ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

GEOMETRIC OPTIC
BASIC CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE
1.1
1.2

Reflection : When a light ray incident on a smooth surface bounces back to the same medium, it is
called reflection.
Laws of Reflection :
(i) Angle of incidence is equal to the anlge of reflection.
i.e.,
i= r
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

1.3

Spherical Mirror :
Spherical mirrors are of two types :
(i) Concave mirror : (ii) Convex mirror :

1.4

Mirror Formula
1 1 1
= +
f v u

where u = distance of object from mirror ;

v = distance of image from mirror ;
and
f = focal length of mirror.
1.5

Magnification Produced by Mirror :

Magnification M = I = - v
O

1.6

Refraction
Law of Refraction :
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface separating the two media, all lie in the
same plane.
(ii) Snell's Law : For two media, the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant for a beam of particular wavelength i.e.,
sin i
n
= cons tan t = 2 = ' n 2
sin r
n1

1.7

...(1)

Refractive index
n=

Speed of light in vacuum c

=
Speed of light in medium v

l air
n l air
=
n l medium l medium

.....(4)

lair and lmedium being wavelengths of light in air and medium respectively.
\

sin i n 2 c / v 2 v 1 l 1
=
=
=
=
sin r n1 c / v 1 v 2 l 2

...(5)

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1.8

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Formation of image by refraction
n=

Real depth(OM)
t
=
Apparent depth (MI) t - x

N
M

...(6)

P
I

where x is displacement or apparent shift.

\ The apparent shift, x = 1 - 1 t

1.9

x
O

...(7)

Refraction through a number of media :

A

N1
i B

I air
N2
B
C

r2

II water

ng =

tw

III glass
D

2.

tg

I air
E

1
a ng
=
a nw
a n w g n a

CRITICAL ANGLE : TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

The angle of incidence in denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium is 90 is called
the critical angle (C).
If nr and nd are refractive indices for rarer and denser media, then
\

sin i n2
gives
=
sin r n1

sin C
n
= r = d nr
sin 90 nd

\
2.1

sin C = d nr =

1
1
=
n
n
r d

Spherical Lenses :
There are two types of spherical lenses.
(i) Convex lens
(ii) Concave lens
Rules of Image Formation in Lenses
(i) The ray incident on lens parallel to the principal axis, after refraction through the lens pases thorugh the
second focus (in convex lens) or appear to come from second focus in concave lens.
(ii) The ray incident on lens towards optical centre C, after refraction pass undeflected.

2.2

Thin Lens Formula

If u and v are object and image distances from a lens of focal length f, then thin lens formula is
1 1 1
= f v u

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2.3
Magnification produced by a lens.
m=

2.4

I
v
=
O u

Lens Maker's Formula

1
1
1

= ( 1n2 - 1)

f
R
R
2
1

2.5

f = (n - 1) R - R
2
1

Power of a Lens
1

100

Power of lens, P = f (in metres) dipoters = f (in cm) diopters

2.6

Lens Immersed in a Liquid

1
1
1

= ( l ng 1)

fl
R
R
2
1

nl of liquid, ng of lens
2.7

Thin Lenses in Contact

If two or more lenses of focal lengths f1, f2........ are placed in contact, then their equivalent focal length
F is given by
1 1 1
1
= + + ......... =
F f1 f2
f

The power of combination

P = p1 + p2 + ........ = p.
2.8

Refraction Through a Prism

For a prism if A is the refracting angle of prism, then
r1 + r2 = A
...(1)
and
i1 + i2 = A + d
...(2)
n=

sin i1 sin i 2
=
sin r1 sin r2

...(3)

Y
A
d

N1
i1

(i2 r2)

(i1r1 )

r1

r2

dD dm

i2
G
H

N
Q

N2

i1

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i
i

i2

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Minimum deviation : At minimum deviation the refracted ray within a prism is parallel to the base of
prism. So
i1 = i2 = i(say)
r1 = r2 = r(say)
Then from equation (1) and (2),
r + r = A or r = A/2
...[(4) (a)]
i + i = A + dm or i =

A + dm
2

...[(4) (b)]

\ The refractive index of material of prism

sin i
n=
=
sin r

A + dm
2
A
sin
2

sin

...(7)

Maximum deviation : For maximum deviation produced by a prism

either i1 or i2 = 90
,2.9

Disperison
The splitting of white light into its constituent colours is called the dispersion. When white light falls on a
prism, it is broken into constituent colours within the prism. So the emergent light has a number of
coloured beams, the violet being deviated most and red the least in visible region.
Thus the prism cause deviation as well as dispersion. If dv, dr and dy are the deviations caused by prism
in violet, red and mean yellow rays, then for small angled prism.
Angular dispersion = d v - dr = (n v - nr ) A

P
q

A
dR

dY

ite
Wh rays
t
h
g
li

dV

Red
Yellow
Violet
R

Dispersive power,
w=

3.

Angular dispersion d v - d r
=
Mean deviation
dy

Angular dispersion

= w = Mean deviation

d v - dr
dy

(nn - nr ) (n n - nr )
=
(n y - 1)
ny - 1

SCATTERING OF LIGHT
The light is scattered by air molecules. According to Lord Rayleigh the intensity of scattered light
I

1
1
I 4
4
( wavelength )
l

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As l blue < l red , accordingly blue colour is scattered the most and red the least, so sky appears blue.

