 2 3/4 69 188 8,500
10d 9 3 75 138 6,250
12d 9 3 1/4 81 124 5,600
16d 8 3 1/2 88 93 4,200
20d 6 4 100 58 2,625
40d 4 5 112 45 2,040
50d 3 5 1/2 125 34 1,540
60d 2 6 150 20 910
TABLE 8-8 COMMON BRADS TECHNICAL DATA
SIZE LENGTH APPROXIMATE NUMBER

Inches mm. Per kg. Per keg.
2d 1 25 1,904 85,700
3d 1 1/4 31 1,206 54,300
4d 1 1/2 37 662 29,800
5d 1 3/4 44 566 25,500
6d 2 50 397 17,900
7d 2 1/4 56 340 15,300
8d 2 1/2 63 224 10,000
9d 2 3/4 69 197 8,900
10d 3 75 146 6,600
12d 3 1/4 81 137 6,200
16d 3 1/2 88 108 4,900
20d 4 100 68 3,100
30d 4 1/2 112 53 2,400
40d 5 125 40 1,800
50d 5 1/2 137 28 1,300
TABLE 8-9 ORDINARY SPIKE TECHNICAL DATA
SIZE LENGTH APPROXIMATE NUMBER

Inches mm. Per kg.
10d 3 75 90
12d 3 1/4 81 83
16d 3 1/2 88 66
20d 4 100 50
30d 4 1/2 112 37
40d 5 125 28
50d 5 1/2 137 22
60d 6 150 19
175 mm 7 175 15
200 mm 8 200 9
225 mm 9 225 8
250 mm 10 250 7
300 mm 12 300 6
FIGURE 8-19 CONCRETE NAILS
TABLE 8-10 QUANTITY OF CEMENT COATED NAILS
LENGTH PENNY GAUGE NUMBER PER KG

1” 2d 15 1863
1¼ 3d 14 1195
1½ 4d 12 ½ 651
1¾ 5d 12 ½ 559
2 6d 11 ½ 367
2¼ 7d 11 ½ 330
2½ 8d 10 ¼ 220
2 3/3 9d 10 ¼ 202
3 10d 9 145
3¼ 12d 9 149
3½ 16 8 103
4 20d 6 64
4½ 30d 5 48
5 40d 4 37
5 ½ 50d 3 31
6 60d 2 24
TABLE 8-11 USES AND APPROXIMATE QUANTITY OF NAILS
Material Unit per Required Size Kind of Nail

kilogram
Floor Joist and sq. m. .17 30 d CWN
bridging
At 30 cm. on center
T & G wood board

1” x 4” sq. m. .15 6d Flooring
Brad
1” x 6” sq. m. .09 6d Flooring
Brad
Siding Wood Board

on
Studs at 60 cm. o.c.
1” x 6” sq. m. .08 6d Casing Brad
1” x 8” sq. m. .06 6d Casing Brad
Stud / Nailing Strips

at 40 cm. o.c. sq. m. .08 8d CWN
at 60 cm. o.c. sq. m. .05 8d CWN
Scaffolding meter ht. .73 20 d CWN

of each
Post
Plywood Board Per
4 ft. x 8 ft. sheet
nailed at .15 cm o.c.
on
joist at 40 x 60 cm. .055 2d Finishing
dist. Nail
On studs spaced at
40 x 40 cm. distance sq. m. .033 2d Finishing
Nail
Rafters, purlins at 70
cm.
Distance and cleats sq. m. .20 20d CWN
Ceiling Joist at
40 x 60 cm. spacing sq. m. .055 8d Finishing
Nail

9-1 INTRODUCTION
Carpenters who have tried to build stairs have found it to be an art

itself. Technically building staircase requires structural carpentry and
craftsmanship of cabinet making. It is like constructing an inclined bridge
between two points on different floors with uniform well proportional
treads and riser that are safe and comfortable to climb and descend. To start
with, it is important to know and familiarize with the technical terms
comprising staircase.
Baluster - is a small supporting the handrail or a coping.
Balustrade - is a series or row of baluster joined by handrail or a coping as

the parapet of a balcony.
Bearers - a support for winders wedged into the walls secured by the
stringer.
Carriage - that portion which support the steps of a wooden stairs.
Close String – a staircase without open well as in dog stairs.
Cocktail Stair – is a term given to a winding staircase.
Circular stair – a staircase with the steps winding in a circle or cylinder.
Elliptical stairs – those elliptical in plan where each tread assembly is

converging in a elliptical ring in a plan.
Flight of stairs – is a series of steps leading from one landing to another.
Front string - the string on the side of stairs where handrail is placed.
Flyers – are steps in a flight that are parallel with each other.
Geometrical stairs – is a flight of a stair supported by the wall at the end of

the steps.
Half space – is the interval between two flight of steps in staircase.
Handrail – a rail running parallel with the inclination of the stairs that
holds the balusters.
Hollow newel – an opening in the middle of the staircase as distinguished

from solid newel wherein the ends of steps are attached.
Housing – the notches in the string board of a stair for the reception stairs.
Knee – is the convex bend at the back of the handrail.
Landing – is the horizontal floor as resting place in a flight.
Newel - the central column where the steps of a circular staircase wind.
Nosing – the front edge of the steps that project beyond the riser.
Pitch – the angle of inclination of the horizontal of the stairs.
Ramp – a slope surface that rises and twists simultaneously.
Rise – the height of a flight of stairs from landing to landing or the height
between successive treads or stairs.
Riser – the vertical face of a stair step.
Run – the horizontal distance from the first to the last riser of a stair flight.
Spandril - the angle formed by a stairway.

Staircase – is the whole set of stairs, the structure containing a flight of a
stair.
Stair builders truss – crossed beams which support the landing of a stair.
Stair head – the initial stair at the top of a flight of a stair or staircase.
Stair headroom – the clear vertical height measured from the nosing of a
stair tread to any overhead obstruction.
Stair well – the vertical shaft which contains a staircase.
Step – a stair which consists of one tread and one riser.
Steps – the assembly consisting of a tread and riser.
String – the part of a flight of stairs which forms its ceiling or soffit.
Soffit – the underneath of an arch or molding.
String Board – the board next to the wall hole which receives the end of
the steps.
Tread – the horizontal part of a step including the nosing.
Tread run – the horizontal distance between two consecutive risers or, on
an open riser stair, the horizontal distance between the nosing or the outer
edges of successive treads all measured perpendicular to the front edges of
the nosing or tread.
Tread length – the dimension of a tread measured perpendicular to the

normal line of travel on a stair.
Tread width – the dimension of a tread plus the projection of the nosing.
Wall string – the board placed against the wall to receive the end of the
step.
Well – the placed occupied by the flight of the stairs.
FIGURE 9-1
Well hole – the opening in the floor at the top of a flight or stairs.
Well staircase – a winding staircase enclose by the walls resembling a well.
Winders – steps not parallel with each other.
Wreath – the whole of helically curved hand rail.

9-2 STAIRCASE LAYOUT
The fundamental procedures in laying out a staircase are enumerated as

follows:
1. Determine the clear height of the riser in meter. Normally the standard
comfortable rise per step is from 17 to 18 centimeters. The maximum
height of a step riser is 20 centimeters and is only allowed on special
considerations where the physical conditions dictate. However, this height
is understood to be not comfortable for both ascending and descending the
stairs.
2. Determine the number of steps from the first to the next floor by the
dividing the total height of the rise by the chosen step riser of either 17 or 18
centimeters.
3. Divide the run distance by the effective width of the tread which normally
measured as follows:
Width of tread Effective width
25 cm ------------------------------ 20 cm
30 cm-------------------------------25 cm
35 cm-------------------------------30 cm
The effective width of the tread is its width minus the nosing.
FIGURE 9-2
4. If the result of step 3 is less than that of step 2, adjust the length of the
run or the width of the tread to obtain an equal distances and proportional
steps.
5. The height of the risers should be equal and uniform from the first to the
last step of the stair, thus, there should be no fractional value in dividing the
rise by the riser per step.
FIGURE 9-3
6. If fractional value could not be avoided in dividing the rise by the riser,
adjust the fractional value in equal proportion to the number of risers, but in
no case shall the riser per step be greater than 19 centimeters nor less than 17
centimeters. Otherwise, the stairs will not be considered as comfortable to
ascend and descend.
ILLUSTRATIONS 9-1
From figure 9-3 determine the number of steps and the height of the riser if
the total height of the rise is 2.20 meters using a 30 centimeters width of the tread.
SOLUTION:
1. The height of the rise of 2.20 meters. Assume a 17 cm. riser

Divide:
Rise = number of risers
Riser
2.20 = 12.94
.17
3. The answer has a fractional value of .94. The rule says; “there should be
no fractional value in dividing the rise by the riser.” Thus, adjust to have
an equal height per riser.
4. From the result of step 2, use the whole value of 12 disregarding the
decimal amount of .94.
2.20 = .183 m. or 18.3 centimeters

12
5. The 18.3 cm. is now the height of the risers per step instead of 17 cm. as
assumed. This value is within the range of 17 cm. and 19 cm. considered
as ideal and comfortable stair.
6. Determine the distance of the run using the formula.
Run = No. of Steps – 1 x Effective width of the tread.
Where:
Effective width = Tread width – Nosing
Nosing is from 2 to 5 cm.
Run = 12 – 1 x 25 cm.
Run = 2.75 meters
There are instance however, where the length of the run and the height of the
rise are known or given, the question is how to determine the width of the
tread and the height of each risers.
ILLUSTRATIONS 9-2
Determine the height of the riser and the width of the tread when the rise is
2.65 meters and the run is 2.75 meters.
SOLUTION:
1. Assume that the riser height is 18 centimeters.

2. Divide the rise height by 18 centimeters.
2.65 = 14.72 say 15 steps

.18
3. Assuming that there are 15 steps instead of 14.72, determine the final
height of the riser.
2.65 = 17.7 cm.

.15
This value is between 17 and 19 centimeters which is acceptable.
4. Assume that the tread width is 30 centimeters. The effective width of the
step is 30 – 05 nosing = 25 centimeters.
CROSS SECTION AND DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STAIR
FIGURE 9-4
5. If there are 15 steps, multiply by the effective width of the tread.

Run = Number of steps – 1 x 25 (see figure 9-4)
Run = (15 – 1) x 25 = 350 cm. or 3.50 meters
Take note that 3.50 meters is longer than 2.75 meter distance of the run as
specified in the problem, therefore, adjustment of the tread width is necessary,
thus:
a. From step 4, assume tread width = 25 not 30 centimeters.

b. The effective width is 25 cm minus 5 cm. nosing = 20 cm.
c. Check distance by the trial multiplication;
Number of steps x effective width = run
14 x .20 = 2.80 meters
This value is acceptable since the existing distance of the run is 2.75 meters
with a difference of 5 cm. which could be adjusted proportionally to the number of
the steps.

9-3 THE STRINGER
Stringer is the incline plane that support the treads and the risers of the
stair. The length of the stringer is determine by the use of the Pythagorean
Formula or by actual measurement using a meter rule or tape.
The “Steel Square” is very useful and effective tool in staircase

framing.
Know its functions and a satisfactory result will be obtained. Stringer is
classified according to the methods of attaching the risers and the tread as
illustrated below:
CUT TYPE CLEATED BUILT-UP

RABBETED TYPE
FIGURE 9-5
Cut type Stringer – is popularly in most modern and contemporary house
designs.
Cleated type stringer – is used for very rough work.
Built – up type stringer – is adopted on a wide stairs that requires a center

stringer.
Rabbeted type stringer – is adopted on fine work and usually made at the
mill. The risers and tread are held in the rabbets by wedges that are set with
glue.
ILLUSTRATION 9-3
Determine the length of an open cut type stringer with the following
data:
Run distance = 3.50 m.
Height of the rise = 2.50 m.
FIGURE 9-6
SOLUTION
1. Using the formula:
Stringer length = (run) ² + (rise) ²
SL = √ (3.50)² + (2.50)²
= √ 18.50
= 4.30 meters or 14.3 ft.
2. Determine the number of steps assuming 18 centimeters riser height.

