Experiment 5:

Geometrical Optics II: Thin Lenses

1. Introduction

After introducing light rays in the last experiment, we build on this idea to describe ray
diagrams and derive the lens equation.+ These provide powerful tools to exploit geomet-
rical optics. In this experiment, we verify the lens equation for real and virtual images. In
the next experiment, we will use these tools to build a microscope and a telescope.

2. Theory

2.1 Lenses

Lenses are made of glass or of similar transparent material, which refracts light at the sur-
faces. They are shaped so that they diverge or converge a bundle of parallel rays, specifi-
cally such that parallel rays incoming to the lens cross at a point (the focal point) after
they leave. The focal length ( f ) is the distance between the lens and the focal point. The
focal length is a fixed characteristic of a given lens, depending only on the lens material
and shape. A lens that converges light is called convex, and the value of f is positive. If a
lens diverges light, it is called concave, and the value of f is negative. We deal only with
converging lenses in this lab.

Remark:
Sometimes lenses have a number printed on them, e.g. 100. This tells you that the lens is
convex (positive sign) and has a focal length of 100 mm. Focal distances are given in mm
as the general convention.

+
Many approximations are made with "thin lenses". The most sophisticated treatments of optics usually
begin, however, with these "thin lens approximations".

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Remark for Experts:
If a bundle of parallel rays falls on the lens,
but not along the axis of the lens, then the
focal point will be shifted up or down along
a line perpendicular to the axis (in the "focal
plane". Note that the focal distance along the
axis stays the same.

2.2 Ray Diagrams

Ray diagrams allow us to follow the paths of rays. They make it easier to understand how
images are formed and what lenses do.

To draw ray diagrams, follow a few simple rules illustrated in the figure below:

1. Draw the focal points of the lens on both sides of the lens.
2. If two rays from a source point intersect at another point, then all rays from that
source point will intersect at the second point.
3. It is most convenient to use three specific kinds of rays from the tip of the object (P)
labeled a, b, and c in the figure and described here:

(a) Rays that enter the lens parallel to the axis pass through the focal point behind the
lens.
(b) Rays that pass through the focal point in front of the lens leave the lens parallel to
the axis of the lens.
(c) Rays going through the center of a lens will go through the lens in a straight line
and do not bend. (These are the only rays that have no net refraction from the
lens!)

Draw rays from the tip of the object to the middle of the lens as a straight line, and then
continue as another straight line for the outgoing ray.

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2.3 Lens Equation

The ray diagram described in the last section provides a graphical method for locating
images. Using the simple geometrical argument given here, with the notation indicated in
the figure below, we derive the lens equation. This equation relates the image distance S',
the object distance S, and the focal length f.

Since triangle COP is similar to triangle CO'P'

S ' CO ' O ' P '

= = (1)
S CO OP

Since triangle F2O’P’ is similar to triangle F2CR

S '− f O ' F2 O ' P ' O ' P '

= = = (2)
f CF2 RC OP

Combining equations (1) and (2),

S ' S '− f
=
S f

which reduces to

S ' f = SS '− Sf

and finally, dividing by f S S' and rearranging, we obtain the lens equation

1 1 1
= + .
f S S'

The sign convention, which we have used in deriving the lens equation, assumes that f is
a positive number for a converging lens and S is positive on the left side of the lens,
where the object was placed. For S > f, S' is also positive and a real image exists on the

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right side of the lens, as shown in the figure above. If the object were placed inside the
focal length, i.e., if S < f , then the solution of the lens equation would give a negative
value for S'. In section 3.4, we note that this negative solution for S' corresponds to a vir-
tual image located on the left side of the lens.

The magnification of the image is just the ratio of the image height to the object height.
Eq. (1) shows that this magnification is numerically equal to S'/S, the ratio of image dis-
tance to object distance. The figure above also shows that the real image, formed when
S>f, is inverted.

3. Experiments

Quantitative measurements using simple thin lenses will be used here to illustrate the ba-
sic features of geometrical optics. It would be deceptive, however, to stress precision in
these measurements, since precise optical instruments utilize corrected, multi-element
lenses. Instead, you will use a crude "optical bench" -- a horizontal plastic meter stick,
with lenses, screens, etc., mounted on riders that slide along the stick. The centers of all
the components should be aligned at the same height so that measurements are performed
primarily along the principal axes of the lenses. Note that there is a ridge on the alumi-
num clamps that fits directly into the meter stick.

Do not overtighten the screws on the clamps. (And do not leave them so loose that things
fall off and break.)

Here we describe measurements of the focal length of a thin converging lens by two sim-
ple methods related directly to the definition of f.

3.1 Measuring the Focal Length - I

Locate the image of a distant object by mounting a screen behind the lens and viewing an
object outside the laboratory window. (See the figure above.)