3.1
1.

At the time of sunrise and sunset, blue colour is scattered the most and red colour enters our eyes, so
sunrise and sunset appear red.
Defects of Eye and Their Correction
Due to growing age or otherwise, eye may suffere the following defects :
Myopia or shortsightedness : Myopia is the defect of eye in which a person can see only nearby
objects, but fails to see the far away objects distinctly. This defect is due to

Corrective
lens

Eye lens
Parallel rays
from object

2.

F
I

Image formation
by myopic eye

(b) myopia

Retina
I

(a) decrease in focal length of the eye lens.

(b) Spreading of the eye-sphere.
Due to these reason the image is formed in front of the retina.
Clearly, for elimination of myopia the focal length of corrective concave lens will be equal to the
distance of far point of myopic eye from the eye lens.
Longsightedness of Hypermetropia : Hypermetropia is the defect of eye in which a person can see
only farther objects but fails to see nearer objects distinctly. this defect is due to
(a) Increase in focal length of eye lens. (b) Contraction of eye-sphere.
Due to these reasons the image of a nearby obect is formed behind the retina.

Retina

Normal near
point

Normal near
point

O
D=2cm
Near point of
defective eye

(a) Image formation

by hypermetropic eye

3.

4.

Corrective
convex lens

(b) Corrected hypermetropia

Presbyopia : In growing age, the eye lens loses its flexibility of changing the focal length. Consequently,
the near point of an eye is displaced farther and far point of the eye is displaced nearer, so that the eye is
unable to see the nearby as well as far away objects. This defect of eye is called presbyopia.
This defect may be eliminated by using bifocal lenses.
Astigmatism : The defect of eye in which horizontal and vertical objects at the same distance are not
focused at the retina clearly is called astigmatism. This arises when the cornea is not spherical in shape.
For example cornea could have a larger curvature in vertical plane than in horizontal plane.

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3.2
(1)

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
If astigmated eye sees a wire mesh or a shirt having horizontal and vertical lines, then verticl and horizontal
lines are not equally well focused; if vertical lines are well focused, the horizontal lines may appear
distorted or curved and vice versa. This defect may occur along with the myopia or hypermetropia.
Remedy : The astigmation is corrected by using a cylindrical lens having a cylindrical surface of a radius
of curvature with an appropriately direction.
Optical Instruments (Microscopes and Telescopes)
Simple M icr oscope : It consists of a convex lens of small focal length f.
If
b = angle subtended by an image on eye
a = angle subtended by an object on eye, when object is at a distance of distinct vision
Magnifying power,
M=

b D
v
= 1 +
a v
f

If the final image is at , v = then M =

D
f

If the final image is at a distance of distinct vision, n = D, M = 1 +

(2)

Compound Microscope :
Magnifying power of microscope,
M=

v D
v
b
1 + e
( = m0 m e ) = 0
a
u0 v e
fe

Eye piece
ue

v0

u0

D
B Objective
A''
A

F0
O

Fe'

A' b

Fe

B'

B''

ve

The length of microscope,

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D
f

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
L = length of tube
= sepration between lenses = v0 + u0
Special cases : (i) When final image is formed at a distance of distinct visio, ve = D
\

vo
uo

M=

D
1 +

fe

and L = v0 + ue

In a compound microscope, object is placed, just beyond the focus i.e.,

L
f0

D
1 +

fe

(ii) When final image is formed at infintiy, ve = , then

M=

v0 D

u0 fe
L D
.
f0 fe

M-

Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Telescope)

The magnifying power of telescope is

Distant object

(3)

and L = v0 + fe

Object

ue

f0

Eye piece

F0
F'e A'

A"

C1

B'

C2

F'e

L2

B"

M=

ve

Angle subtended by final image at eye

b
=
Angle subtended by an object on eye
a

= (m0 m e ) =

f0
fe

f
1 + e

v e

and
Length of telescope L = f0 + ue
where ve = distance of final image from eye lens
ue = distance of real image A B from eye lens
Special cases (i) When final image is formed at a distance of distinct vision, then ve = D
\

M=

f
f0
1 + e
fe D

and L = f0 + ue

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity, then ve =
f

0
\ M = f and L = f0 + fe
e

4.

REFLECTING TELESCOPE
Newtonian reflecting telescope.

Parallel rays
from distant
object

Plane
mirror

Objective
(Concave mirror)
Newtonian reflecting telescope.

Paraboloidal
objective
mirror
Secondary
mirror
Parallel rays
F
from distant
object

Eyepiece

Cassegrain reflecting telescope.

For the final image formed at the least distnace of distinct vision,
m=

f
f0
1 + e
D
fe

For the final image formed at infinity,

m=

f0 R / 2
=
fe
fe

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

WAVE OPTICS
1.
1.1

(i)

WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT : HUYGEN'S THEORY

Wavefront
A wavefront is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles which are vibrating in the same phase.
Types of Wavefronts
Spherical Wavefront

Plane wavefront

Spherical wavefront
Cylindrical wavefront
(b)

(a)

(c)

(ii) Cylindrical Wavefront :

(iii) Plane Wavefront :
1.2

Coherent and Incoherent Sources of Light

The sources of light emitting wave having a constant initial phase difference are called coherent source.
The sources of light emitting wave with a random phase difference are called incoherent sources. For
interference phenomenon, the source must be coherent.