Divide:
Rise = 2.50 m. = 13.88 say 14 steps
Riser .18
TABLE 9-1 HEIGHT OF RISE, LENGTH OF STRINGER AND RUN OF

STAIRWAY IN METERS
No. of Length of Stringer Length of Run Height of Rise

Steps Tread Width Tread Width Riser height at
25 cm. 30cm. 25 cm. 30 cm. 17 cm. 18 cm.
4 1.05 1.23 .80 1.00 .68 .72

5 1.31 1.54 1.00 1.25 .85 .90
6 1.57 1.85 1.20 1.50 1.02 1.08
7 1.84 2.16 1.40 1.75 1.19 1.26
8 2.10 2.47 1.60 2.00 1.36 1.44
9 2.36 2.78 1.80 2.25 1.53 1.62
10 2.62 3.08 2.00 2.50 1.70 1.80
11 2.89 3.39 2.20 2.75 1.87 1.98
12 3.15 3.70 2.40 3.00 2.04 2.16
13 3.41 4.00 2.60 3.25 2.21 2.34
14 3.67 4.31 2.80 3.50 2.38 2.52
15 3.94 4.62 3.00 3.75 2.55 2.70
16 4.20 4.93 3.20 4.00 2.72 2.88
17 4.46 5.24 3.40 4.25 2.89 3.06
18 4.73 5.55 3.60 4.50 3.06 3.24
19 5.00 5.85 3.80 4.75 3.23 3.42
20 5.62 6.16 4.00 5.00 3.40 3.60
This problem can be solved by referring to Table 9-1. See the value of
4.31 m. along the14 steps and 3.50 m. length of run below the .30 cm. and the
2.52 m. rise below the 18 cm. riser column.
Stairs Inclination Angle
Ladder 50° to 90°

Ramp 1° to 20°
Stairs 20° to 50°
Ideal Stairs 30° to 35°
TABLE 9-2 SPIRAL STAIRS
Open Riser of Treads Cantilevers Treads

Tread Degrees No. of Tread Riser Head Room
In Circle cm. meter
22° - 30’ 16 17.5 2.10

28° - 0’ 12-13 18.0 2.00
30° - 0’ 12-13 20.0 2.00
FIGURE 9-7
The National Building Code on Stairs Provides that:
1. The minimum width of any stair slab and the minimum diameter-
dimension of any landing should be at least 110 centimeters.
2. The maximum rise of stairs steps should be between 17 and19

centimeters. A rise less than 16 centimeters nor more than 19
centimeters is not considered as ideal stair.
3. The minimum width of the tread exclusive of the nosing shall be 25

centimeters.
4. The maximum height of a straight flight between landing is generally
3.60 meters except those serving as exit from places of assembly
where a maximum height of 2.40 meters is normally specified.
5. The number of stairway in a building depends upon the number of

probable occupants per floor, the width of a stairway and the building
floor area. The distance from any point in an open floor area to the
nearest stairway shall not exceed 38 meters.
6. The combined width of all the stairway in any floor shall
accommodate at one time the total number of persons occupying the
largest floor area under the condition that one person of each .33
square meter floor area on the landing and halls within the stairway
enclosure.
7. In building of more than 12 meters high and in all mercantile building

regardless of height the required stairways must be completely
enclosed by fireproof partitions and at least one stairway shall
continue to the roof.
1. Make a sketch plan of an ideal L-shape staircase with the following data:
Width of stair = 2.00 meters

Rise = 3.00 meters
Tread = 30 centimeters
Nosing = 5 centimeters
Riser height = ?
Run = ?
FIGURE 9-8
2. From the following figure, make a sketch plan of an ideal U-shape staircase
where the riser do not exceed 19 centimeters nor less than 17centimeters with a
30 centimeters tread and 5 centimeters nosing. The rise of the stair is 3.50
meters.
FIGURE 9-9

10-1 PAINT
Paint is commonly referred to as a “Surface Coating”. It is defined as

“a coating applied to surface or subtrate to decorate, to protect, or to
perform some other specialized functions.”
Almost everybody knows the word paint, its uses, color including
the brand which are rated as poor, good and durable. There are those who
have little knowledge of rated a brand based on how it is advertised. Others
on the cost of the paint.
Generally, a good quality paint is a little bit costlier than that a

poorer one. However, in terms of surface area coverage, ease of work
durability, a good quality paint is cheaper than that of poorer one. Thus,
never have a second thought of having the best from the reputable brand,
otherwise, to think of saving a few cents for your paint might turn out later
to be more expensive.
Obtaining a good quality paint from a reputable brand however, is not

a guarantee that you have a long lasting paint .There are numerous kinds of
paint as there are various kinds of surface to be painted. Applying a
premium quality paint to a surface not suitable for such type of paint is
considered a technical failure which cannot be guaranteed by the cost
neither the brand of the paint. It is therefore imperative to know which kind
of paint for what kind of surface to be applied with.

10-2 INGREDIENTS OF PAINT
Paint has the following Ingredients:
1. Vehicle
2. Solvent
3. Pigment
4. Additives
VEHICLE
Vehicle is that substance in the paint which gives a film continuity

and provides adhesion to the surface or subtrate. It is called vehicle because
it carries the ingredients to the subtrate which will remain on the surface
after the paint has dried.
The vehicle contains a film former which is the combination of the
following:
a. Resins
b. Plasticisers
c. Drying oil, etc.
The vehicle is divided into the following components:
1. Solid Thermoplastic Film Formers- The solid resin is melted for

application and then solidifies after application.
2. Lacquer Type Film Formers- The vehicle dries by solvent

evaporation.
3. Room Temperature Catalyzed Film Formers – A chemical agent

blended into the coating before application cause cross-linking
into a solid polymer at room temperature.
4. Heat-Cured Film Formers- Heat causes cross-linking of the film
former or activates a catalyst that is not active until heat has been
applied.
5. Oxidizing Film Formers- Oxygen from the air enters the film and
cross-link to form a solid gel.
6. Emulsion-type Film Formers- The solvent evaporation and the

droplets of plastic film former floating in it to flows together to
form a film.
SOLVENT
Solvent are low viscosity volatile liquid used in coating to improve
application properties.
PIGMENT
Paint Pigments are solid grains or particles of uniform and
controlled sizes which are generally insoluble in the vehicle of the coating.
The Paint Pigment contributes to the following properties:
a. For the decoration of function – It contributes opacity, color and

gloss control.
b. For the protective function – It contribute specific properties such
as hardness, resistance to corrosion and rapid weathering, abrasion,
and improved adhesion.
c. It makes sanding easier, retard flame and serves as insulation
against electricity.
d. Pigments serve to fill spaces in paint films.
ADDITIVES
Additives are ingredients formulated in the paint to modify the

properties of either the vehicle or the pigmentation or both. They give the
wet paint or dried paint film properties which are not present in the vehicle
and pigmentation system. Additives improve a certain properties of vehicle
such as speed drying, pigment resistance to fading or the entire paint such
as the ease of application.

10-3 ESSENTIAL AND SPECIFIC PROPERTIES OF GOOD

QUALITY PAINT
A good quality paint must have the following essential and specific
properties.
1. Adhesion – Coating must stick to the surface or subtrate to bing

other properties into work.
2. Ease of Application – Paint must be easily applied in the

accordance with the methods as prescribed by the manufacturer. It
should go into the subtrate to a specific film thickness and be dried
within the specified time with the desired appearance possessing
the necessary specific properties.
3. Film Integrity- the cured or dried film of paint must have all the
film properties as claimed by the manufacturer. There should be no
weak spots in the film caused by imperfect film drying or curing.
4. Consistent quality- paint must be consistent in quality such as

color, viscosity, application properties and durability from can to
can, batch by batch, shipment by shipment.
5. Specific Properties- paint should be considered for particular use

such as:
a. Kitchen Enamel – must resist grease, heat and repeated

cleaning.
b. Stucco or Latex Paint – must resist water, alkali and

sunlight and must permit passage of water of vapor.
c. Swimming Pool Paint – Must have specific chlorine,

water and sunlight resistance.
d. Exterior Commercial Aircraft Finishes – must resist ultra
violet degradation, erosion by air loss of adhesion at high
speed, rapid change of temperature, chemical attack by the
hydraulic fluids of the aircraft, and film rupture from the
flexing of the film by the denting of the surface.

10-4 THE ELEMENTS OF A GOOD PAINTING JOB
Painting is the final touch in the construction work. It is where all

the construction defects, ugliness and roughness from masonry, carpentry,
tinsmithing and others are corrected, smoothened and beautified.
The elements of a good painting job are:
1. Correct Surface Preparation – the primary and essential

property which is necessary for a paint is Adhesion. Good
adhesion demands good surface preparation.
2. Choice of the Proper Paint System – Apply the right kind of

paint on the right surface. For instance, always apply the right kind
of primer before the final top coat. Water base paint for masonry
and concrete. Oil base paint for wood and equivalent surface etc.
3. Good Application with the Right Technique and Tools.

a.) Maintain a uniform wet and dry film thickness.
b.) Correct application and number of sequence as specified by the
manufacturer.
c.) Always use the right kind of tools with good quality
4. Correct Drying Circle – The final properties of the dried coating

develop during the drying cycle. Unless conditions are favorable,
correct film properties will never develop.
5. Protection Against Water – The primary cause of paint failure is

moisture. Moisture is considered as a menace to the best of paint
job. It is very frustrating to see your lovely and newly painted
house deteriorating so soon specially if you bought good paint,
used good tools and spend a lot for labor.
Water is the hidden enemy of paint. It is a pervasive element of
deterioration and it causes the following:
a.) Rusting and other corrosion

b.) Paint peeling
c.) Masonry efflorescence and spalling
d.) Corrosive water solution (staining sea water)

10-5 SURFACE PREPARATION
The quickest way to achieve paint failure is through improper

surface preparation. It is just as important to a quality a surface preparation
as it is to specify a painting system.
A. GENERAL
1. Surface examination – no exterior painting or interior finishing shall

be done under conditions which may jeopardize the quality or
appearance of the painting or the finishing.
2. Preparation – all surface to receive paint should be cleaned and in

proper condition. Wood work shall be sandpapered and dusted clean.
All knot holes pitch pockets or sappy portions shall be shellacked or
sealed with knot-sealer. Nail holes, cracks are defects shall be puttied
after the first coat with putty matching color of the stain or paint.
3. Interior Woodwork – finishes shall be sandpapered between coats.

Cracks, holes, or imperfections in plaster shall be filled with patching
plaster and smoothed off to match adjoining surfaces.
4. Plaster or Masonry – Masonry or plaster shall be completely dried
before any sealer or paint is applied. After the primer-sealer coat is
dried, all visible suction spots shall be toughed up before the
succeeding coats are applied. Work should not be continued until after
all spots have been sealed. In the presence of high alkali conditions,
surfaces should be washed to neutralize the alkali.
5. Metals – Shall be clean, dry and free from mill scale and rust. Remove
all grease and oil from the surface. Unprimed galvanized metal shall
be washed with metal etching solution and allowed to dry before
applying a primer.
6. Concrete and Brick Surface – the surface shall be wired brushed

clean. Glazed surfaces and those with traces of patching compound
shall be sandpapered or acid etched before applying a primer.
B. CLEANING METHODS
1. Sandblasting – there are three general methods applied in

sandblasting namely ;
a. Conventional Dry Sandblasting – the sand is not recycled. However,

dust respirators and other safety precautions should be observed since
environment restrictions on dry blasting are becoming increasingly
severe.
b. Vacuum Sandblasting – this method reduces health hazard because the

sand is recovered outright. However, it is costlier and less efficient
compared with the dry blasting method but its efficiency can be
increased by holding the vacuum cone at a sight distance from the
surface. The vacuum method is useful inside shops in areas where dust
might damage machineries.
c. Wet Sandblasting – this method reduces the hazard of dust and may be
required by legal restrictions. The wet sand and paint residues
accumulate on ledges and other flat areas where rinsing operation is
necessary.
2. Wire-Brushing and Scraping – power and hand wire- brushing are

used in a small jobs in cleaning areas after and on surfaces where
sandblasting is not feasible. Hand scraping is used on small areas in
places where access is difficult and for final clean up after other
methods have been employed.
3. Power Tools – power tools such as rotary wire and disc tools, rotary
impact chippers and needle sealers may be used if sandblasting is not
feasible
4. Water Blasting – water blasting is an effective method in cleaning and

removing old paint from large masonry surfaces. It is generally used
and acceptable for health and environmental requirements. Water
blasting method is preferred for underwater or marine work.
C. CHEMICAL METHODS
1. Acid- etching – is the use of an acid solution with or without a

detergent to roughen a dense glazed surface. Rinse thoroughly the
acid-etched surface to remove the residual soluble reaction of calcium
and magnesium chloride which affect the adhesion and stability of
latex paint in particular.
2. Paint Remover- both the conventional solvent-base and the water

rinseable types of paint removers may be used to remove old paint.
Most paint removers contain wax. This wax should be removed
completely before painting because it destroy adhesion and inhibit the
drying of paint.
3. Steam cleaning – steam cleaning with or without detergents is
frequently used in food packing plants. A mildewcide is usually added.
Low pressure steam cleaners are used on home and office walls.
4. Alkali cleaning – Alkali cleaners should not be used on masonry

surfaces adjacent to aluminum, stainless steel or galvanized metal.
Surfaces which are cleaned with alkali cleaners must be thoroughly
rinse and clean with water. Residual alkali and detergents can cause
greater damage to paint if they are not removed completely.