Light from a source far away may be safely assumed to contain only parallel rays. As a
far away light source you can take the sun or even the ceiling lights. (Both are far away
relative to the focal length.)

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You may already suspect that this method is not very precise and that you will get large
uncertainties. The method described in the next section will provide more precise results.
So the value of this method is primarily pedagogical.

3.2 Measuring the Focal Length – II

Place an object on one side of the lens and a mirror on the other side, as indicated in the
figure to the right.

When the object is in the focal plane of the lens (i.e., when S = f) all the rays from a point
on the object, which pass through the lens, will emerge in a parallel bundle (much like the
figure shown in section 2.1). The rays remain parallel after reflection from the mirror.
Any reflected parallel bundle will then pass back through the lens and converge at a point
in the original focal plane. The location of the focal plane can thus be determined by
varying the object-to-lens distance until a sharp image is formed on the object screen it-
self, where the object-to-lens distance just equals the focal length. By using the backlit
small triangular screened opening as an object, you can observe the image superimposed
on the object and move the lens until the image is sharp.

3.3 Lens Equation

Use the same setup as in section 3.2 but instead of the mirror, use a screen. Locate the
lens more than a focal length away from the object and adjust the position of the screen
until you get a sharp image on the screen. By measuring S and S', you can verify the lens
equation.

With several measurements of S and S', make a 1/S vs. 1/S' graph and estimate a best-fit
line. This permits a measure of the focal length to compare with your previous result.

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3.4 Virtual Image

So far, we have only dealt with cases where the object is located more than a focal length
from the lens. What happens if we put the object closer than the focal length (S < f)?

Do the following experiment in your mind, perhaps while looking at the figure in section
2.3. Bring an object that is further away than the focal length closer and closer to the fo-
cal point. As you approach the focal point, the image recedes further and further, until at
the focal point, the rays exit parallel (and the image is infinitely far away). Remember
this is how we defined the focal point and how we determined the focal length in section

3.2! As the object gets even closer to the lens, as shown in the figure above, the rays
must diverge as they exit. If you extend the outgoing rays backward (behind the lens),
you find that they intersect behind the original object. A virtual image is formed. As you
look through the lens, the object appears at the position of the virtual image (and
enlarged).

How can you locate the virtual image experimentally? The rays do not actually converge,
so you cannot use the screen on which a real image was formed, as shown in section 3.2.
You can, however, use the parallax method, which was used to locate the virtual image of
a pin formed by a plane mirror in Experiment 4.

First, verify the procedure without the lens installed. Use a finder pin, which slides under
another meter stick mounted above and parallel to the optical bench, as shown in the next
figure.

The parallax method can be tested by placing an upright object pin at a fixed point on the
lower meter stick. While sighting along the bench, slide the finder pin until it no longer
seems to shift with respect to the fixed pin when you move your head sideways. The
finder pin should then be directly above the fixed pin.

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Finally, place the same thin lens used in parts A and B in front of the object pin at a dis-
tance S, which is less than f. Locate the virtual image of the object pin by sighting along
the bench as before and moving the finder pin to eliminate parallax between the finder
pin (viewed above the lens) and the image of the object pin (viewed through the lens).

By repeating this procedure for several object positions, you can see whether the meas-
ured positions of the virtual image follow the prediction of the lens equation. That is, do
they fall on an extension of the graph of 1 / S versus 1 / S′ plotted in section 3.3? In this
case, of course, S' is a negative number.

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4. Specifics of the Experiments

Equipment:

Optics
Box

Fluorescent Lamp

Meter Sticks

Yellow Coded Lenses Green Coded Lenses Red Coded Concave Lenses
w/ Short Focal Lengths w/ Medium Focal
Lengths

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 Brass Rod

Brass Ring

Semi Transparent Mirror

Mirror

Large Plastic Ruled Screen w/ Holder

Small Ruled Plastic Screens

Pins Small White

Metal Spring Metal Screen Small Ruled
Holder for Mirror Transparent
Screen Black Metal Screen
4.1 Measuring the Focal Length – I

• Select one of the lenses in the green holder.

• Choose a distant light source and attempt to get a sharp image on a screen (e.g. a
sheet of paper).
• Measure the distance between the screen and the lens, and estimate a reasonable mar-
gin of uncertainty.
• How could you improve this simple procedure (without going to part 2)?

4.2 Measuring the Focal Length – II

• Set up the experiment as it appears in the section 3.2 using the same lens as before.
• Choose the lens position so that you get a sharp image on the screen. It may be diffi-
cult to get a completely sharp image. But do your best to optimize the sharpness of
the grid lines.
• Is the image erect or inverted? Is it magnified?
• Is the distance from the lens to mirror important? Explain why or why not.
• Measure the focal length, including a realistic uncertainty.
• Is the second result the same within uncertainty as in the first measurement (part 4.1)?
• Give the main sources of error!