1.3

Interference
Condtions of maxima and minima : If a1 and a2 are amplitudes of interfering waves and f is the phase
difference at a point under consideration, then
Resultant intensity at apoint in the region of superposition
I = a12 + a 22 + 2a1a 2 cos f
= I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 cos f

Condition of maxima :
Phase difference, f = 2np
or path difference, D = nl, n being integer
Maxima intensity, Imax = A 2max = (a1 + a2 )2
= a12 + a 22 + 2a1a 2
= I1 + I2 + 2 I1I 2

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Condition of minima : Phase difference, f = (2n 1) p
l
2

Path difference, D = (2n 1) , n = 1, 2, 3...........

Minimum intensity, Imin = (a1 a2)2 = a12 + a22 2a1a2
= I1 + I2 2 I1 I2
1.4

Formulae of Young's Double Slit Experiment :

D=

y nd
D

For maxima D = nl
nDl
d

\ Position of nth maxima y n =

1 Dl
d

\ Position of nth minima yn = n 2

P
S1

Fringe width : Fringe width is defined as the separation

between two consectuive maxima or minima.
b = yn + 1 yn =
Angular fringe width,

bq =

Dl
d

S2

b l
=
D d

Use of white light : When while light is used to illuminate the slit, we obtain an interference pattern
consisting of a central white slit, we obtain an interference pattern consisting of a central white fringe
having on both sides symmetrically a few coloured fringes and then uniform illumination.
1.5

Diffraction due to a Single Slit

When a parallel beam of light is incident normally on a single slit, the beam is diffracted from the slit and
the diffraction pattern consists of a very intense central maximum having on either sides minima, and
secondary maxima alternately.
If a is width of slit and q the angle of diffraction, then the directions of maxima
1

a sin q = n + l
2

Intencity
I0

n = 1, 2, 3 .............
The positon of nth minima are given by
a sin q = nl
\ Half-width of central maximum
l
q = sin -1
a

\ Total width of central maximum,

l
2q = 2 sin -1
a

3l / a 2l / a

l / a

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l /a

2l / a

3l / a

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

11

Linear Width : If D is the distance of screen from slit and y is the distance of nth minima from the centre of the
principal maxima, then

1.6
1.

lD
a

Linear half-width of central maximum

y=

Total linear width of central maximum

2y =

2l D
a

Resolving Power
Telescope : If a is the aperture of telescope and l the
wavelength, then resolving limit of telescope dq
For spherical aperture, dq =

2.

1.
2.

Microscope : For microscope, q is the well resolved semi-angle of cone of light rays entering the

5.

l
2n sin q

where n sin q is called numerical aperture, NA

Polarisation
The phenomenon of asymmetry of vibrations about the direction of propagation of light is called
polarisation.
Unpolarised Light : The light having vibrations of electric field vector in all possible directions
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation is called the oridinary (or unpolarised) light.
Plane Polarised Light : The light having vibrations of electric field vector in only one direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light is called plane polarised light.

(a) Unpolarised light

3.

1.22 l
a

telescope, then limit of resolution =

1.7

l
a

(b) Polarised light

(c) Partially polarized light

Polarisation by Reflection : Brester's Law : If unpolarised light falls on a transparent surface of

refractive index n at a certain angle lp, called polarising angle, then reflected light is plane polarised.
This is called Brewter's law. It is given by n = tan ip
Under this condition the reflected refracted rays are mutually pependicular i.e.,
ip + r = 90
where r is angle of refraction into the plane.
Malus Law : It states that if polarised light is passed through an analyser, the intensity of light transmitted
cos2q , where q is angle between planes of transmission on polariser and analyser i.e.,
I = I0 cos2q
(Malus Law)
In incident light in unpolarised, then
I=

I0
2

since (cos2q)average for all directions 1/2.

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6.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Polar oid : Polaroid is a device to produce and detect plane polarized light.

Some Uses of Polaroids are :

(i) Sun glasses filled with polaroid sheets protect our eyes from glass.
(ii) Polaroids reduce heat light glass of motor cary being driven at light.
(iii) Polaroids are used in three-dimensional picture i.e., in holography.

7.

Analysis of given light beam : For this given light beam is made incident on a polaroid (or Nicol) and
the polaroid/Nicol is gradually rotated :
(i) If light beam shown no variabtion in intensity, then the given beam is umpolarised.
(ii) If light beam shows variation in intensity but the minimum intensity is non-zero, then the given beam is
partially polarised.
(iii) If light beam shows variation in intensity and intensity becomes zero twice in a rotation then the given
beam of light is plane polarised.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

13

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1.

Draw a ray diagram of an astronomical telescope in the the near point adjustment. Write
down the epxression for its magnifying power.

Sol.

2.

Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of the image of a point object placed in a medium
of refractive index 'n1' on the pricipal axis of a conved spherical surface of radius of curvature
'R' and refractive index 'n2'. Using the diagram, derive the relation

Sol.

n2 n1 n2 - n1
=
v
u
R

, where

'u' and 'v' have their ususal meanings.

A converging lens of focal length 50 cm is placed coaxially in contact with an other lens of
unknown focal length. If the combination behaves like a diverging lens of focal length 50 cm,
find the power and nature of the second lens.
From ray diagram, i = a + g
Since the aperture of the spherical refracting surface is small, i = tan a + tan g
AN
AN
tan g =
NC
ON

\ tan a =

Also, ON OP & NC PC
[As the apeture is small]

i
n1

AN
AN
tan g =
PC
OP

\ tan a =

n2
r
g

a
O

u
AN AN
+
OP PC

i=

&
\

g=r+b
[Exterior Angle]
g=rb
r = tan g tan b
[As the aperture is small]

tan g =

AN AN

NC PC
r=

But,

n=

...(1)

AN AN
PC PI

n2
sin i
=
n1 sin r

AN

AN

tan b = NI P I

...(2)

n1 sin i = n2 sin r

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C
v

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
For small aperture angles i & r must be very small, hence
n1i = n2r
AN AN
AN AN
+
_
n1
= n2

OP
PC

PC PI

n 2 - n1
n
n
= 1 + 2
PC
OP PI

Using sign convention,

PC = + R
PI = +v
OP = u
n 2 - n1 n 2 n1
=
R
v
u

f1 = +50 cm; f2 = ?; f12 = 50 cm.

1
1 1
= +
f12 f1 f2

50 = + 50 + f
2

f2 = 25 cm = 0.25 m
1

Power, P2 = f = - 0.25 = -4 D
2
The second lens is concave type in nature.
3.

Sol.

Three rays of light red (R), green (G) and blue (B) are
incident on the face AB of a right - angled prism ABC.
The refractive indices of the mateial of the prism for red,
green and blue wavelengths are 1.39, 1.44 and 1.47
respectively. Trace the path of the rays through the prism.
How will the situation change if these rays were incident
normally on one of the facs
of an equilaterial prism ?
m=

A
B
G
R
B

45

1
1
=
= 2 = 1.414
sin C sin 45

Hence, for refractive index greater than 1.414, the angle of incidence will be greater than the critical
angle. Therefore, the green and blue rays will undergo total internal reflection on the face AC,
whereas, the red light will suffere refraction.
A
B
G
R
45
B

If these rays were incident normally on one of the faces of an equilaterial prism, all the rays will suffere
total internal reflection.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

15

1 1 1
= f v u

4.

(a) Derive the relation

Sol.

length of such a lens estimated in the laboratory ?

(b) A beam of light converges to a point P. A lens is placed in the path of the convergent beam
12 cm from P. At what point does the beam converge if the lens is (i) a convex lens of 20 cm
focal length and (ii) a concave lens of 16 cm focal length ?
(a) Taking XP1Y spherical surface into account, we have
m 2 - m1
P1C1

m2

for a biconvex lens. How is the approximate value of the focal

m1

= PI + P O
1
11

Since P1 lies close to C,

P1O = CO, P1I1 CI1 & P1C1 CC1
m 2 - m1 m 2
m
=
+ 1
CC1
CI1 CO

I1

....(1)

Taking XP2Y spherical surface into account, we have

m 2 - m1
m
m
=- 2 + 1
P2 C 2
P2I1 P2I

Since P2 lies close to C,

P2I = CI, P2I1 CI1 & P2C1 CC1
m 2 - m1
m
m
=- 2 + 1
CC 2
C I2 C I

From (1) & (2),

1
1
1
1

m 1
+ = (m 2 - m1 )
+

CO Cl
CC1 CC2

But,

CO = u ; Cl = + u; CC1 = +R1 ; CC2 = R2

1
1
1
1

m 1
+ = (m 2 - m1 )
+

-u v
R1 - R 2
1 1 m 2 - m1 1
1

- =
_
v u m1 R1 R 2

1
1 1
1

- = (m - 1)
_

v u
R1 R 2

First Principal Focus : is the position of the object

on the pricniple axis, such that its image is formed at
infinity.
1
1
- f1

= (m 1)

1
1

R - R
2
1

1
1
1

= (m - 1)

f1
R1 R 2

...(4)

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Second Principle Focus : Is the position of the image on the principal axis of the lens, when object
lies at infinity.
1
1 1
1

- = (m - 1)

f2
R1 R 2
1
1
1

= (m - 1)

f2
R
R
2
1

...(5)

From Equation (4) and (5), we find f1 = f2 = f

1
1
1

= (m - 1)

f
R1 R 2

Hence,
From (3) & (6),

...(6)

1 1 1
- =
v u f

It is known as thin lens formula.

Approximate value of focal length is estimated in the laboratory by obtaining a roughly sharp image of
the surrounding object such as tree or building.
(b) (i) u = + 12 cm; f =+20 cm
Hence,

1 1 1
= f v u
1 1 1 1
1
2
= + =
+
=
v u f 12 20 15

(ii)
Hence,
5.