10-6 KINDS OF PAINT, USES, AND AREA COVERAGE

Coverage
KIND OF PAINT USES THINNER DRYING TIME Per 4 lts
*PRIMERS*
1. Interior For interior Paint 2 hrs. Allow 25 to 30
Primer wood surfaces thinner over- sq. m.
and sealer night before
recoating
2. Exterior For exterior Paint 6 hrs. Allow 30 to 40
wood wood surfaces thinner over- sq. m.
primer night before
recoating
3. Prepakote Primer for Paint 3 hrs. Allow 35 to 40
Red oxide ferrous thinner over- sq. m.
primer and non-ferrous night before
materials recoating
4.Zinc For exterior and Paint 3 hrs. Allow 30 to 40
chromate Interior metal thinner over- sq. m.
primer surfaces exposed night before
to normal Indus- recoating
trial
environment
5.Red lead Rust preventive Paint 3 hrs. Allow 30 to 40
primer primer for thinner over- sq. m.
ferrous night before
surfaces
6.Epoxy primer For steel, alumi- Epoxy 6 hrs. Allow 30 to 40
num, galvanized reducer over- sq. m.
iron night before
recoating
*WATER BASE MASONRY PAINT*
1. Acrylic latex Exterior & ½ lts. 30 min. Allow 6 30 to 40
paint Interior water / hrs. before sq. m.
masonry 4 lts. recoating
surfaces
2. Acrylic semi- Exterior & water 30 min. Allow 6 30 to 40
gloss latex Interior hrs. before sq m.
masonry recoating
surfaces
3. Acrylic gloss Exterior & water 30 min. Allow 6 30 to 40
latex paint Interior hrs. before sq. m
masonry surface recoating
4. Acrylic gloss for chalky water 1 hour. Allow 4 30 to 40
Gloss Emulsion surface hours before sq. m.
Paint to improve recoating
adhe-
sion of new
coats
of Latex paint
5. Latex hi- for furniture, use as is 1 hour. Allow 4 30 to 40
gloss cabi- hours before sq. m.
enamel nets, doors, win- recoating
dows, tools,
toys,
wrought iron
and
primed metals
and appliances
Tinting color Acrylic colors water

6. Acrylic Primer to old water 30 min. Allow 6 30 to 40
concrete sealer and new hrs. before sq. m.
concrete recoating
7. Masonry Primer for old Use as is 24 hrs. Allow 30 to 40
surface chalky paint overnight before sq. m.
conditions film recoating
8. Tinting Acrylic Colors water
Colors
*ROOF PAINT*
1. All weather For galvanized water 4 hrs. Allow 40 to 50
acrylic roof iron sheet, overnight before sq.m.
shield asbes-
tos, concrete,
bricks and
stucco
2. Portland For G.I. sheet, Paint 6 hrs. Allow 30 to 40
cement paint CHB, stucco, thinner overnight before sq. m.
concrete, bricks recoating
and other zinc
coated metal
surfaces
3. Davies roof G.I. roof and Paint 6 hrs. Allow 30 to 40
paint other metal such thinner overnight before sq. m.
as aluminum recoating
and steel
*ENAMEL AND GLOSS PAINT*
1. Quick drying For exterior and Paint 5 hrs. Allow 8 30 to 40
enamel interior wood thinner hours before sq. m.
and metal surf recoating
2. Interior Interior wood Paint 6 hrs. Allow 25 to 30
Semi- gloss and metal thinner overnight before sq. m.
enamel surfaces recoating
3. Flat wall For interior wall Paint 3 hrs. Allow 40 to 50
enamel and ceiling thinner overnight before sq. m.
recoating
4. Exterior For exterior Paint 6 hrs. Allow 48 40 to 50
gloss paint wood and thinner hours before sq. m.
properly primed recoating
metal surfaces
5. Tinting Oil base tinting
colors
*VARNISHING*
1. No. 48 For dark wood Use as is
Davies wood to be changed to
bleach light natural
1and 2 finish and
making old
wood color
uniform
2. no. 77 For patching up Use as is 10 minutes 20 to 25
Davies Lax-tire wood defects 30 minutes sq. m.
plastic wood like knots, nail for dry hard
dough holes and cracks
3. wood filler Sealer for open Paint 12 min. Allow 25 to 35
paste grain of interior thinner overnight before sq. m.
wood recoating
4. Non- grain For wood 30 minutes 30 to 40
raising wood surfaces sq. m.
stain
5. Oil wood For paneling, Allow 24 hours 30 to 40
stain cabinets, floors, before recoating sq. m.
furniture, door
jambs, and other
wood work
6. Finishing oil To seal and overnight 35to 40
finish interior sq. m.
wood surf, such
as furnitures
wood &
panelling
7. Valspar or For floors, Paint 24 hours 40 to 50
spar varnish sidings thinner sq. m.
furniture, deck
of boats, etc.
8. Daxpar For interior and Paint 24 hours 40 to 50
varnish exterior wood thinner sq. m.
surfaces,
nautical and
aeronautical
varnish
9. Hi- solid For interior new Lacquer 10 minutes 40to 50
sanding sealer wood furnitures thinner Allow 30 sq. m.
and fixtures, minutes before
cabinet, doors recoating
10. Hi- solid For furnitures, Lacquer Allow 30 30 to 40
clear gloss cabinets, thinner minutes before sq. m.
lacquer fixtures door recoating
paneling and
trim
11. Hi- solid For interior Lacquer Allow 30 min. 30 to 40
semi- gloss wood furnitures thinner before recoating sq. m.
lacquer cabinets, door
shelves etc.
12. Hi- solid For interior Lacquer Allow 30 30 to 40
dead flat wood furniture, thinner minutes before sq. m.
lacquer cabinets, door recoating
jamb, trim
paneling etc.
13. Water white For furnitures, Lacquer Allow 30 30 to 40
gloss lacquer cabinets , doors thinner minutes before sq. m.
panel and recoating
interior walls
*AUTOMOTIVE FINISHING*
1. Lacquer For properly Lacquer Allow 30 40 to 50
enamel primed metal thinner minutes before sq. m.
and wood recoating
2. Automotive For exterior and Lacquer 30 minutes 40 to 50
lacquer interior metal or thinner sq. m.
wood surfaces
3. Lacquer For metal and Lacquer 30 minutes 40 to 50
primer wood surface thinner sq. m.
4. Lacquer For exterior and Lacquer 10 minutes dry 20 to 30
putty interior metal & thinner to sand in 1 sq. m.
wood surfaces hour
5. Pro-lux auto Automotive fin. Paint 2 hours dry hard 30 to 40
enamel for residential thinner in 10 hours sq. m.
and commercial
6. Pro-lux For exterior and Paint 2 hours. Allow 30 to 40
enamel primer interior wood thinner 8 hours before sq. m.
and metal recoating
surfaces
7. Pro-lux For exterior and Use a is
glazing putty interior metal &
wood surfaces
* INDUSTRIAL PAINT *
1. Silver finish For steel tanks, Use as is 1 hour. Allow 40 to 50
aluminum exterior & 24 hrs. before sq. m.
interior metal recoating
wood and
masonry
2. Heat- For interior and Use as is 1 hour. Allow 40 to 50
Resisting exterior surfaces 24 hours before sq. m.
like radiators, recoating
boilers, pipes
and general
industrial
equipment
3. High heat For superheated Use as is 1 hour at 450 º F 40 to 50
resisting paint steam lines, maximum sq. m.
boiler casings,
drum and rocket
launchers
4. Asphalt base For asbestos Use as is 1 hour. Allow 20 to 30
Aluminum cement 24 hours before sq. m.
composition and recoating
metal
5. Traffic paint For asphalt and Use as is 1 hour. Allow 20 to 30
masonry surface 24 hours before sq. m.
recoating
6. Blackboard For wood and Paint 12 hours. Allow 35 to 40
slating metal surface thinner overnight before sq. m.
recoating
7. Davies Anti- For hulls and Paint 12 hours. Allow 30 to 40
corrosive below water line thinner overnight before sq. m.
marine paint of ship recoating
8. Marine boat For properly Paint 12 hours. Allow 30 to 40
topping paint primed surfaces thinner 24 hours before sq. m.
between the recoating
light and deep
load lines of
ship
9. Anti- fouling For properly Paint 8 hours. Allow 30 to 40
paint primed surface thinner 12 hours before sq. m.
below the water recoating
line of ships
10. Hull, deck, For use above Paint 12 hours. Allow 30 to 40
mast and the water line of thinner 24 hours before sq. m.
topside paint sea vessels, recoating
equipment and
structures near
the sea
11. machinery Marine engine Paint 1 hour. Allow 30 to 40
engine enamel and equipment thinner 24 hours before sq. m.
casing recoating
12. Epoxy for steel, alumi- Epoxy 6 hours. Allow 30 to 40
enamel num, galv. ,iron, reducer overnight before sq. m.
wood & recoating
concrete
13. Epoxy For body repair epoxy 2 hours
glazing putty aircraft, care and
equipment
14. Epoxy glue Multi-purpose Use as is 8 hours full 30 to 40
thermosetting strength in 96 sq. m.
plastic material hr.
for cementing or
bonding rigid
materials
15. Pure pale Use as thinner Use as is
boiled linsed oil for exterior
house paint
16. Concrete Treatment to Use as is 24 hours 30 to 40
neutralizer neutralize sq. m.
masonry surface
17. rust Paint stripper Use as is overnight 25 to 35
remover sq. m.
18. Paint Paint stripper Use as is overnight 25 to 35
remover sq. m.
19. Mildewcide Destroy molds water
mildews on new
and previously
painted surface
SOURCE : Davies Paint Manual of Information

10-7 ESTIMATING YOUR PAINT
Paint manufacturer specification includes the estimate area coverage per

gallon with a net content of 4 liters. Generally, the estimated area coverage is in
the range interval of 10. For instance, one gallon of quick drying enamel covers 40
to 50 square meters surface area which simply mean a minimum of 40 and a
maximum of 50 square meters depending upon the texture of the surface to be
painted.
The problem therefore is, what amount for which surface texture will be
used? To simplify our estimate, surface texture will be classified into three
categories such as:
1. Coarse to rough ……. 40 or 30 sq. m. for water base paint

2. Fine to coarse ……… 45 or 35 sq. m. for water base paint
3. Smooth to fine……… 50 or 40 sq. m. for water base paint
ILLUSTRATION 10-1
A concrete fire wall measures 30 meters long and 12 meters high.

