FINALS: MIL: STEM B

LESSON 2; Codes & Conventions Medium Shot, Mid Shot and Medium Close Shot –
shows a subject down to his or her chest or waist.
- All media messages are constructed using a
particular set of codes and conventions. Close Up – a full – screen shot of a subject’s face,
- Every media product we encounter is a showing the finest nuances of expression.
coherent body with its own rules.
Extreme Close Up shot / Detail shot for objects – a
Codes – are systems of signs that when put together shot of a hand, eye, mouth or object in detail.
create meaning.
Point of View
Conventions – generally established and accepted
Establishing Shot – often used at the beginning of a
ways of doing something.
scene to indicate the location or setting, it is usually a
Theory of semiotics – study of signs, long shot taken from a neutral position.

- media always is engaged in “signifying Point – of – View Shot, POV shot – shows a scene
practices.” This means there is a kind of from the perspective of a character or one person.
symbolic work that can be found in media Most newsreel footages are shown from the
texts. According to Hall (1997.) perspective of the newscaster.

Context used are the set of conditions that locate a Over – the – Shoulder Shot – often used in dialogue
sign in a particular location in history. It can mean scenes, a frontal view of a dialogue partner from the
the established ways by which society privileges perspective of someone standing behind and slightly
certain signs due to certain historical circumstances. to the side of other partner, so that parts of both can
be seen.
The “Grammar” of the Camera
Reaction Shot – short shot of a character’s response
Extreme Long shot – a large crowd scene or a view
to an action.
of scenery as far as the horizon.
Insert Shot – a detail shot which quickly gives visual
Long Shot - A view of a situation or setting from a
information necessary to understand the meaning of a
distance.
scene. (ex; a newspaper page, or a physical detail.)

Medium Long Shot – shows a group of people in

Reverse – Angle Shot – a shot from the opposite
interaction with each other. (a fight scene, with part
perspective. (after an over-the-shoulder shot.)
of their surroundings in the pic)
Hand – Held Camera – the camera is not mounted on
Full Shot – a view of a figure’s entire body in order
a tripod and instead is held by the camera person,
to show action and/or a constellation group of
resulting in less stable shots.
characters.
 FINALS: MIL: STEM B

Camera Angles following a distinctive style in terms of form

and presentation.
Aerial Shot/High Angle/Overhead – long or extreme
long shot of the ground from the air. Primary genes that media creators and producers
invoke;
High – Angle Shot – shows people or objects from
above, higher than eye level.  Entertainment
 News
Low – Angle Shot or Below Shot – shows people or
 Information
objects from below (lower than eye level.)
 Education

Eye – Level –Shot/Straight – on Angle – views a  Advertising

subject from the level of a person’s eyes.

Primary genes in broad strokes; news, information,

Camera Movement education, entertainment and advertising.

Pan(ning shot) – the camera pans (moves horizontally) News – stories that have critical importance and

from left to right or vice versa across the picture. national life.

Tilt shot – the camera tilts up (moves upwards) or - Like the storytelling of fictional dramas,

tilts down (moves downwards) around a vertical line. news stories are also told following the basic
structure of beginning, middle, and end.
Tracking shot – the camera follows along next to or - Journalists > trained to report news to an
behind a moving object or person. audience.
>expected to be objective, comprehensive,
Zoom – the stationary camera approaches a subject
and bias – free.
by ‘zooming in’; or moves farther away by ‘zooming
>they work for newspapers, radio stations,
out’
televisions, and lately, online or web – based
- Codes and conventions are in fact more news services.
complex and elaborate concepts because >they employ various sub-genres in
they are tied to the concept of genre. delivering the news. There are 5 major
divisions of news stories;
LESSON 3; Genre
1. Hard or Straight news
- French word means “Kind” or “class.” 2. Feature
- Original Latin word “genus” means a class 3. Soft news
of things that can be broken down into 4. Investigate news
subcategories . 5. Opinion
- Tends to be understood to constitute  Hard news – usually found in the first page
particular conventions of content, and of a newspaper or makes up the headline of
 FINALS: MIL: STEM B

a regular episode of primetime news. Values  This inverted pyramid illustrates how
2 elements; information should be organized and
prioritized in a news article.
1. Seriousness – topics or issues that are critical to the
lives of the community and the body politic. Concise recounting of the details

- ex: Development in the political and economic

arena, crime – related events, outbreak and end of
war, and the occurrence of disasters.