Sol.

u = +7.5 cm
u = +12 cm; f = 16 cm
1 1 1
1
1
1
= + =
+
=
v u f + 12 16 + 48

v = + 48 cm
(a) Draw a labelled ray diagram to show the formation of an image by a compound
microscope. Write the expression for its magnifying power.
(b) How does the resolving power of a compound microscopechange, when
(i) refractive index of the medium between the object and the objective lens increases; and
(ii) wavelength of the radiation used is increased ?
Magnification, (a) m =

L
f0

D
1 +

fe

[for final image at D]

(b) m = L D [for final image at ]

f0

fe

Fe

ue

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
1

17
2m sin q

(b) The resolving power, d = 1.22 l

(i) Resolving power increases with the increase in refractive index

(ii) Resolving power decreases with the increase in wavelength of the radiation
6.

Sol.

What is interference of light ? Write two essential conditions for sustained interference pattern
to be produced on the screen.
Draw a graph showing the variation of intensity versus the position on the acreen in Young's
experiment when (a) both the slits are opened and (b) one of the slits is closed.
What is the effect on the interference pattern in Young's Double slit experiment when :
(i) Screen is moved closer to the plane of slits ?
(ii) Separation between the two slits is increased.
Explain your answer in each use.
The phenomenon of redistribution of energy in the medium due to superposition of two light waves is
called interference of light.
Condition for Sustained Interference :
The two sources of light should emit light continuous.
The light waves should be Monochromatic.

S2
I

S1

(a)

(b)
x

(i) The fringe-width increases

(ii) The fringe-width decreases
Fringe-width,

b=

lD
d

b D, D distance between screen and slits.

b

7.

Sol.

1
,
d

d distance between slits.

What is diffraction of light ? Draw a graph showing the variation of intensity with angle in a
single slit diffraction experiement. Write one feature which distinguishes the observed pattern
from the single slit pattern from the double slit interference pattern.
How would the diffraction pattern of a single slit be affected when :
(i) the width of the slit is decreased
(ii) the monochromatic source of light is replaced by a source of white light ?
The phenomenon of bending of light around the sharp corners and spreading into the regions of geometrical
show is called diffraction.
Interference (Single slit pattern) : Produced due to two different wavefronts.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Diffraction (Double slit pattern) : Produced due to different parts of same wavefronts.
(i) Fringe-width increases
(ii) Coloured fringes will be observed. Central fringe is white, fringe closest to it is blue and the farthest
is red.

Intensity

Central Maximum

1st order Minimum

l/a
Secondary Maximum
3l / 2a

3l / a 2l / a l / a

8.

Sol.

l/a

3l / a

2l / a

(a) What are coherent source of light ? State two conditions for two light sources t be coherent.
(b) Derive a mathematical expression for the width of interference fringes obtained in Young's
double slit experiment with the help of a suitable diagram.
(c) Give relation between deviation angle and refractive index.
(a) Coherent Sources : When two sources are produced from a single source, the amplitude, wave
length of the source are same and they are in constant phase difference, then such sources are know as
coherent sources.
Condition for Sustained Interference :
The two sources of light should emit light continuous.
The light wave should be Monochromatic.
(b) Derivation :
The path difference between the light waves from slits S1 & S2
x = S2P S1P
But

(S1P) 2 = D 2 + y -
2

(S 2P) 2 = D 2 + y +
2

&\

d
d

(S 2P)2 - (S1P)2 = y + - y
2
2

(S2P S1P) (S2P + S1P) = 4y.

x. (S2P + S1P) = 2yd
x=

But,

2yd
(S 2P + S1P)

d
2

P
y

S1

= 2yd
d

O
S2
D

S2P S1P D

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
x=

2y d y d
=
2D
D

x=

yd
D
yd
= nl
D

For Bright fringes,

y=

Hence,

19

nl D
, whre n = 0, 1, 2, .......
d

y' d 2n + 1
=
l
D
2

For dark fringes

y' =

(2n + 1) lD
2d

, where n = 0, 1, 2, .......

Fringe Width, b = yn yn1 =

\b =

lD
d

b = y'n y'n 1 =

For dark fringes,

\b =

9.

nlD (n - 1)l D l D
=
d
d
d

( 2n + 1)lD
2d

( 2n - 1)lD
2d

lD
d

lD
d

(c) d = (n 1) A
Two narrow slits are illuminated by a single monochromatic source. Name the pattern obtained
on the screen. One of the slits is now completely covered. What is the name of the pattern now
obtained on the screen ? Drawn intensity pattern obtained in the two cases. Also write two
differences between the patterns obtained in the above two cases.

Intensity

Central Maximum

1st order Minimum

l/a
I

Secondary Maximum
3l / 2a
x

3l / a 2l / a l / a

Interference

l/a

2l / a

3l / a

Diffraction
Produced due to different parts of same wavefront s
Pr oduced due to two different wavefront s
Central fringe is twice as wide as other fringes
Fringe width is of same size.
Intensity of fringes decreases as we go to successive
Fringes have same intensity
maxima away from the centre

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10.