Determine the number of gallons (4 liters content) required using Acrylic Gloss
Latex Paint if the wall is:
a. Wooden troweled finish (coarse to rough)

b. Paper finished (fine to coarse)
c. Fine to smooth (putty finish)
SOLUTION:
A. Coarse to Rough Surface
1. Solve for the wall area.
30 x 12 = 360 sq. m.
2. 360 sq.m. divided by 30 sq. m. area coverage per gallon of neutralizer and
water solution :
360 = 12 gallons
30
3. If one quart of neutralizer is mixed with 2 ½ gallons of water;

Divide:
12 gallons = 4.8 say 5 quarts neutralizer
2.5
4. Solve for the concrete primer. Refer to section 10-6 under masonry water
base paint using acrylic concrete sealer as primer, the area coverage per
gallon is 30 to 40 sq. m.
5. For a coarse to Rough surface;

Divide:
360 sq. m. = 12 gallons acrylic concrete primer
30
6. Solve for the Acrylic gloss Latex Paint final coating using 30 sq. m. area
coverage per gallon;
Divide:
360 sq. m. = 12 gallons
30 sq. m./gal.
Solution for Fine to Coarse Surface
1. Solve for the net area of the wall = 360 sq. m.
2. Solve for the concrete neutralizer 360 sq. m. = 10.3

35 sq. m./gallon
3. If one quart of neutralizer is mixed with 2 ½ gal. of water;

Divide:
10.3 = 4.1 quarts neutralizer
2.5
4. Solve for the concrete primer sealer (use 35 sq. per gal.)
Divide:
360 sq. m. = 10.28 gallons
35
5. Solve for Acrylic Gloss Latex Paint.
same as step 4 = 10.28 gallons
C. Solution for Fine to Smooth Surface
1. Divide the wall area by 40 sq. m. coverage per gallon
360 = 9.0 gallons surface primer

40
2. For final coat, the same, 9 gallons.
3. For Neutralizer 9.0 gal. = 3.6 say 4 liter

2.5 gal.
ILLUSTRATION 10-2
A 10 classroom elementary school building with a general dimensions of

6.00 meters wide by 8.00 meters long requires painting of the roof and the
plywood ceiling. The plan specifies two coatings of Acrylic Roof Shield and
Quick Drying Enamel for the roof and ceiling respectively. Prepare an order list of
the following materials:
a. Roof paint
b. Wood primer for ceiling
c. Quick drying enamel paint
d. Paint thinner
SOLUTION:
A. Roof Paint
1. Find the total roof area.
A= 8.00 x 82.00 m.
A= 656 sq. m.
FIGURE 10 -1
2. Refer Section 10-6 under roof paint. The area coverage of Acrylic Roof
Shield paint per gallon is 40 to 50 sq. m. Use 45 as the average.
656 sq. m. = 14.6 ay 15 gallons

45
3. For two coatings, Multiply: 15 x 2 = 30 gallons
4. Paint thinner is not required. Clean water is used instead because is a water
base paint.
B. Enamel Paint for the Ceiling
1. Solve for the total ceiling area including the eaves.
A = 8 x 82 = 656 sq. m.
2. Solve for the primer paint. Refer to Section 10-6. Under the Exterior Wood
Primer, the area coverage per gallon is 30 to 40 sq. m.
3. For plywood ceiling, use the average value of 35 sq. m. per gallon.
Divide:
656 = 18.7 say 20 gallons wood primer
35
4. Solve for the Quick Drying Enamel top coat. Refer to Section 10-6. The
average coverage area per gallon is 30 to 40 sq. m. Use the average 35.
Divide:
656 = 18.7 say 20 gallons
35
5. For two coatings of top coat, multiply 20 x 2 = 40 gallons
6. Solve for the paint thinner at an average of ½ liter per gallon of paint.
Primer…………………………..20 gallons
Quick Dry Enamel……………. 40 gallons
Total……………….. 60 gallons
7. Multiply : 60 x .50 (½) = 30 liters or

8 gallons paint thinner. Add 5 to 10% allowance for thinning and washing of
paint brush and tools.
Summary
30 gallons Acrylic roof shield

20 gallons wood Primer
40 gallons Quick Dry Enamel
32 liters paint including 2 gallons allowance
Comment:
1. The paint thinner of any type is considered as the most abused materials in all
painting job. It is used for washing of hands, cleaning of paint brushes and
tools. Sometimes as fuel and torches or lamps.
2. Frequent washing of paint brush and roller after use will consume large
amount of paint thinner. This could be avoided if the brush is wrap-up with
paper after used then placed inside a gallon container with water to avoid
cleaning and hardening but is ready for use the next day or anytime as
needed.
3. However, if paint brush, rollers and other tolls were used in a epoxy paint or
primers that are mixed with catalyst, cleaning after used is mandatory because
the hardening process of epoxy paint mixed with catalyst can not be
prevented due to the chemical reactions that has already started like cement
mixed with water.
4. Protect your paint brush and roller from damages by cleaning as follows:
a.) For Epoxy Paint mixed with Catalyst – Clean your tools with epoxy or
acrylic thinner. For economical reason use lacquer thinner then wash with
water and soap.
b.) For Water Base Paint - Wash thoroughly with water and soap immediately
after use.
c.) Lacquer Paint or Varnish – Clean with lacquer thinner then water and soap.
d.) Gloss Paint, flat and quick dry enamel – Clean with paint thinner or
kerosene then water and soap.
e.) Lacquer thinner estimate for varnishing work should be sufficient enough to
anticipate frequent thinning, multiple rubbing, cleaning of tools and
evaporation.

10-8 PAINT FAILURES AND REMEDY
The different types of paint failures are identified as follows:
1. Blistering or peeling 7. Bleeding

2. Chalking 8. Mildew
3. Flaking 9. Staining
4. Fading 10.Checking and Flaking
5. Cracking and aligatoring
6. Peeling or cracking of paint on G.I. Sheets
Blistering or Peeling
Remedy:
1. Locate and eliminate the sources of moisture.
2. Scrap off old paint around the blistered area. Let dry and apply
good primer then final paint of good quality.
Chalking – the paint was too thin for the required film.
Remedy:
Be more generous to your paint. Spend a little more for two
coatings.
Flaking – the result of inadequate or poor surface preparation. The paint

flakes off in scales or powder and chalk off.
Remedy:
Scrape-off the paint on affected area than seal all cracks against
moisture. Apply good primer then final coat.
Fading – Fading is a normal behavior of paint. But, if fading is too fast and
excessive, that means you applied a poor kind of paint. This is what usually
happened when for a few cents of difference in cost the quality is sacrificed.
Remedy:
Repaint. Next time be sure to buy the best of paint brand.
Remember, good paint contains more and better pigment.
Cracking and Aligatoring – Results when paint was applied in several

heavy coats not observing the sufficient drying time between coats. The
primer or undercoat used may not be compatible with the final coat. For
instance, using a quick drying enamel as final coat over a flat wall paint. Or
a lacquer or acrylic paint over an ordinary oil base paint, etc.
Remedy:
Remove the paint. Clean the surface properly. Apply good kind of
primer then final coat.
Peeling or Cracking of Paint on G.I. Sheet – Indicates the use of

improper metal primer or no primer applied. The paint film has no adhesion
on the surface.
Remedy:
Strip off the paint. Clean with solvent. Dry, then apply galvanized
paint (see roof paint on Section 10-6)
Bleeding – is the result of inadequate sealing of the surface at the first

application of paint.
Remedy:
Scrape off the surface then repaint.
Mildew – Mildew thrives on high humidity and temperature. The fungus

are stimulated and grows on the paint film. If covered with new coat of
paint, just the same it will grow through the new coat.
Remedy:
Wash the surface with mildew wash solution diluted with water.
Scrub the surface. Rinse with clean water and dry for 48 hours then apply
final coat.
Staining – is an effect of wood preservative or rust of nails.
Remedy:
1. Remove the paint on affected area.
2. Remove rust on nails, then apply lead primer to metal and wood primer.
3. Apply the final coat with good quality paint.
Checking and Flaking – is caused by expansion or contraction of wood.
Remedy :
See Remedy for blistering.

10-9 WALL PAPERING
The term “wall paper” refers not only to paper substances that are
pasted on walls and ceiling but also include vinyl, cork, fabrics, grass cloth,
foils and many other surface covering materials.
Estimating your wall paper requires extra rolls in anticipation

of the following:
1. For replacement of ruined or damaged materials in the process of

working and handling.
2. For additional areas which are not included in the plan or overlooked in
actual surface measuring.
3. For future repair which requires the same pattern, color texture and
design.
4. Trim can be used as a decorative boarder. Wall paper is sold by yard or

meter in roll.
Vinyl Wall Paper is classified into three kinds:
1. Vinyl laminated to paper

2. Vinyl laminated to cloth.
3. Vinyl impregnated cloth on paper backing. This is extremely durable
easy to clean and resistance to damage.
Caution in Buying Vinyl Wall Paper
1. Examine the label if it is vinyl coated only. This kind is not wear or
grease resistant nor washable type.
2. Never confuse them with vinyl wall paper.
3. In buying your vinyl wall paper, always use and specify vinyl mildew
resistance adhesive only.
4. Vinyl wall paper stretches if pulled. Hair line like cracks will appear at
seems as wall paper shrinks when it dries. Thus, avoid stretching your vinyl
wall paper.
Foil
Foil is another wall paper simulated metallic finish or aluminum

laminated paper. Do not fold or wrinkle the foil because there is no remedy
to crease. Smooth surface is required to avoid reflective surfaces as foil
magnify any imperfections on the surface to which is attached. Remember
to specify mildew resistant vinyl adhesive only.
Grass Cloth, Hemp, Burlap, Cork
These are mounted on paper or backing which could be weakened

from over soaking with paste. Hence, paste one strip at a time.
Flocks
Flocks are made of nylon or rayon available on paper, vinyl or foil

wall papers. Use paint roller or squeegee for best result
Wall Paper Estimating Procedures
1. Determine the surface area to receive wall paper.
2. Subtract the area opening such as doors, windows etc.
3. Divide the net wall area by the effective covering of the wall paper size
as presented in Table 10-1 to find the number of roll
4. Add 5 to 10% allowance depending upon the design pattern.

5. Multiply the number of rolls by the corresponding amount or adhesive to
get the number of boxes required.
TABLE 10 -1 WALL PAPER TECHNICAL DATA
Width Length / roll Effective Covering Adhesive

cm. meter per roll (sq. m.) Box per Roll
52 10.05 5.22 .17
54 10.05 5.42 .18
71 13.70 9.72 .32
PROBLEM EXERCISE
1. A narra plywood partition contains 48 pieces ¼ “ x 4’ x 8’ board

specify 5 coat lacquer varnish including the primer coat of sanding sealer.
List down the required materials as follows:
a. Sand paper no.150 (rough) 220 and No. 400 (fine)

b. Wood stain
c. Lacquer Sanding Sealer
d. Lacquer clear gloss
e. Lacquer thinner
2. A national highway 80 kilometers long requires center line white

alternate marker 6 inches wide 3 meters long. How many gallons of road
paint is required?
3. A solid fire wall measures 45 meters long by 18 meters high is to be

painted with Acrylic – Latex gloss paint. The plan specifies two final coat
over the primer. Solve for the following materials if the wall finish is
coarse, fine and smooth.
a. Primer
b. Gloss latex paint
c. Neutralizer
4. A school building has 20 classroom measuring 7.00 x 9.00 meters with

an eaves measuring 120 centimeters from the wall including the fascia
board. Using a Quick Dry Enamel Gloss for the ceiling and roof shield
paint for the roof solve for:
a. Paint primer
b. Quick dry enamel paint
c. Paint thinner
d. Roof paint for two coatings

11-2 GLASS JALOUSIE
One important consideration in estimating glass jalousie is the clear

height of the window opening. If a window is two accommodate glass
jalousie, its height must be adjusted to the number of blade intended to be
installed. Table 11-2 provides the standard height of jalousie corresponding
to the number of blade.
With respect to the width of the glass jalousie, it does not present any
problem because the glass blade can be adjusted to the design length. The
glass blade however, should not be longer than 90 centimeters.

11 – 4 WOOD PILES
Specifications: Piles shall be peeled removing all the rough bark at

least 80% of the inner bark. Not least than 80% of the surface of any
circumference shall be clean wood. No string of inner bark remaining on
pile shall be over 2 centimeters wide and 20 centimeters long. All knots
shall be trimmed close to the body of the pile.
TABLE 11 – 6 WOOD PILES
Length of Pile Diameter from Butt Minimum Tip

In Meter Min. cm. Max. cm. Diameter cm.
Under 12 meters 30 45 20
12 to 18 meters 32 45 18
Over 18 meters 35 50 15
The diameter of the piles shall be measured in their peeled condition. When
the pile is not exactly round, the average of 3 measurements may be used.
The butt diameter for the same length of pile shall be as uniform as
possible. All piles shall retain preservative of at least the amount given in
the following table:
FIGURE 11 – 7 MINIMUM PRESERVATIVE PER CUBIC METER

OF WOOD PILES
Type of Processing
Use and Type
Empty Cell Process Full Cell Process
General use 193 kg. 321 kg
Marine use 193 kg. 321 kg
FIGURE 11 – 8 RANGE OF SKIN FRICTION FOR VARIOUS SOIL

Type of Soil Value in Kilograms per Square Meter
Minimum Maximum
1. Silt and Soft Mud 244 489
2. Silt Compacted 587 1,712
3. Clay and Sand 1,956 3,913
4. Sand with some clay 2,446 4,891
5. Sand and Gravel 2,935 8,804
Lumber shall be treated by pressure method with creosoted coal solution or

creosote petroleum solution
TABLE 11 – 9 ALLOWANCE BEARING POWER OF DIFFERENT

SOIL
Value in Tons per Sq. M.