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• 4.3 Lens Equation

• Set up the experiment for the same lens using a screen to see the real image.
• Measure S and S` for five different pairs. Include uncertainty for S and S`.
• Plot a graph of 1/S` vs. 1/S, with the uncertainty represented as error bars.
• Draw a best-fit line and get the value of f from the intercepts with the axes.
• Is the value of f consistent with the value from the previous measurements?
• Is the value of the slope of the line what it is supposed to be?
• Comment on how well the line fits your data points.
• Which of the three methods used so far should give you the best estimate for f? Ex-
plain why!
• Give the main sources of error and how you could improve the experiment.

4.4 Virtual Image

• Assemble the experiment as shown in the figure of section 3.4 using the same lens
that was used earlier.
• Place the object pin about half a focal distance away from the lens.
• Verify the parallax procedure, with the lens out, using the finder pin as described in
section 3.4.
• With the lens in place, find the position of the virtual image via parallax-free reading
between the two pins (as described). This can be difficult, but don't despair!
• Read off S and S` (including uncertainty) and calculate f.
• Is your value of f consistent with the previous values?
• In your 1/S` vs. 1/S diagram, where should points corresponding to virtual images be
located?
• Give the main sources of error for this part.

PLEASE DISASSEMBLE EVERYTHING AND RETURN ELEMENTS TO

WHERE YOU FOUND THEM SO THAT THE NEXT LAB MAY START FRESH.

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5. Applications (to everyday experience)

The most important application of lenses (to us) is the human eye! The retina is located a
fixed distance from the lens. We need the ability to focus objects located at different dis-
tances in front of the eye onto the retina. These specifications require us to have an ad-
justable lens (with variable focal length). Adjusting the focal length is accomplished by
deformation of the lens through contraction of the ciliary muscles. If the eye views a dis-
tant object, the muscles are relaxed and the lens is rather flat, with a long focal length. If
the eye must examine a nearby object, the muscles contract and the lens becomes
rounder, with a shorter focal length. With advancing age, the lens loses its flexibility so
that the eye loses much of its ability to adapt to objects at close distances. (A common
misperception is that this can be compensated by "eye exercises", which would be the
case if the problem were muscles. But the problem is not in lost vigor of the muscles, but
in decreased flexibility of the lens!)

The two most common optical defects are nearsightedness and farsightedness. In a near-
sighted (myopic) eye, the focal length is too short even when the ciliary muscles are
completely relaxed. Thus, parallel rays from a distant object come to focus in front of the
retina and fail to form a sharp image on the retina. Vision of distant objects is blurred.
Eyeglasses with diverging lenses correct this condition.

In a farsighted (hyperopic) eye, the focal length is excessively long, even when the ciliary
muscles are fully contracted. Hence, rays from a nearby object converge toward an im-
age beyond the retina and fail to form a sharp image on the retina. Eyeglasses with con-
verging lenses can correct this condition.

For Text look at: Ohanian: Physics

Picture from: Daniel Malacara: Geometrical and Instrumental Optics

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6. Lab Preparation Examples

Lenses:
1. What kind of lens do you have if you find a lens with -50 written on it?

2. In section 2 of the experiment, you measure 25 cm between the mirror and the lens and
10 cm between the lens and the object/screen. What is the focal length of the lens?

3. You find a pair of glasses and you find out that can focus sunlight on a spot 5cm away
from the lens. What is the focal length of the lens?

Ray Diagrams:
4. Draw the ray diagram for the following lens-object system!

Lens Equation:
5. If the focal length of a lens is f = 100mm. You place the object at a distance S =
250mm. Where will you find the image? Is it a real or virtual image?

6. If the focal length of a lens is f = 100mm. You place the object at a distance S = 50mm.
Where will you find the image? Is it a real or virtual image?

7. If the focal length of a lens is f = 100±10 mm. You place the object at a distance S =
150±20mm. Where will you find the image? Is it a real or virtual image?

8. For what value of S is the image distance S` equal to the object distance S, given the
focal length f.

9. Draw a 1/S` vs. 1/S diagram using the values listed below. Make a best curve fit and
determine f.
S in mm S` in mm 1/S 1/S`
100 ± 10 100 ± 10 ± ±
150 ± 15 75 ± 5 ± ±
75 ± 10 150 ± 10 ± ±

Virtual Image:
10. Given f = 100mm, what is the position of the virtual image if S = 50mm?

11. For S =20±5 mm and S` = -40±5 mm, what is the value of f?

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