2. Timeliness – stories that cover current events.

- ex: current peace negotiations, the outbreak of war,

a significant public statement issued by a leader or
opinion maker, a situation appraisal if a current crisis.  If a story is about some conflict, the two
opposing sides should be well – represented.
- Hard news is considered critical to the life of a
(accepted protocol.)
community or the entire nation, journalists usually
 Third person POV is the accepted manner of
invoke the notion of objectivity as one of the guiding
telling the story.
principles in covering and presenting news stories.
Ex: “the rallyists left Liwasang Bonifacio to
 Objectivity – usually considered a fair, march to Mendiola” – an objective manner.
balanced, and impartial stance when “I marched with the rowdy rallyists to
retelling the events, free of judgement and Mendiola.” – not acceptable.
without interpretation.  By virtue of the camera, television news
 Inverted Pyramid – acceptable structure of reporting presents a separate set of
the news story that is told objectively – with protocols ;
the base on top and the narrowest & pointed 1. The use of the character generator or
section at the bottom. chargen.
- The lead paragraphs opens with the very 2. Device that incorporates text in the
general recounting of the story, unpacking television screen is required to
the wisely acceptable 6 Ws; introduce succinctly the gist of a story.

- WHO was involved? 3. The camera angle should also be eye –

- WHAT happened?
level at that very moment the broadcast

- WHERE did it happen?

journalist is introducing the story to the
television audience.
- WHEN did it happen?
 Soft news – if the demands of hard news are
- HOW did it happen?
too steep, journalists are able to relax when
presenting soft news.
 FINALS: MIL: STEM B

- Include lifestyle news, travel news, articles - More commonly called as columns, are
offering the best way to do something or opinion articles and editorials express an
video clips presenting the POV of ordinary individual or organizational POV.
folks. - In the case of editorials, it expresses the
- Also called “human interest stories.” editorial committee’s stand on a very
 Features – are stories that are extension of specific issue or a specific person or entity.
soft news. Editorials can serve many purposes.
- Human interest angle is played up and - An editorial can argue for a certain issue and
presented in a longer and elaborate format. calls on a person/entity (or sometimes the
- Most feature stories follow the beginning- government)to act on the issue or respond to
mid-end structure but journalist can take the clamor of the citizens.
liberties as long as clarity is not - It is simply meant to entertain and
compromised. / journalist’s perspective is sometimes employ the tone of parody to
also acceptable. underscore the misdemeanor of individuals
- Using established literary conventions and or entities.
literary devices are also acceptable styles. - While an editorial was written by one/two
journalists, it still reflects the majority vote
Literary Journalism – what United States called the
of the editorial board, the governing body of
genre.
the newspaper made up pf the publishers,

- Journalism speaks of objectivity and a the editors of the different sections and its

commitment to standards of accuracy while business managers.

literary implies enjoying liberties with

Pooled editorial – if there are very significant
language as its defining characteristic.
issues confronting the nation, most media
- Requires more research and more reflection
organizations will convene and present to the
from a writer.
public.
- It is also possible that the writer inserts
herself into the narrative. His or her Opinion articles – reflect the views of the writer
reflection may form part of the ideas that the or the stand of one organization other than media
article wants to convey. institution that disseminates it.
 Editorials and Opinion – opinions against
- There are both opinion pieces, one
hard news are reserved for editorials and
conceptualized and perhaps written
opinion columns.
collectively & the other written by an
- In a newspaper, they’re usually found in at
individual.
least one page or perhaps a spread, made up
 Interrogative Reports – has a very specific
of two pages facing each other.
relation to power because it focuses in
finding, and presenting news which
authorities try to conceal.
 FINALS: MIL: STEM B

- Tools are similar to standard new reporting talks about the latest laundry detergent
but not all the time; as the only solution)
1. It is out to expose wrongdoing 2. Soft – sell advertisement – associative
2. questionable transactions, in nature. (ex; a major soda company
3. or shady deals brokered by those in associates its product the happiness
power derived from family togetherness)
4. there is the more compelling need to be 3. Infomercial – derived from the words
more in – depth and analytical with the “information” and “commercials,”
facts that are uncovered in a process combine the need to inform or educate
that usually takes longer than and the intent to sell a product. (ex;
conventional news reporting. advocacy groups use this to send
- Investigative journalists devote a great messages campaigning in behalf of a
amount of time on research and interviewing stand)
in depth their resources.  Entertainment – derives from the French
- In the Philippines, the sub-genre of word “entretenir” which means “to hold the
investigative reporting was pioneered by an attention, keep busy, or amused.”
institution called the Philippine Center for - Speaks much about how the genre is
Investigative Journalism (PCIJ) > it started creatively realized in the current media
by journalists who were very active during industry.
the Marcos era, the absence of democratic - The creation and production of
processes constrained the work of the media entertainment is always hinged on the profit-
industry. driven motives of media institutions.
- Media must provide citizens with the bases - Entertainment programs are the area where
for arriving at informed opinions and they generate the profits that should sustain
decisions. public service programs.
 Advertisements – messages that are created - It grabs the audience’s attention to present
to sell a product or a service. something that will make them comfortably
- Can either be commercial in nature, entertained.
information – laden, usually advancing a - Covers roughly 80% of programs in
cause or an advocacy. television and around 15% in a broadsheet.
3 broad sub-genres of advertising; - Structural organization of major broadcast
1. Hard – sell advertisements – mostly companies single out the entertainment unit
commercial in nature and utilize explicit as a distinct.
messages to get the consumers to
purchase a product or patronize a
service. (ex; e celebrity mother who
 FINALS: MIL: STEM B

4 sub – genres; - an articulation of a personal opinion.