Kind of Soil
Min. Max. Usual
Quick Sand and Alluvial Soil 5.38 10.76 5.38
Soft Clay 8.07 32.28 21.50
Wet Clay and Soft Sand 10.76 21.50 16.14
Clay and Sand in alternate 10.76 43.04 21.50
layers
Firm and Dry Loom or Clay
hard dry clay or Fine Sand 21.50 43.04 32.28
Confined Sand 10.76 43.04 32.28
Compact Coarse Sand or stiff
Gravel 32.28 64.56 43.04
Sand and Gravel Well 53.80 107.60 86.08
Cemented
Good Hard pan or Hard Shale 53.80 107.60 86.08
Rock 53.80 269.00 161.40

11–5 BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT
(Hot asphalt type – Approx. ½ or 1.25 cm. thick)
TABLE 11–10 BITUMINOUS MACADAM WEARING COURSE
Bituminous Aggregate
Application Materials Weight Coarse Key
Liter / sq. m. Kilograms Liters / sq. m.
First Spreading 90
First Application 4.0
Second 13
Spreading
Second 1.8
Application
Third Spreading 11
Third 1.4
Application
Fourth Spreading 8
Total 7.2 90 32
TABLE 11–11 BITUMINOUS MACADAM PAVEMENT

(Hot Asphalt Type Approximately 2 ¼ or 5.7 cm. Thick)
Activity Materials Coarse Choker Key
Liter/ sq. m. Kilogram Liter/ sq. m.
First Spreading 90
Second Spreading 10
Third Spreading 10
Second 3.5
Application
Fourth Spreading 8
Third Application 2.0
Fifth Spreading 8
Total 11.0 90 36
TABLE 11–12 BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT

(Hot Asphalt Type Approximately 1.6 cm. thick)
Operations Materials Weight Coarse Key
Liter / sq. m. Kilograms Liters / sq. m.
First Spreading 22
Second 1.3
Application
Second 6.5
Spreading
Third 0.7
Application
Third Spreading 4.5
Total 3.0 22 11
Values given with bulk specific gravity of 2.65
Open Graded Plan Mix Surface Course

The approximate amount of materials per square meter of the open
graded plan-mix surfacing course and the sequence of placing shall be as
follows:
1. Plant-mixed aggregate - 80
kilograms
2. Choker aggregate - 3 kg.
3. Bituminous materials - .45
liter
4. Choker aggregate - 3 to
5 kilograms

11–6 FILLING MATERIALS
Estimating procedures:
1. Compute for the volume to be filled up

2. Determine the kind of filling materials
3. Multiply the result found in step one by the corresponding percentage of
additional volume (see Table 11-3)
4. Add results to obtain the compact volume.
TABLE 11-13 FILLING MATERIALS
% Additional to
Materials (Loose
Obtain Compact
Volume)
Volume
Earth fill 23 to 25 %
Earth and Sand 18 to 20 %
Selected Borrow 15 to 18 %
A residential lot as shown in Figure 11-2 requires filling. Compute the

materials required using (a) earth fill (b) S.B.
FIGURE 11 – 2
SOLUTION
A. Using Earth Fill
1. Solve for the volume of A.

15 x 20.00 x .50 = 150 cu. m.
2. Find the volume of B.

15.00 x 20 x 1.30 =195 cu. m.
2
Total Volume……..345 cu. m.
3. From Table 11-3, consider 23% compaction allowance.

345 x .23 = 79.4 say 80 cu. m.
4. Add result step 2 and 3

345 + 80 = 425 cu.m.
B. Using Selected Borrow

1. The volume of A is = 150 cu. m.
2. The volume of B is = 195 cu. m.
3. Total Volume ………345 cu. m. loose volume
4. Add 18% allowance for compact volume (see Table 11-3)
5. 18% of 345 = 62 cu. meter
6. Add : 345 + 62 = 407 cu. m. compact volume

11-7 NIPA SHINGLE ROOFING
FIGURE 11-3
TABLE 11-14 NIPA SHINGLE TECHNICAL DATA
End Effective Covering in No. of Pieces per No. of Rattan per

Lap Square Meter Square Meter Square Meter
cm. in. Class A Class B A B * **
10 (4”) .1300 .1090 7.70 9.18 1.8 3.6
7.5 (3”) .0975 .0818 10.27 12.23 2.0 4.0

5.0 (2”) .0650 .0545 15.38 18.31 2.8 5.6
2.5 (1”) .0325 .0273 30.77 36.62 4.0 8.0
* Rattan ties for every other bamboo split ribs.
**Rattan ties for every bamboo split ribs.
Nipa Shingle is a native local product commonly used as roofing materials.

The nipa palm tree which grows on swampy area is the source of nipa shingles.
One palm stalk contains approximately 174 to 180 nipa leaves.
Nipa shingle is classified into two: Class A and Class B. The nominal
length is 150 and 120 centimeters long. The former contains approximately 82
pieces nipa leaves while the latter has approximately 68 pieces.
Roof Slope
The slope of the roof is one important consideration if nipa shingle is to be used.
The durability and life span of the nipa shingle depends upon the slope or the
inclination of the roof. The higher the slope, the longer is the life, the lower the
slope the more frequent you buy nipa shingles to change your roof.
Slope of rafters less than 45% is not advisable for the following reasons:
1. Spacing of the nipa shingles would be relatively far from the succeeding row.
Thus, the roof layer is relatively thin.
2. To install the nipa shingle at a closer spacing will only invite rain water to flow
back inside the house.
3. Rain water is hard to drain on a lower pitch roof. Moisture is the number one
enemy of the nipa leaves, bamboo and wood roof framing.
4. Not only nipa shingles but even galvanized sheet deteriorate faster when
installed at lower pitch.
The area of a roof framing is 30 square meters having a general dimensions of

3.00 x 10.00 meters. Find the number of nipa shingles required adopting 7.5 cm
(3”) and lapping tied on the bamboo split ribs at every other intervals using Class
“A” nipa shingles.
SOLUTION
1. Determine the area of the roof. Refer to Table 11 – 14 under class A = 7.5 (3”)
lapping.
Multiply:
30 sq. m. x 10.27 = 308 pcs.
2. Nipa shingles is sold in bundles of 25 pcs.

Divide:
308 = 12.32 say 13 bundles
25
3. Solve for required Rattan Splits. Refer to Table 11 – 14.
For rattan split;
Multiply :
30 sq. m. x 2 pcs / sq. m. sq. m. = 60 pcs.
4. Determine the number of bamboo poles required.

Refer to Table 11 – 15. Using Class B bamboo:
Divide:
30 sq. m. = 3.3 say 4 pcs.
9
5. Bamboo poles are also classified into three; Class A, B, and C which are then
divided into splits approximately 3.8 cm. to 5 cm. nailed on the purlins at an
intervals of 20 to 25 centimeters apart.
TABLE 11 – 15 BAMBOO POLES DIVIDED INTO 4 TO 6 STICKS

Bamboo Number of Approx. Length Coverage per
Class Splits in Meters Square Meter
A 8 9.0 12
B 6 7.5 9
C 4 6.0 4
Too fresh or too dried bamboo is relatively brittle. Thus, easily cracked when
fastened with nails. Care should be exercised to avoid the cracks or splitting of the
bamboo grain for it will weaken your structure. Cracks and splitting could be
avoided if the following procedures are observed.
1. Divide the newly cut fresh bamboo into the desired sizes.
2. Do not install nor fasten the fresh bamboo splits with nails until after sun dried
for at least 8 hours. Nailing should be done the following day.
3. For a well dried bamboo, soak or immerse in water overnight then fastened
with nails the following day.
FIGURE 11-4

11-8 ANAHAW ROOFING
TABLE 11-16 ANAHAW ROOFING TECHNICAL DATA

Number of Number of 3 m.
End Lapping
Leaves Per Rattan Per Square
cm.
Square Meter Meter
7.5 84 7
10.0 60 6
15.0 45 5
Note:
a. Add 10 pieces anahaw leaves per meter length along the gutter line or
lower end portion of the roof.
b. Add 10 pieces anahaw leaves per meter length of the ridge and the hip
line.
c. Add 5% allowance for damaged leaves. Dishonest supplier insert

damaged leaves in each bundle which could not be detected until after it is
opened for installation. However, if your supplier is dead-honest, disregard
this letter c.
IILUSTRATION 11-6
From Figure 11 – 5, Find the number of anahaw leaves and rattan splits
required.
FIGURE 11 – 5
SOLUTION
1. Solve for the area of roof A and roof B.
Area A = 30 sq. m.
Area B = 30 sq. m.
Total Area = 60 sq. m.
2. Refer to Table 11 – 16, adopting 10 cm (4”) end lapping;

Multiply :
60 x 84 = 5,040 pcs.
3. Determine the length of :

a.) Ridge Line = 10.00 meters
b.) Gutter Line = 20.00 meters
Total……………30.00 meters
4. Referring to notation of Table 11 – 16;

Multiply:
10 pcs. X 30 meters = 300 leaves
5. Add result of step 2 and step 4
5,040 + 300 = 5,340 pcs. Anahaw leaves

6. Determine the number of rattan required. Refer to Table 11 - 6 ;
Multiply:
60 x 6 = 360 pcs.
7. In the absence of rattan splits, the best substitute is the coralon nylon
chord used by fishermen. Appropriate one kilogram per 5,000 leaves.

Measuring Formula
Triangle : Area = Base x Altitude

2
Parallelogram: Area = Base x Altitude
Trapezoid : Area = Sum of Parallel Side x Altitude

2
Circle : Area = 0.7854 x Diameter ²

3.1416 x radius ²
Circumference = 3.1416 x Diameter

= 6.2832 x radius
Ellipse : Area = 0.7854 x Short diameter x Long diameter
Cone : Surface =Slant ht. x circumference (curve only) of Base
Volume = Area of Base x Height

3
Cylinder : Surface = Length x Circumference x Area of Ends
Volume = 0.7854 + Length x Diameter ²
Sphere : Surface = 3.1416 x Diameter ²

= Circumference x Diameter
Volume = 0.5263 x Diameter ³
= Circumference x Diameter ²
6
= Vol. of Circumscribing Cylinder

3

table of contents | home
CONSTRUCTION TERMINOLOGIES
ENGLISH PILIPINO
POST HALIGI
GIRDER GILILAN
JOIST SOLERAS
FLOORING SAHIG, SUWELO
GIRT SEPO
BEAM BIGA
TRUSS KILO
BOTTOM CHORD BARAKILAN
TOP CHORD TAHILAN
PURLINS REOSTRA
COLLAR PLATE SINTURON
FASCIA BOARD SENEPA
EXTERNAL SIDING TABIKE
VERTICAL STUD PILARETE
HORIZONTAL STUD PABALAGBAG
CEILING JOIST KOSTILYAHE

WINDOW SILL PASAMANO
WINDOW HEAD SOMBRERO
WINDOW OR DOOR JAMB HAMBA
OPEN STRINGER HARDINERA
CLOSE STRINGER MADRE DE ESKALERA

TREAD BAYTANG
RISER TAKIP SILIPAN
HANDRAIL GABAY
MOLDING MULDORA
EAVE SIBE
PROJECTION BOLADA
FRAMEWORK BALANGKAS
GUTTER KANAL
CONDUCTOR ALULOD
WROUGHT IRON STRAP PLANTSUWELA

BOLT PIERNO
SCAFFOLDING PLANTSA
STAKE STAKA
PLASTERRED COURSE KUSTURADA
STUCCO OR PLASTER PALITADA

SCRATCH COAT REBOKADA
PICKWORK ON MASONRY PIKETA
VARNISH FINISH MONYEKA
SPACING OR GAP BIYENTO
CONCRETE SLAB (ROUGH) LARGA MASA

ALIGNMENT ASINTADA
PLUMB LINE HULOG
CEMENT TILES BALDOSA
CEMENT BRICK LADRILYO
DOOR FILLET BATIDORA
GROOVE KANAL
WOOD GRAIN HASPE
PATTERN OR SCHEDULE PLANTILYA
HINGE BISAGRA
PANELED DOOR DE BANDEHA

EARTHFILL ESKUMBRO
MASONRY FILL LASTILYAS
ADOBE ANCHOR LIYABE
SOLDER HINANG
SOLDERING LEAD ESTANYO

TEMPER (METAL WORK) SUBAN, SUBUHAN
table of contents | home

TABLE 1-1 CONVERSION FROM INCHES TO METER
Accurate Approximate Accurate Approximate

Number Number
Value Value Value Value
1 .0254 .025 21 .5334 .525

2 .0508 .050 22 .5588 .550
3 .0762 .075 23 .5842 .575
4 .1016 .100 24 .6096 .600
5 .1270 .125 25 .6350 .625
6 .1524 .150 26 .6604 .650
7 .1778 .175 27 .6858 .675
8 .2032 .200 28 .7112 .700
9 .2286 .225 29 .7366 .725
10 .2540 .250 30 .7620 .750
11 .2794 .275 31 .7874 .775
12 .3048 .300 32 .8128 .800
13 .3302 .325 33 .8382 .825
14 .3556 .350 34 .8636 .850
15 .3810 .375 35 .8890 .875
16 .4064 .400 36 .9144 .900
17 .4318 .425 37 .9398 .925
18 .4572 .450 38 .9652 .950
19 .4826 .475 39 .9906 .975
20 .5080 .500 40 1.0160 1.000
INCHES AND FEET CONVERT TO METER
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METER CONVERT TO INCHES AND FEET