Sol.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
(a) How is wavefront different from a ray ? Draw the geometrical shape of the wavefronts
when (i) light diverges from a point source, and (ii) light emerges out of a convex lens when a
point source is placed at its focus.
(b) State Huygen's principle. With the help suitable diagram, prove Snell's law of refraction
using Huygen's principle.
(a) Wavefront acts as a source and rays from each point on the wavefront moves in all direction, whereas
the ray moves in a particular direction.
(i) When light diverges from a point source

Spherical Wavefront

(ii) When light emerges out of a convex lens when a point source is placed at its focus

Plane Wavefront

(b)

Huygens' Principle
(i) Every point on a primary wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelet
sends out disturbances in all directions just as the primary source of light.
(ii) The new position of the secondary wavefronts is the envelope of the primary wavefront.
Wave Theory : Laws of Refraction
Consider a ray LM, whose wavefront AP after time t, then
AA ' PP'
=
c
n

where n and c are the speed of light in medium of refractive index M and in air. Time taken by light to go
from Q to Q
QK KQ'
t=
+
c
n

...(1)

In right angled DAQK

KQ = KP sin r
AK sin i KP' sin r
t=
+
c
n
AK sin i ( AP'- AK ) sin r
=
+
c
n
AP' sin r
sin r sin r
=
+ AK

n
n
c

i
A A'
r

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K
Q'

P'
r

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
21
For rays from different points on the incident wavefront, the values of AK are different. The rays from
different points on the AP wavefront will the same time to reach the wavefront A P. Hence equations
(2) must be independent of AK. i.e.,
sin i sin r
=0
c
v

11.

Sol.

But

c
=m
v

sin i c
= =m
sin r v

sin i

v = sin r

Thus, when a ray of light under goes refraction, the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the angle of
refraction is a constant for a given pair of media and is equal to the refractive index for the given pair of
media.
Using Huygens' principle, draw a diagram to show propagation of a wave-front originating
from a monochromatic point source.
Describe diffraction of light due to a single slit. Explain formation of a pattern of fringes
obtained on the screen and plot showing variation of intensity with angle q in single slit
diffraction.
1. Every point on primary wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelet
sends out disturbances in all directions just as the primary source of light.

A'

A
G1

F1
1W

1W
O

D1

2.

D2

G2

F2

The new position of the secondary wavefronts is the envelope of the primary wavefront.
A

P
y

C
q

From figure, BN = AB sin q = a sin q

Choosing, BN = l and q = q1, we have
l = a sin q1
\ sin q1 =

l
a

, where q1 is the angle up to which the central maximum extends on either side.

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22

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Such an angular position on the screen will represent the first secondary minimum. To understand it, we
assume the slit to be divided into two equal halves, the wavelets from the corresponding points of the
two halves of the slit will have a path difference of

l
, i.e., the wavelets from each half will reach point P
2

in opposite phase. Hence, for second secondary minimum,

2l = a sin q2

sin q2 =

2l
a

& sin qn =

nl
a

for nth secondary minima

If yn is the distance of nth secondary minimum from

the center of the secreen then

Intensity

OP y n
tan q n =
=
CO D

1st order Minimum

l/a

For small value of qn,

sin qn = tan qn
y n nl
=
D
a

yn =

Secondary Maximum
3l / 2a

nl D
a
3l / a 2l / a

b = yn yn1 =

Central Maximum

l / a

l/a

2l / a

3l / a

lD
a

For first secondary maxima

sin q'1 = 3l ; = [Since, the wavelets from each half will reach point P such that out of three equal parts
2a

two will cancel out leaving one part of wavelet to produce the Bright fringes.]
Similarly,

sin q 2 =

5l
2a

(2n + 1)l
2a

&

sin qn =

b' = y' n - y' n -1 =

for nth secondary maxima

lD
a

Both b & b' are independent of value of n. Hence, all the secondary maxima & minima are of the same
width.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

23

EXERCISE1
1.

Calculate time taken by light to travel 1 cm thickness of glass of m = 1.5.

2.

When a wave undergoes reflection at a denser medium, what happens to its phase ?

3.

When a wave undergoes refraction at a denser medium, what happens to its phase ?

4.

Which of the two colours yellow and violet travels slower in glass prism ?

5.

What is the value of refractive index of a medium of polarizing angle 60 ?

6.

What type of lens is an air bubble Inside water ?

7.

A lens shown in figure is made of two different materials. A point object is placed on the pricipal axis
of the lens. How many images will be obtained ?

8.

A person looking at a mesh of crossed wires is able to see the vertical wires more distinctly than the
horizotnal wires. What is the defect due to ? How is such a defect of vision corrected ?

9.

Using the data given below, state which two of the given lenses will you prefere to construct a best
possible (i) telescope (ii) microscope. Also, indicate which of the selected lenses is to be used as an
objective and as an eye piece in each case.
Lenses Power (P ) Apeture( A )
L1
6D
1cm
L2
L3

3D
10 D

8 cm
1cm

10.

A compound microscope has a magnification of 30. The focal length of the eye piece is 5 cm. Assuming
that final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision (25 cm), calculate the magnification
produced by the objective.

11.

The radius of curvature of each surface of a convex lens of refractive index 1.5 is 40 cm. Calculate its
power.