Genre; E N T E R T A I N M E N - Recounting of life’s events
T - Elaboration of some concept.
Sub- genre Festival Drama Gaming Come - This started out in the late 1990s. &

dy individuals.

2nd Parades Workplace Sports Situati

- Multi – author blogs (MBA) – soon some

level- on
organizations discovered the potency of

subgen comed
blogs as information sites for their activities

re y
and platform of advocacies.

3rd Secular Dramas Professio Work

- Considered as social networking activity as

level - it invites participants to talk their opinions

parades about nal sports –

subgen and insights with the blog authors as well as

profession based

re interact with other readers.

als sitcom
2. Wikis – an application that allows the
s
modification, revision, extension,
4th Nonrecurri Hospital NFL Hospit
elaboration sometimes even deletion of its
level – ng secular dramas football al –
content.
subgen parades based
- Wikipedia > most famous wiki. An
re sitcom
encyclopedia project that relies on a global
s
community of users to contribute for content
 The table is largely based on American
generation, revision and elaboration.
television.
- Differs from blogs because the content has
 Information – all about the raw material that
no owner or leader.
circulates around us and from where news as
- Wiki writers can also promote topics
another genre is generated.
associations through hyperlinks that will
- Anything that provides us data about the
connect the readers to another document that
world. It could be a simple piece of data, or
can provide more information on elaboration
a set of data that says something about an
to the topic.
event, a person, or a thing.
- In the context of MIL, information has come Lesson 4; Formats
to mean the wide and almost infinite array of
- Templates that provide the working and
materials and texts we encounter in the
provisional structures of media and
internet. 2 sub genres;
information texts.
1. Blogs – broad category. Derived from the
- Provides the architectural foundation of a
words “web” and “log,” consists of web
media or information text and thus dictate
entries by an individual, displayed in reverse
the kind of content that will be generated
chronological order.
- Commentary on something
 FINALS: MIL: STEM B

and the specific audience a program will How are formats written? Detailed enumeration;
attract.
 Program title
 Target audience
 Suggested time slot
10 basic formats and local shows by Cury
 Length in minutes
2011:
 Brief outline (2-3)sentences

a. Panel shows  Outline running order

- GMA-7s “itanong mo kay Mareng Winnie”  Structure (if applicable)

b. Demonstration programs  Program conceit; what makes this format

- GMA-7s “Master sa Kusina” stand out from other programs and

c. Game shows competitors?

- TV-5 Jeopardy, ABS-CBN’s “Deal or No  Sample segments (ia)

Deal”  Suggested presenters, talents or actors

d. Live transmissions  Location or if shot in the studio, the set

- Election night design

e. Sports  Marketing plans

- PBA Governor’s cup

Chapter 3 – Audiences
f. Documentaries
- ABS – CBN’s storylines - A group of people exposed and experiencing
g. News media. They can be physically present at the
- Everything from the morning to the late event (screening of a film) while other
night news. audiences are not(television, books).
h. Fiction or drama Audiences are not always plural.
- Including teleseryes, situation - comedies
Mass Audiences – a convenient term applied to huge
i. Music / variety programs
members of people who constitute the audiences of
- ABS-CBN’s “ASAP”
popular and/or mass culture.
j. Public service bulletin

Audience fragmentation - a term used to describe the

Formula – established procedure for achieving
creation of smaller and less heterogeneous. Basically,
something.
media products become specialized to meet the
- The formula is the combination of elements demands of target audiences.
that will generate the kind of content and the
optimal effect that is envisioned.