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FIGURE 1-1
TABLE 1-2 CONCRETE PROPORTION
Cement Sand Gravel

Class Mixture 40 kg./
48 kg./ Bag Cu. M. Cu. M.
Bag
AA 1 : 1 1/2 : 3 12.0 9.5 .50 1.0
A 1 : 2 : 4 9.0 7.0 .50 1.0
B 1 : 2 1/2 : 5 7.5 6.0 .50 1.0
C 1 : 3 : 6 6.0 5.0 .50 1.0
SLAB AND WALLS PER SQUARE METER
Mixture Class Sand Gravel
Thick
40 kg Cement 50 kg Cement
cm. cu. m. cu. m.
A B C A B C
5.0 .450 .375 .300 .350 .300 .250 .0250 .050
7.5 .675 .563 .450 .525 .450 .375 .0375 .075
10.0 .900 .750 .600 .700 .600 .500 .0500 .100
12.5 1.125 .938 .750 .875 .750 .625 .0630 .125
15.0 1.350 1.125 .900 1.050 .900 .750 .0750 .150
17.5 1.575 1.313 1.050 1.225 1.050 .875 .0880 .175
20.0 1.800 1.500 1.200 1.400 1.200 1.00 .1000 .200
22.5 2.030 1.688 1.350 1.575 1.350 1.125 .1125 .225
25.0 2.250 1.875 1.500 1.750 1.500 1.250 .1250 .250
27.5 2.475 2.063 1.650 1.925 1.650 1.375 .1380 .275
30.0 2.700 2.250 1.800 2.100 1.800 1.500 .1500 .300
ILLUSTRATION 1-1
A proposed concrete pavement has a general dimensions of 4 inches

thick, 3.00 meters wide and 5.00 meters long. Determine the number of
cement in bags, sand and gravel in cubic meters required using class C
mixture.

ILLUSTRATION 1-2
A barangay road 6.00 meters wide and one kilometer long after base
preparation requires concreting . Find the number of bags cement, sand and
gravel in cubic meters required using class "A" concrete if the slab is
designed at 6 inches thick.
FIGURE 1-3
1-9 POST AND FOOTING
Structurally, post is always supported by slab called footing. estimating

the quantity of materials could be done in two ways:
1. By the Volume Method

2. By the Linear Meter and Area Methods combined. (Linear method
for the post and area method for the slab.)
ILLUSTRATION 1-7
A concrete post 4.00 meters high with cross sectional dimensions of 20

cm. x 25 cm. is supported by a footing slab 20 cm. thick by 80 cm. square.
Using class "A" concrete, find the quantity of concrete materials if there are
12 posts of the same size.
FIGURE 1-9 POST AND FOOTING
SOLUTION :
A. By the Volume Method
1. Find the volume of the 12 posts
V = 12 x ( .20 x .25 ) x 4.00 m.

V = 2.4 cu. m.
2. Solve for the volume of 12 footing slab.
V = 12 ( .20 x .80 x .80 )

V = 1.54 cu. m.
3. Find the total volume o the post and footing slab.
V = 2.4 + 1.54
V = 3.94 cu. m.
4. Refer to Table 1-2. Using 40 kg. cement class "A" concrete

Multiply :
Cement : 3.94 x 9.0 = 35.46 say 36 bags.

Sand : 3.04 x .50 = 1.97 say 2.0 cu. m.
Gravel : 3.94 x 1.00 = 3.94 say 4.0 cu. m.
B. Solution by the Linear and Area method
1. Determine the total length of the 12 posts
L = 12 x 4.00
L = 48 meters
2. Refer to Table 1-4. Along the 20 x 20 cm. column size class "A"
mixture ;
Multiply :
Cement : 48 x .450 = 21.6 bags
Sand : 48 x .025 = 1.2 cu. m.
Gravel : 48 x .050 = 2.4 cu. m.
3. Find the total area of the footing slab.
A = 12 x ( .80 x .80 ) = 7.68 sq. m.
4. Refer to Table 1-3. Using 40 kg. cement class "A" concrete, 20 cm

thick slab;
Multiply :
Cement : 7.68 x 1.800 = 13.824 bags

Sand : 7.68 x .100 = .768 cu. m.
Gravel : 7.68 x .200 = 1.54 cu. m.
5. Add the results of step 2 and step 4
Cement : 21.60 + 13.824 = 35.424 say 36 bags

Sand : 1.20 + .768 = 1.97 say 2 cu. m.
Gravel : 2.40 + 1.54 = 3.94 say 4 cu. m.
FIGURE 1-10
ILLUSTRATION 1-8
From Figure 1-10, determine the number of 40 kg. cement, sand and
gravel required using class "A" concrete for the footing and class "C"
concrete for the flooring.
SOLUTION : ( By the Volume Method )
A. Footing Slab
1. Solve for the volume of F
Volume = .15 x .80 x .80

V = .096 cu. m.
2. Total volume of 4 footing slab
Vt = .096 x 4 .................... 0.384
B. Pedestal
1. Solve for the volume of P i

Vp = .30 x .30 x .90
Vp = .081 cu. m.
2. Multiply by 4 pcs. = .081 x 4 .................. 0.324

Total volume .............................. 0.708 cu. m.
3. Refer to Table 1-2. Using 40 kg cement class "A" concrete

Multiply :
Cement : .708 x 9.0 = 6.37 bags
Sand : .708 x .50 = .354 cu. m.
Gravel : .708 x 1.00 = .708 cu .m.
C. Concrete Floor Slab

1. Determine the volume of the concrete floor slab.
Volume = .10 x 3.00 x 4.00

V = 1.2 cu. m.
2. Refer to Table 1-2. Using 40 kg. cement class "C" mixture

Multiply :
Cement : 1.2 x 6.0 = 7.2 bags
Sand : 1.2 x .50 = 0.6 cu. m.
Gravel : 1.2 x 1.0 = 1.2 cu. m.
Summary of the Materials
Cement : 6.37 + 7.2 = 13.57 say 14 bags

Sand : .354 + .60 = .95 cu. m.
Gravel : .708 + 1.2 = 1.9 cu. m.
PROBLEM EXERCISE
1. Using the same problem of illustration 1-8, solve for :

a. Number of cement at 50 kg. per bag.
b. Sand in cubic meter.
c. Gravel in cubic meter.
2. Determine the quantity of cement, sand and gravel of the following

figure by the linear meter and the square meter method.
FIGURE 1-11
3. Concrete hollow block fence 54 m. long has concrete post with a

general dimensions of 20 cm. x 30 cm. 2.50 m. high spaced at 3 m. distance
resting on a 24" square footing 6" thick. List down the materials required.

TABLE 1-4 QUANTITY OF CEMENT, SAND AND GRAVEL FOR POST,
BEAM AND GIRDER PER METER LENGTH

cm. cu. m. cu. m.
A B A B
15 x 15 .203 .169 .158 .135 .011 .023
15 x 20 .270 .225 .210 .180 .015 .030
15 x 25 .338 .281 .263 .225 .019 .038
15 x 30 .405 .338 .315 .270 .023 .045
15 x 35 .473 .394 .369 .315 .026 .053
15 x 40 .540 .450 .420 .360 .030 .060
20 x 20 .360 .300 .280 .240 .020 .040

20 x 25 .450 .375 .350 .300 .025 .050
20 x 30 .540 .450 .420 .360 .030 .060
20 x 35 .630 .525 .490 .420 .035 .070
20 x 40 .720 .600 .560 .480 .040 .080
25 x 25 .563 .469 .438 .375 .031 .063

25 x 30 .675 .563 .525 .450 .038 .075
25 x 35 .788 .656 .613 .525 .044 .088
25 x 40 .900 .750 .700 .600 .050 .100
25 x 45 1.013 .844 .788 .675 .056 .113
25 x 50 1.125 .938 .875 .750 .063 .125
30 x 30 .810 .675 .630 .540 .045 .090

30 x 35 .945 .788 .735 .630 .053 .105
30 x 40 1.080 .900 .840 .720 .060 .120
30 x 45 1.215 1.013 .945 .810 .068 .135
30 x 50 1.350 1.125 1.050 .900 .075 .150
35 x 35 1.103 .919 .858 .735 .061 .123

35 x 40 1.260 1.050 .980 .840 .070 .140
35 x 45 1.418 1.181 1.103 .945 .079 .158
35 x 50 1.575 1.313 1.225 1.050 .088 .175
35 x 55 1.890 1.575 1.470 1.260 .105 .210
40 x 40 1.440 1.200 1.120 .960 .080 .160

40 x 45 1.620 1.350 1.260 1.080 .090 .180
40 x 50 1.800 1.500 1.400 1.200 .100 .200
40 x 55 1.980 1.650 1.540 1.320 .110 .220
40 x 60 2.160 1.800 1.680 1.440 .120 .240
45 x 45 1.823 1.519 1.418 1.215 .101 .203

45 x 50 2.025 1.688 1.575 1.350 .113 .225
45 x 55 2.228 1.856 1.733 1.485 .124 .248
45 x 60 2.430 2.025 1.890 1.620 .135 .270
50 x 50 2.250 1.875 1.750 1.500 .125 .250

50 x 55 2.475 2.063 1.925 1.650 .138 .275
50 x 60 2.700 2.250 2.100 1.800 .150 .300
55 x 60 2.970 2.475 2.310 1.980 .165 .330

55 x 70 3.465 2.888 2.695 2.310 .193 .385
55 x 80 3.960 3.300 3.080 2.640 .220 .440
55 x 90 4.455 3.713 3.465 2.970 .248 .495
55 x 100 4.950 4.125 3.850 3.300 .275 .550
60 x 60 3.240 2.700 2.520 2.160 .180 .360

60 x 70 3.780 3.150 2.940 2.520 .210 .420
60 x 80 4.320 3.600 3.360 2.880 .240 .480
60 x 90 4.860 4.050 3.780 3.240 .270 .540
60 x 100 5.400 4.500 4.200 3.600 .300 .600
65 x 60 3.510 2.925 2.730 2.340 .195 .390

65 x 70 4.095 3.413 3.185 2.730 .228 .455
65 x 80 4.680 3.900 3.640 3.120 .260 .520
65 x 90 5.265 4.388 4.095 3.510 .293 .585
65 x 100 5.850 4.875 4.550 3.900 .325 .650
70 x 70 4.410 3.675 3.430 2.940 .245 .490

70 x 80 5.040 4.200 3.920 3.360 .280 .560
70 x 90 5.670 4.725 4.410 3.780 .315 .630
70 x 100 6.300 5.250 4.900 4.200 .350 .700
75 x 70 4.725 3.938 3.675 3.150 .263 .525

75 x 80 5.400 4.500 4.200 3.600 .300 .720
75 x 90 6.075 5.063 4.725 4.050 .338 .675
75 x 100 6.750 5.625 5.250 4.500 .375 .750
80 x 80 5.760 4.800 4.480 3.840 .320 .640

80 x 90 6.480 5.400 5.040 4.320 .360 .720
80 x 100 7.650 6.375 5.950 5.100 .525 .850
85 x 80 6.120 5.100 4.760 4.080 .340 .680

85 x 90 6.885 5.738 5.355 4.590 .385 .765
85 x 100 7.650 6.375 5.950 5.100 .425 .850
90 x 90 7.290 6.075 5.670 4.860 .405 .810

90 x 100 8.100 6.750 6.300 5.400 .450 .900
95 x 90 7.695 6.413 5.985 5.130 .428 .855

95 x 100 8.550 7.125 6.650 5.700 .475 .950
100 x 100 9.000 7.500 7.000 6.000 .500 1.000
ILLUSTRATION 1-5
A concrete column is 7 meters high with a cross sectional dimensions of

20 x 24 inches. Determine the quantity of cement, sand and gravel content
of the column if there are 8 columns in the row using class "A" concrete.
FIGURE 1-7
SOLUTION
1. Find the volume of one column. convert first all dimensions from
inches to meters. (Refer to Table 1-1 use approximate value)
20 inches = .50 m.
24 inches = .60 m.
2. Solve for the cross sectional area of the column.
Area = .50 x .60 = .30 sq. m.
Volume = .30 x 7.00 ht. x 8 columns