12.

Why there is no dispersion of light refracted through a rectangular glass slab ?

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24

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

13.

The refractive index of the material of a concave lens is n. It is immersed in a medium of refractive index
n1. A parallel beam of light is incident on the lens. Trace the path of emergent rays in each of the following
cases :

n1

n1
n1

n1

n1

n1

(a) n1 > n

(a) n1 < n

(a) n1 = n

14.

Which phenomena establish the wave nature of light ?

15.

No interference pattern is detected when two coherent sources are infinitely close to each othe. Why?

16.

The widths of two slits in Young's experiment are in the ratio 9 : 4. Calculate the intensity ratio in the
interference pattern.

17.

Name the type of wave front that corresponds to a beam of light.

(i) coming from a convex lens when point source is placed at its focus,
(ii) coming from a very far off source,
(iii) diverging radially from a point source.

18.

In young's experiment, the width of the fringes obtained with the light of wavelength 6000 is 2.00 mm.
What will be the fringe width of the entire apparatus is immersed in a liquid of m = 4/3.

19.

In Young's double slit experiment, the angular width of a fringe formed on a distanct screen is 1. The
wavelength of light used is 6000. What is the spacing between the slits ?

20.

Let us list some of the factors which could possibly influence the speed of wave
(i) Nature of source
(ii) Direction of propagation
(iii) Motion of source and /or observer
(iv) Wavelength
(v) Intensity of wave.
On which of these factors, if any, does
(a) The speed of light in vacuum
(b) Speed of light in a medium (say glass or water ) depend ?

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

25

EXERCISE2 (BOARD PROBLEMS)

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
1.

Two thin lenses of power +6D and 2D are in contact. What is the focal length of the combination.
[2009]

2.

(i) State the principle on which the working of an optical fibre is based.
(ii) What are the necessary condition for this phenomenon to occur.

3.

Define the term 'Linearly polarised light' why does the intensity of transmitted light become maximum,
when a polaroid sheet is rotated between two crossed polaroid
[2009]
I0

I1

[2009]

I2
I = I0 cos2 q

4.

(a) (i) Draw a labelled ray diagram to show the formation of image in an astronomical telescope for a
distant object.
(ii) Write three distinct advantage of a reflecting type telescope over a refracting type telescope.
(b) A convex lens of focal length 10 cm is placed coaxially 5 cm away from a concave lens of focal length
10 cm. If an object is placed 30 cm in front of the convex lens, find the position of final image formed by
the system.
[2009]

5.

(a) With the help of a suitable ray diagram, derive mirror formula for a concave mirror.
(b) The near point of a hypermetropic person is 50 cm from the eye. What is the power of the lens
required to enable. What is the power of the lens required to enable the person to read clearly a book
held at 25 cm from the eye ?
[2009]

6.

When light travels from a rarer to denser medium, the speed decreases. Does this decreases in speed
imply a decrease in the energy carried by the light wave ? justify your answer.
[2010]

7.

A converging lens is kept coaxially in contact with diverging lens both the lenses being of equal focal
length. What is the focal length of the combination.
[2010]

8.

A convex lens is used to obtain a magnified image of an object on a screen 10m from the lens. If the
magnification is 19, find the focal length of the lens.
[2010]

9.

How does an unpolarised light get polarised when passed thorugh a polaroid ?
Two polaroids are set in crossed position. A third polaroid is placed between the two making angle q
wtih the pass axis of the first polaroid. Write the expression for the intensity of light transmitted from the
second polaroid. In what orientations will the transmitted intensity be
(i) minimum & (ii) maximum
[2010]

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26

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

10.

(i) Draw a neat labelled ray diagram of an astronomial telescope in normal adjustment.
Explain briefly its working.
(ii) An astronomical telescope uses two lenses of powess 10 D and 1D. What is its magnifying power in
normal adjustment ?
[2010]

11.

(i) Draw a neat labelled ray diagram of a compound microscope. Explain its working ?
(ii) Why must both the objective and the eye-piece of a compound microscope have short focal length ?
How would the angular separation of interference fringes in Young's double slit experiment change when
the distance between the slits and screen is doubled ?
[2009]

12.

13.

In young's double slit experiment, monochromatic light of wavelength 630 nm illuminates the pair of slits
and produces an interference pattern in which two consecutive bright fringes are separated by 8.1 mm.
Another source of monochromatic light produces the interference pattern in which the two consecutive
bright fringes are separated by 7.2 mm. Find the wavelength of light from the second source.What is the
effect on this interfernece fringes if the monochromatic source is replaced by a source of white light
[2009]

14.

(a) In a single slit diffraction experiment a slit of width 'd' is illuminated by red light of wavelenth 650 nm.
For what value of 'd' will
(i) the first minimum fall at an angle of 30, and
(ii) the first maximum fall at an angle of diffraction of 30 ?
[2009]
(b) Why does the intensity of the secondary maximum become less as compared to the central maximum ?

15.

In young's double slit experiment, the two slits 0.12 mm apart are illuminated by monochromatic light of
wavelength 420 nm. The screen is 1.0 m away from the slits.
(a) Find the distance of the second
(i) bright fringe,
(ii) dark fringe from the central maximum
(b) How will the fringe pattern change if the screen is moved away from the slits ?
[2010]

16.