Global formats – involved international co –

production. It can circulate in our local television.
 FINALS: MIL: STEM B

Lesson 1;The notion of the audience meanings from the media and information
texts.
Typology of audiences;
 Passive Audience Theories
1. Audience as “the people assembled,” – and  Hypodermic needle theory – emerged in the
paying attention to a media performing late 1920s and gained prominence until after
before them. World War II.
2. Audience as “the people addressed,” – group - It asserts that media and information
of people who were imagined by the messages, like a hypodermic needle, inject
communicator in the creation and their messages and audiences as passive
dissemination of the text, such as the women recipients of the messages.
who the advertisers think should be
Two-step flow of communication – emerged from the
patronizing their product.
studies of Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson and
3. Audience as “happening,” which could be
hazeld Gaudet when they analyzed how voters make
the experience of reception alone or with
their electoral decisions in the 1940 US presidential
others as an interactive event like a live
campaign.
streaming of the internet of a global event,
such as the Miss Universe. Opinion leaders –findings revealed that voters do not
4. Audience as “hearing” or “audition,” refers access information directly from the media. A group
to participatory audience experience, a high of people who exert particular influence on the voters.
degree of engagement like in a noontime
Uses and gratifications approach – argued that the
show broadcasted live, and the audience
audience access media and information bringing with
participation is embedded in the show.
them their own needs and desires, which in turn
Lesson 2; Audience Theories structures the way how media is received.

2 main schools of thought about audiences; 4 kinds;

- Wherein two ends of this spectrum is a give- 1. Information – know about the society we
and-take situation where audiences exercise live in. to sense the world. (ex: news genre,
their ability to interpret meanings enabled or how we gather information)
constrained by their personal circumstances 2. Personal identity – we watch television to
and the context surrounding their validate our understanding and appreciation
communities. of our identities.
1. The assertion that media and information 3. Integration and social interaction –
messages emanate from powerful structure providing us with the information we need
and the audiences are passive recipients. so we can integrate and interact with social
2. The belief that audiences access power groups.
because they create or generate their own
 FINALS: MIL: STEM B

4. Entertainment – employment, relaxation, or viewers, this ignites the desire to have

just to fill time. the same hair as the product endorser so
 Cultural effects theory – introduced by they head to the supermarket and
George Gerbner. Television cultivates in its purchase the product.
viewers a way of sensing and seeing the
world. 2. Negotiated reading – where the
 Active Audience Theories audience partly shares the text’s code
- Encoded in the construction of media texts and broadly accepts the preferred
are the organizational and contextual factors reading but sometimes resists and
surrounding the production of a media and modifies it in a way which reflects
information text. one’s own position, lived experiences
- Also dominant perspectives that emanate and even opinions.
from the main institutions of society, Ex; a woman who sees the commercial
including even the established codes and about luscious hair also sees that it is
practices that create preferred meanings. possible that the woman is naturally
- Ex: how media texts inscribe the dominant endowed with luscious hair or some
reading of how women should play out their production technique must have given
role in society. her that crown. Still she buys the
- Decoding side, which is part of the audience, product and uses it.
the media and information texts are always 3. Oppositional reading – where the
open to a range of meaning in terms of audience takes a directly oppositional
interpretation. stance to the dominant code of the
- Polysemic text > “poly” implies multiplicity media and information texts and resists
while “semic” is derived from the Greek it completely.
word “sema” meaning audiences see various Ex; the viewer might totally see the
meanings in the signs that are in the media advertisement as a sham, a blatant
and information texs. attempt to turn women into passive
- Usually the social factors are summed up as consumers aspiring for something they
the triumvirate of class, gender and ethnicity. can never had.
 Reception and Resistance
Lesson 3; The Notion of Constructed Audiences
3 modes of reading media texts on television
by David Morley deriving from Stuart Hall; Target audience – specific group of people identified
1. Dominant reading- where the reader and aggregated from selected population segments
fully shares the text’s code and accepts who are the intended users.
and reproduces the preferred reading.
How audiences are constructed?
Ex: a shampoo commercial features the
luscious hair of a woman. For women
 FINALS: MIL: STEM B

 Shaun Moores asserts that the audience is

not a homogenous category and that it is
best to see it in its plurality-as audiences.
 They are disparate group categorized by
how they receive the media and other
identity markers such as gender, race,
ethnolinguistic group, class status and other
position in society.
 To the creators and producers of media and
information texts, they are largely invisible.
 Ralway thinks the word “audience” has
indeed evolved from face-to-face interaction
in one shared physical space to include now
consumers of electronic media and
information. Audience as Defined by Differences

 Usually the attributes of the audience can be

 Audience demographics – created by
summed up by GEARS;
zeroing in to a particular sector of a

G – ender population that is intended audience of a

media or information text.
E – thnicity - Demographic also implies that a segment of
the population share some common
A – ge range
characteristics that will make then gravitate
R – egion or Nationality toward or patronize a media or information
text that has now been marketed as a product.
S – ocio – economic group
 Psychographics – largely derived from the
 4C’s (an advertising agency in the West, the concept of demographics but is focused on
Young and Rubicam LTD); Cross Cultural the psychological traits.
Consumer Characterization Model.

Creating Content for Target Audiences

- It involves a lot of research, a wide range

options and management of risks should the
initial formats would not work quite well.
- Risk management – exceptionally
significant part of audience creation.
FINALS: MIL: STEM B