V = 16.8 cu m.
4. Refer to Table 1-2. Using 40 kg. cement class "A" mixture
Multiply :
Cement : 16.8 x 9.0 = 151.2 say 152 bags
Sand : 16.8 x .50 = 8.4 cu. m.
Gravel: 16.8 x 1.0 = 16.8 cu. m.
METER
LENGTH OF CIRCULAR COLUMN

cm cu. m. cu. m.
A B A B
25 .422 .368 .344 .295 .025 .059
30 .636 .530 .495 .424 .035 .071
35 .866 .722 .673 .577 .048 .096
40 1.131 .942 .880 .754 .063 .126
45 1.431 1.193 1.113 .954 .080 .159
50 1.767 1.473 1.374 1.178 .098 .196
55 2.138 1.782 1.663 1.425 .119 .238
60 2.545 2.121 1.979 1.696 .141 .282

65 2.986 2.488 2.323 1.991 .166 .332
70 3.464 2.866 2.694 2.309 .192 .385
75 3.976 3.313 3.093 2.651 .221 .442
80 4.524 3.770 3.519 3.016 .251 .503
85 5.107 4.256 3.972 3.405 .284 .567
90 5.726 4.771 4.453 3.817 .318 .636
100 7.069 5.890 5.498 4.712 .393 .785
PIPE IN BAGS AND CUBIC METER RESPECTIVELY
Diameter Cement in Bags

Sand Gravel
cm. Class of Mixture
cu. m. cu. m.
D d A B
25 15 .283 .236 .016 .032
30 20 .354 .295 .020 .040
40 25 .689 .575 .038 .077
45 30 .796 .663 .044 .088
55 40 1.000 .840 .056 .112
60 45 1.114 .928 .062 .124
65 50 1.220 1.016 .068 .136
80 60 1.980 1.650 .110 .220
85 65 2.121 1.768 .118 .236
90 70 2.262 1.885 .126 .251
100 80 2.545 2.121 .141 .283
110 90 2.828 2.357 .157 .314
120 100 3.111 2.592 .173 .346
145 120 4.683 3.903 .260 .520
175 150 5.743 4.786 .319 .638
TABLE 2-9 QUANTITY OF CEMENT AND SAND FOR ADOBE
MORTAR PER SQUARE METER*
No. 40 kg. Cement 50 kg. Cement

Class of Mixture Class of Mixture Sand
Com. Size per
cu. m.
sq. m. B C D B C D
15 x 15 x
12 .281 .211 .176 .222 .164 .141 .024
45
15 x 20 x
10 .252 .189 .158 .200 .147 .126 .021
45
15 x 30 x
11 .228 .171 .143 .180 .133 .114 .019
30
15 x 30 x
8 .208 .156 .130 .165 .122 .104 .017
40
15 x 30 x
6.5 .190 .143 .119 .151 .111 .095
45
*Average thickness = 20 mm
TABLE 2-10 QUANTITY OF ADOBE STONE, CEMENT AND
SAND
FOR BUTTRESSES AND FOOTINGS
Cement Mortar per Stone

BUTTRESS and FOOTING 40 kg. Cement
Class of Mixture Sand
Buttress No. Number cu. m.
cross of of stone B C D
section course per m. ht.
30 x 45 2 12 .027 .021 .017 .0023
45 x 45 3 18 .029 .022 .018 .0025
45 x 60 4 24 .027 .021 .017 .0023
45 x 75 5 30 .032 .024 .020 .0026
45 x 95 6 36 .034 .025 .021 .0028
TABLE 2-11 QUANTITY OF CEMENT AND SAND FOR
PLASTERING MORTAR PER SQUARE METER
Bag Cement and Mixture Class

Sand
Side 40 kg. Cement 50 kg. Cement
cu. m.
B C D B C D
One face .300 .225 .188 .238 .175 .150 .025
Two faces .600 .450 .375 .476 .350 .300 .025
TABLE 4-3 NUMBER OF BOARD FOOT OF STUDS AND
NAILING JOIST PER SQUARE METER
Lumber Spacing in Centimeters (center to center)
Size In.
30 x 30 30 x 60 40 x 40 40 x 60 60 x 60
1x2 4.230 3.256 3.208 2.771 2.333
2x2 8.460 6.513 6.417 5.445 4.667
2x3 12.688 9.769 9.625 8.312 7.000
2x4 16.920 13.026 12.833 11.083 9.333
2x5 21.146 16.282 16.042 13.854 11.667
2x6 25.375 19.539 19.250 16.625 14.000

TABLE 5-1 QUANTITY OF PLYWOOD FORM AND ITS FRAME
FOR COLUMNS PER SQUARE METER LATERAL AREA
Plywood Size Number Size of Frame Ribs *

In Meter of Pieces Board Ft. Per Square Meter
2“x2“ 2“x3“
.90 x 1.80 .84 13.50 21.00
1.20 x 2.40 .46 13.50 21.00
The values given under the frame or ribs are computed from the
longitudinal rib type form (see Figure 5-2) considering its economical
advantages.
TABLE 5-2 QUANTITY OF LUMBER AND FORM FOR
CIRCULAR COLUMN LAYER UNIT TYPE
Lumber Spacing of Rib Supporter

Size Board Foot per G.I. Sheet as Form
Inches 10 cm 15 cm 20 cm
1x2 13.0 9.0 7.0
2x2 26.0 18.0 14.0
2x3 39.0 27.0 21.0
¾ “ plywood 0.77 0.77 0.77
FIGURE 5 -3 CIRCULAR FORM

Others
Cm. 20, 30, 40, 60
120 x 240 0.40 .43 3.2 6.4 9.50

Cm. 20, 30, 40, 60 Other
120 x 240 0.40 .43 3.2 6.4 9.50
FIGURE 5-6
TABLE 5-4 QUANTITY OF LUMBER FOR SCAFFOLDING AND
STAGING
Lumber Column Beam Flooring

Size Board Ft. per Meter Ht. Bd. Ft. per Meter Ht. Board ft.
per
Vertical Horizontal Brace Vertical Horizontal Sq.M.
2” x 2” 4.70 21.00 11.70 4.00 4.70 6.10
2” x 3” 7.00 31.67 17.50 6.00 7.00 9.10
2” x 4” 9.35 42.25 23.35 8.00 9.35 12.10
TABLE 6-2 EFFECTIVE COVERING OF G.I. ROOFING SHEETS
PURLINS
SPACING AND NUMBER OF FASTENERS PER SHEET
Length Effective Width Covering Purlins Number of

Feet-Meter Side Lapping Spacing Nails or
cm. Rivets
1–½ 2–½ Per sheet
6” – 1.80 .70 .60 .75 .14
7” – 2.10 .70 .60 .60 .18
8” – 2.40 .70 .60 .70 .18
9” – 2.70 .70 .60 .60 .22
10” – 3.00 .70 .60 .67 .22
12” – 3.60 .70 .60 .66 .26
TABLE 6-3 QUANTITY OF ROOF ACCESSORIES IN
KILOGRAMS
Materials Number of pieces per Kilogram

G.I. Roof Nails 120
G.I. Rivets 180
G.I. Washers 126
Lead Washers 75
Umbrella Nails 120
TABLE 6-4 SIZE AND QUANTITY OF STRAPS IN ONE PLAIN G.I.
SHEET
Size of Purlins Size of G.I. Strap Number of Strap

Inches Inches In One Plain Sheet
2” x 3” 1” x 9” 384
2” x 4” 1” x 10” 342
2” x 5” 1” x 11” 312
2” x 6” 1” x 12” 288
TABLE 6-5 COMBINATION OF CORRUGATED G.I. ROOF
SHEETS ON A GIVEN RAFTER LENGTH
RAFTER NO. OF COMBINATION OF ROOF SHEET

LENGTH SHEET LENGTH OF METERS (FEET)
3.00 1 3.00 (10’)
3.30 1 3.30 (11’)
3.60 1 3.60 (12’)
3.90 2 2.10 ( 7’ ) and 2.10 ( 7 ’)
4.20 2 2.40 ( 8’ ) and 2.10 ( 7’ )
4.50 2 2.40 ( 8’ ) and 2.40 ( 8’ )
4.80 2 3.00 (10’) and 2.10 ( 7’ )
5.10 2 3.00 (10’) and 2.40 ( 8’ )
5.40 2 3.00 (10’) and 2.70 ( 9’ )
5.70 2 3.00 (10’) and 3.00 (10’ )
6.00 2 3.60 (12’) and 2.70 ( 9’ )
6.30 2 3.60 (12’) and 3.00 (10’ )
6.60 2 3.60 (12’) and 3.30 (11’ )
6.90 2 3.60 (12’) and 3.60 (12’ )
7.20 3 3.00 (10’) and 2.40 ( 8’ ) and 2.40
(8’)
7.50 3 3.00 (10’) and 3.00 (10’ ) and 2.10
(7’)
7.80 3 3.00 (10’) and 3.00 (10’ ) and 2.40
(8’)
8.10 3 3.60 (12’) and 3.00 (10’ ) and 2.10
(7’)
8.40 3 3.60 (12’) and 3.00 (10’ ) and 2.40
(8’)
8.70 3 3.60 (12’) and 3.60 (12’ ) and 2.10
(7’)
9.00 3 3.60 (12’) and 3.60 (12’ ) and 2.40
(8’)
FIGURE 6-5
TABLE 6-6 ROOF ACCESSORIES
Effective Length in
ITEM
Meters
Gutter 2.35
Flashing 2.30
Ridge Roll 2.20
Valley Roll 2.30
Hipped 2.20
Roll
Soldering ¼ bar (.25) per Solder
Lead Joint
Moriatic 10 cc per Soldering Lead
Acid
FIGURE 6-8
** Standard Corrugated Sheet
Length 1.20 x 3.00 m.

End lapping : Below 20 degrees .30 m.
Above 20 degrees .15 m.
Ridge Roll effective length .838 m.
Hip roll 1.676 m.
FIGURE 6-10 STANDARD CORRUGATED SHEET

** 4-V Corrugated Sheet
TABLE 6-9 CORRUGATED SHEET TECHNICAL DATA
Standard Length 2.438 meters

Effective width .965 meters
Ridge Roll effective length .965 meters
FIGURE 6-11 4-V CORRUGATED SHEET

**Kanaletas
TABLE 6-10 KANALETAS

Length 7.315 m.
Eaves Flashing .885 m.
Outside Flashing Effective 2.40 to 3.00 m.
Length
FIGURE 6-12 KANALETAS

**Placa Romana
TABLE 6-11 PLACA ROMANA

Standard Length .812 meters
Effective length .600 meters
Standard Width 1.180 meters
Effective length 1.100 meters
End Lap .200 meters
Side Lap .080 meters
Ridge Roll effective length 1.100 meters
Ridge Flashing effective length 1.100 meters
Eaves Flashing effective length 1.100 meters
FIGURE 6-13 PLACA ROMANA

**Tencor
TABLE 6-12 TENCOR CORRUGATED SHEET
ITEMS Length in Meters

Standard length 2.44 m.
Lapping .15 or .30 m.
Effective Length 2.29 or 2.14 m.
Standard Width .748 m.
Effective Width .675 m.
Outside Flashing 1.50 to 3.00 m.
Minus Lapping .15 m.
Ridge Roll .953 m.
FIGURE 6-14 TENCOR CORRUGATED SHEET

**Ardex
TABLE 6-13 ARDEX CORRUGATED SHEET
MEASUREMENT
ITEM
Standard Super
Standard Width .52 m. 1.05 m.
Effective Width .45 m. .97 m
Nominal Length .75 to 3.15 m. 2.40 to 3.60 m.
Ridge Roll effective length .95 m. .95 m.
Outside Flashing 1.50 to 2.00 m. 1.50 to 3.00 m.
Side Lapping .15 m. .15 m.
FIGURE 6-15 ARDEX

FIGURE 6-9
Length 1.20 x 3.00 m.