How does the angular separation between fringes in single-slit diffraction experiment change when the
distance of separation between the slit and screen is doubled ?
[2012]

17.

For the same value of angle of incidence, the angles of refraction in three media A, B and C are 15, 25
and 35 respectively. In which mdium would the velocity of light be minimum ?
[2012]
An object AB is kept in front of a concave mirror as shown in the figure.

18.

//////////

///

(i) Complete the ray diagram showing the image formation of the object.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

27

(ii) How will the position and intensity of the image be affected if the lower half of the mirror's reflecting
surface is painted black ?
[2012]
19.

Draw a labelled ray diagram of a relfecting telescop. Mension its two advantages over the refracting
telescoe.
[2012]

20.

You are given three lenses L1, L2 and L3 each of focal length 20 cm. An object is kept at 40 cm in front
of L1, as shown. The final real image is formed at the focus 'I' of L3. Find the separations between L1, L2
and L3.
[2012] 3
L1

L2

L3

40cm

20cm

21.

(a) In Young's double slit experiment, derive the condition for (i) constructive interference and (ii) destructive
interference at a point on the screen.
(b) A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 800 nm and 600 nm is used to obtain the interference
fringes in a Young's double slit experiment on a screen placed 1.4 m away. If the two slits are separated
by 0.28 mm, calculate the least distance from the central bright maximum where the bright fringes of the
two wavelengths coincide.
[2012]

22.

(a) How does an unpolarized light incident on a polaroid get polarized ?

Describe briefly, with the help of a necessarty diagram, the polarization of light by reflection from a
transparent medium.
(b) Two polaroids 'A' and 'B' are kept in crossed position. How should a third polaroid 'C' be placed
between them so that the intensity of polarized light transmitted by polaroid B reduces to 1/8th of the
intensity of unpolarized light incident on A ?
[2012]

23.

A parallel beam of light of 600nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting diffraction pattern is observed on
a screen 1.2 m away. It is observed that the first minimum is at a distance of 3 mm from the centre of the
screen. Calculate the width of the slit.
[2013]

24.

A convex lens of focal length f1 is kept in contact with a concave lens of focal length f2. Find the focal
length of the combination.
[2013]

25.

(a) What is linearly polarized light ? Describe briefly using a diagram how sunlight is polarised. [2013]
(b) Unpolarised light is incident on a polaroid. How would the intensity of transmitted light change when
the polaroid is rotated ?

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE1
1.

0.5 1010 s

2.

Reflection of waves of a denser medium causes a phase change of 180.

3.

No phase change.

4.

Violet colour travels slower. This is because mv > mr and v 1/m

5.

6.

Concave lens

7.

As the lens is made of two different materials, it has two refractive indices and hence, two distinct
images will be formed.

8.

This defect is astingmatism, which is caused due to improper curvature of retina. It can be corrected by
the use of cylindrical lens.

9.

For a telescope, lens L2 is chosen as objective, s its aperture is largest. The lens L3 is choen as eye piece
as its focal length is smaller. For a microscope, lens L3 is chosen as objective because its focal length is
smaller. Lens serves as eye piece because its focal length not largest. This is required to secure greater
magnifying power of the microscope.

10.

11.

2.5 D

14.

Interference, diffraction and polarization of light.

15.

As fringe width, b =

lD
d

When d is very small, the fringe width will be too large and occupy the whole screen. Hence the
pattern will not be seen.
16.

25 : 1

17.

(i) Plane, (ii) Plane, (iii) Spherical

18.

1.5 mm

19.

0.0344 mm

20.

(a) Speed of light in vacuum is constant. It does not depend upon any factor.
(b) The speed of light in a medium like water or glass
(i) Does not depend upon the nature of the source,
(ii) Does not depend upon the direction of propgation, when the medium is isotropic.
(iii) Does not depend upon the motion of the source w.r.t. the medium, but depends on motion of the
observer relative to the medium.
(iv) Depends on wavelength of light, being lesser for shorter wavelength and vice-versa.
(v) Does not depend upon intensity of light.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

29

EXERCISE2
v = 15cm, v =

f = 25 cm

7.

as f1 = f2 \ f =

8.

v = 19u, f = 0.5 m

9.

I = (I0cos2q) cos2q(90 q) = I0 (cosq sin q)2 = I0 sin2 2q/4, max q = 45, min q = 0

10.

0
e
m = f = P = 1 = 10
e
0

12.

Will not change

13.

b=

14.

(a) (i) d sinq = nl, d = 13 107 m

15.

x2 =

16.

No change

17.

Medium

20.

Dist. between L1 & L2 = 60 cm L2 & L3 can have are value

20.

Xn = 12 103 mm

3.

q = 454.

1.

5.

f = 50 cm, P = 2D

10

lD b1 l1
,
=
, l 2 = 560 nm
d b2 l 2

2l D
d

= 7 mm [maxima] ; y2 =

( 2n - 1) lD
2d

l
2

(ii) d sin q = (2n + 1) , d = 1950 nm

= 5.25 (minima)

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