End lapping : Below 20 .30 m.
degrees
Above 20 .15 m.
degrees
Ridge Roll effective .838 m.
length
Hip roll 1.676 m.
TABLE 7-1 QUANTITY OF TILES PERS SQUARE METER
NUMBER OF PIECES
CLASSIFICATION SIZE
PER
IN. CM. SQ. FT. SQ. M.
MOSAIC TLES 12 X12 30 X 30 1.0 11.1
GLAZED AND 3” X 3” 7.5 X 7.5 16.0 177.80

UNGLAZED
4” X 4” 10 X 10 9.0 100.0
TILES
4 ¼ X 4 ¼ 10.6 X 10.6 8.0 88.0
4” X 8” 10 X 20 4.5 50.0
6” X 6” 15 X 15 4.0 44.5
8” X 8” 20 X 20 2.25 25.0
8” X 16” 20 X 40 1.125 12.5
9” X 9” 22.8 X 22.8 1.78 19.14
10” X 10” 25 X 25 1.44 16.0
12” X 12” 30 X 30 1.0 11.1
5 PT. HEX. TILES 2 5 6.0 / ft. 20.0 / m
4 PT. HEX. TILES 2 5 4.9 / ft. 16.0 / m.
5 Point Hex. Tiles 2 5 6.0 / ft. 20.0 / m.
4 Point Hex. Tiles 2 5 4.9 / ft. 16.0 / m.
External corner bead – By direct count

Internal corner bead – By direct count
Portland cement paste mortar --------- .076 bags per sq. m.
White cement filler paste ---------------- 5 kg. Per sq. m
TABLE 7-2 QUANTITY OF MARBLE TILESAND MORTAR PER
SQUARE METER
SIZE NUMBER CEMENT BAGS SAND

CM. PER SQ.M. MIXTURE
A B C CU. M.
15 x 30 22.3 .45 .30 .225 .025
20 x 20 25.0 .45 .30 .225 .025
20 x 40 12.5 .45 .30 .225 .025
30 x 30 11.1 .45 .30 .225 .025
30 x 60 5.6 .45 .30 .225 .025
40 x 40 6.3 .45 .30 .225 .025
60 x 60 2.8 .45 .30 .225 .025
Polymer Liquid ……………….. .035 gallons per square meter

Hardener ……………………... .030 quarts per square meter
Calsomine powder …………… .045 kilograms per sq. m.
*Cement mortar computed at an average thickness of 2.5 cm. (1 “)
TABLE 7-3 VINYL AND RUBBER TILES
NUMBER PER GALLONS OF

STOCK SIZE SQ. M. ADHESIVE
PER SQ. M.
.20 x .20 ( 8” x 8” 25.00 .042
)
.225 x .225 ( 9” x 9” 19.75 .042
)
.25 x .25 (10” x 16.00 .042
10”)
.30 x .30 (12” x 11.11 .042
12”)
.40 x .40 (16” x 6.25 .042
16”)
.60 x .60 (24” x 2.78 .042
24”)
TABLE 7-4 GRANOLITHIC FLOORING
CEMENT
BRASS
STOCK PIECES BAGS SAND
DIVIDER
SIZE PER PER SQ. M. CU. M.
METER / SQ.
M. SQ. M. MIXTURE PER SQ. M.
M.
A B
.20 x .20 25.00 .338 .225 .018 10.8
.25 x .25 16.00 .338 .225 .018 8.9
.30 x .30 11.11 .338 .225 .018 8.0
.40 x .40 6.25 .338 .225 .018 5.8
.60 x .60 2.78 .338 .225 .018 3.4
TABLE 2-1 QUANTITY OF CEMENT AND SAND FOR MORTAR
AND PLASTER MIXTURE PER CUBIC METER
Cement in Bags Sand

Class Mixture
40 kgs. 50 kgs. Cubic M.
A 1:2 18.0 14.5 1.0
B 1:3 12.0 9.5 1.0
C 1:4 9.0 7.0 1.0
D 1:5 7.5 6.0 1.0
TABLE 9-1 HEIGHT OF RISE, LENGTH OF STRINGER AND RUN OF
STAIRWAY IN METERS
No. of Length of Stringer Length of Run Height of Rise

Steps Tread Width Tread Width Riser height at
25 cm. 30cm. 25 cm. 30 cm. 17 cm. 18 cm.
4 1.05 1.23 .80 1.00 .68 .72

5 1.31 1.54 1.00 1.25 .85 .90
6 1.57 1.85 1.20 1.50 1.02 1.08
7 1.84 2.16 1.40 1.75 1.19 1.26
8 2.10 2.47 1.60 2.00 1.36 1.44
9 2.36 2.78 1.80 2.25 1.53 1.62
10 2.62 3.08 2.00 2.50 1.70 1.80
11 2.89 3.39 2.20 2.75 1.87 1.98
12 3.15 3.70 2.40 3.00 2.04 2.16
13 3.41 4.00 2.60 3.25 2.21 2.34
14 3.67 4.31 2.80 3.50 2.38 2.52
15 3.94 4.62 3.00 3.75 2.55 2.70
16 4.20 4.93 3.20 4.00 2.72 2.88
17 4.46 5.24 3.40 4.25 2.89 3.06
18 4.73 5.55 3.60 4.50 3.06 3.24
19 5.00 5.85 3.80 4.75 3.23 3.42
20 5.62 6.16 4.00 5.00 3.40 3.60
*MASONRY WATER BASE PAINT*
*WATER BASE MASONRY PAINT*
1. Acrylic latex Exterior & ½ lts. 30 min. Allow 6 30 to 40

paint Interior water / hrs. before sq. m.
masonry 4 lts. recoating
surfaces
2. Acrylic semi- Exterior & water 30 min. Allow 6 30 to 40
gloss latex Interior hrs. before sq m.
masonry recoating
surfaces
3. Acrylic gloss Exterior & water 30 min. Allow 6 30 to 40
latex paint Interior hrs. before sq. m
masonry surface recoating
4. Acrylic gloss for chalky water 1 hour. Allow 4 30 to 40
Gloss Emulsion surface hours before sq. m.
Paint to improve recoating
adhe-
sion of new
coats
of Latex paint
5. Latex hi- for furniture, use as is 1 hour. Allow 4 30 to 40
gloss cabi- hours before sq. m.
enamel nets, doors, win- recoating
dows, tools,
toys,
wrought iron
and
primed metals
and appliances
Tinting color Acrylic colors water

6. Acrylic Primer to old water 30 min. Allow 6 30 to 40
concrete sealer and new hrs. before sq. m.
concrete recoating
7. Masonry Primer for old Use as is 24 hrs. Allow 30 to 40
surface chalky paint overnight before sq. m.
conditions film recoating
8. Tinting Acrylic Colors water
Colors
TABLE 11-2 GLASS JALOUSIE STANDARD HEIGHT
Number Height of Square Ft. Number of Height of

of Blade Glass per Blade Blade Glass
4 14 7/8 “ 4 x 22 = 0.61 13 45 3/8 ”
5 18 3/8 “ 4 x 24 = 0.67 14 49 7/8 “
6 21 7/8 “ 4 x 26 = 0.72 15 53 3/8 “
7 25 3/8 “ 4 x 28 = 0.78 16 65 7/8 “
8 28 7/8 “ 4 x 30 = 0.83 17 60 3/8 “
9 32 3/8 “ 4 x 32 = 0.89 18 63 7/8 “
10 35 7/8 “ 4 x 34 = 0.94 19 67 3/8 “
11 39 3/8 “ 4 x 36 = 1.00 20 70 3/8 “
12 42 7/8 “ 4 x 38 = 1.06 21 74 3/8 “
4 x 40 = 1.11 22 77 7/8 “
4 x 42 = 1.17
4 x 44 = 1.22
4 x 46 = 1.28
4 x 48 = 1.33
TABLE 11-3 WATER CONSUMPTION IN OFFICE BUILDING
Consumption in Gallons
Building type
per Hour per Person
Commercial – No Air-conditioning 3.8
Commercial – With Air-
7.3 – 9.2
conditioning
Owner occupied with kitchen and
laundry – No Air-
7.3
conditioning
Owner occupied with kitchen and
laundry with Air- 9.0
conditioning
TABLE 11-14 NIPA SHINGLE TECHNICAL DATA
End Effective Covering No. of Pieces No. of Rattan

Lap in Square Meter per Square Meter per Square Meter
cm. in. Class A Class B A B * **
10 (4”) .1300 .1090 7.70 9.18 1.8 3.6
7.5 (3”) .0975 .0818 10.27 12.23 2.0 4.0

5.0 (2”) .0650 .0545 15.38 18.31 2.8 5.6
2.5 (1”) .0325 .0273 30.77 36.62 4.0 8.0
* Rattan ties for every other bamboo split ribs.
**Rattan ties for every bamboo split ribs.
End Lapping
Leaves Rattan
cm.
Per Square Meter Per Square Meter
7.5 84 7
10.0 60 6
15.0 45 5
End Lapping
Leaves Rattan
cm.
Per Square Meter Per Square Meter
7.5 84 7
10.0 60 6
15.0 45 5
FIGURE 1-10
ILLUSTRATION 1-8
From Figure 1-10, determine the number of 40 kg. cement, sand and
gravel required using class "A" concrete for the footing and class "C"
concrete for the flooring.
SOLUTION : ( By the Volume Method )
A. Footing Slab
1. Solve for the volume of F
Volume = .15 x .80 x .80

V = .096 cu. m.
2. Total volume of 4 footing slab
Vt = .096 x 4 .................... 0.384
B. Pedestal
1. Solve for the volume of P
Vp = .30 x .30 x .90

Vp = .081 cu. m.
2. Multiply by 4 pcs. = .081 x 4 .................. 0.324

Total volume .............................. 0.708 cu. m.
3. Refer to Table 1-2. Using 40 kg cement class "A" concrete

Multiply :
Cement : .708 x 9.0 = 6.37 bags
Sand : .708 x .50 = .354 cu. m.
Gravel : .708 x 1.00 = .708 cu .m.
C. Concrete Floor Slab

1. Determine the volume of the concrete floor slab.
Volume = .10 x 3.00 x 4.00

V = 1.2 cu. m.
2. Refer to Table 1-2. Using 40 kg. cement class "C" mixture

Multiply :
Cement : 1.2 x 6.0 = 7.2 bags
Sand : 1.2 x .50 = 0.6 cu. m.
Gravel : 1.2 x 1.0 = 1.2 cu. m.
Summary of the Materials
Cement : 6.37 + 7.2 = 13.57 say 14 bags

Sand : .354 + .60 = .95 cu. m.
Gravel : .708 + 1.2 = 1.9 cu. m.

Estimate

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Table of Contents >>

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NOT for SALE

CHAPTER – 3 METAL REINFORCEMENT

CHAPTER – 5 FORMS, SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING

CHAPTER – 6 ROOFING MATERIALS

CHAPTER – 7 TILE WORK

CHAPTER – 11 AUXILIARY TOPIC

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1-1 Plain and Reinforced Concrete

Concrete is either Plain or Reinforced. By definition, Plain Concrete is

Reinforced Concrete on the other hand, is a concrete with reinforced

The different types of cement used in construction are:

1. The ordinary portland cement

2. The rapid hardening portland cement which is preferred when high

3. The blast furnace or sulphate cement which is used on structures

5. The portland pozzolan cement with a low hardening characteristic

6. The high alumina cement.

This type of cement has a very high rate of strength development as

The main composition of cement are:

1.60 to 65% Lime

1. Coarse Aggregates such as crushed stone, crushed gravel or natural

2. Fine Aggregates such as crushed stone, crushed gravel, sand or

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1-2 THE PRINCIPLES OF CONCRETE MIXING

The purpose in concrete mixing is to select an optimum proportion of

The proportion that will be finally adopted in concrete mixing has to be

2. The aggregate cement ratio is then chosen and established to satisfy

The ACI requirements for concrete are enumerated as follows:

3. That, hardened concrete could withstand the conditions to which it is

4. The concrete should be economically produced.

Concrete Mixture may be Classified as either:

Designed Mixture. Where the contractor is responsible in selecting the

Prescribed Mixture. Where the designing engineer specify the mixture

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1-3 THE UNIT OF MEASURE

Prior to the adoption of the Metrication otherwise known as System

TABLE 1-1 CONVERSION FROM INCHES TO METER

Accurate Approximate Accurate Approximate

1 .0254 .025 21 .5334 .525

1. One for the accurate conversion of length from English to Metric

2. The approximate value which will be generally used in our

A.) In solving problems, the probability of committing error is high if

It is easier to use .10 meter (the approximate equivalent of 4 inches) than

8 = 80 by inspection and analysis

8 = 78.7 by long process of division

1. To convert Meter to Feet.... Divide the length by .30

Say 6.0 m. = 20 ft. >>>HELP

2. To convert Feet to Meter.... Multiply by .30

Say, 30 feet x .30 = 9.0 meters >>>HELP

3. To convert Inches to Meter:...Just remember the following values

b.) how about 21 inches?

Inches to Meter Meter to Feet and Inches

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1-4 CONCRETE PROPORTION

The most common and easy way of proportioning concrete is by the

The volume method of concrete proportioning had long been practiced in

TABLE 1-2 CONCRETE PROPORTION

1. Inaccurate volume of delivered aggregates which is very common.

2. Dumping of aggregates on uneven ground surface and grass areas

3. Improper measuring of the aggregates during the mixing operation.

5. Cement waste due to bag breakage is usually caused by reckless

6. Pilferages of materials, although this could be avoided through an