Optics

Ivan L. Saligumba
IETT
 Optics
• Nature of Light
• Geometrical optics
– Reflection and refraction
– Mirrors and Lenses
• Physical optics
– Interference and diffraction
– Dispersion and scattering
– Polarization
• Applications
– Vision
– Optical Instruments
– Optical Phenomena
 As you study this chapter, you should be aiming to
achieve the following learning objectives:
1.) Describe the nature of light
2.) Differentiate geometrical optics from physical optics
3.) State the laws of reflection and refraction
4.) Describe light as a requirement of vision
5.) Differentiate the two kinds of reflection
6.) Discuss total internal reflection
7.) Differentiate mirrors from lenses
8.) Differentiate flat, concave and convex mirrors
9.) Differentiate concave and convex lenses
10.) Differentiate virtual from real images
11.) Identify the parts of spherical mirrors and spherical lenses
12.) Characterize the image formed by mirrors and lenses using equation and ray tracing
13.) Analyze and solve problems in reflection and refraction using the ray model of light,
mirror and lens equations
14.) Cite explain phenomena and applications governed by reflection and refraction
 Optics
Optics - the branch of physics which
studies the behavior and properties
of light, including its interactions
with matter and the construction of
instruments that use or detect it

Light – in a general sense, are those

electromagnetic waves indicated in
the electromagnetic spectrum.
Each wave travels at the same
speed (3x108 m/s) and has
corresponding wavelength and
frequency.
Crab Nebula Viewed at Different
Wavelengths
 History and Nature of Light
▪ Newtonian Optics – thought that light is consist of stream of
particles

▪ Wave Optics – experiments of Heinrich Hertz, Thomas Young and

Augustin-Jean Fresnel showed that light behave as a wave

▪ Max Planck, Albert Einstein and other scientist proved the

quantization of light. Energy carried by light waves is packaged in
discrete bundles called photons or quanta which reveals the
particle aspect of light

▪ At present, light must be regarded as having a dual nature.

Light exhibits the characteristics of a wave in some situations
(propagation of light) and the characteristics of a particle in other
situations( emission and absorption).
 Two Main Branches of Traditional
Optics
1.) Geometrical Optics
– also called ray optics
– describes light in terms of “rays”
• Light rays are straight lines with arrows
to show the path of light. They are NOT
REAL.
– studies mainly of reflection and
refraction of light

Light represented by rays.

2.) Physical Optics
– also called wave optics
– concerns the study of the polarization,
interference, diffraction, spectral
emission, composition and absorption
of light
 Reflection
• Reflection
– the bouncing off of light
after hitting an object or a
substance

Important Note: We can only

see an object when light
(emitted or reflected) from
an object enters our eyes.
 Two Kinds of Reflection
1.) Specular Reflection 2.) Diffuse Reflection
– reflection of light on – reflection of light on
smooth surfaces such as matte surfaces such as
mirrors paper and rock
 Law of Reflection
• Law of Reflection
– states that the angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of reflection

i =  r
– the incident ray, reflected ray and
the normal line all lie in the same
plane
Both the angle of incidence and
angle of reflection are measured
from the normal line.
 Example
A light ray is reflected from a mirror with an
angle of 100 from the surface. What was the
angle of incidence?

Ans. From the law of reflection, angle of

reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
Hence, ϴr = 800 . Note that the angles are
measured relative to the normal line.
 Refraction
Refraction – the bending of light
as it passes from one medium
to another

✓ Light travels at different speeds

in different media.
✓When light travels from one
medium to another medium, it
either increases or decreases in
speed resulting in a change of
direction.
 Refraction
Perpendicular Perpendicular

1 1

2 2

Light bends toward the Light bends away from the

perpendicular when it slows down. perpendicular when it speeds
It occurs when light travels from a up. It occurs when light travels
material with lower density to a from a material with higher
material with higher density. density to a material with lower
density.
Refraction
 Refraction
Law of Refraction or Snell’s
Law
- the ratio of the sines of
the angles ϴa and ϴb is
equal to the inverse ratio
of the two indices of
refraction

na sin  a = nb sin  b

- where n is the index of

refraction of the medium
 Index of Refraction
Index of Refraction, n
Material n = c/v
– the ratio of the speed of light in
Air 1.003
vacuum c to the speed v in the
material Ice 1.31
Water 1.33
speed of light in vacuum c
n= = Ethyl alcohol 1.36
speed of light in a medium v
Glasses (fused 1.46
• The greater index of refraction, quartz)
the slower the speed of light. Glasses (heavy 1.66
flint)
• The greater the change in speed, Benzene 1.50
the more the light bends. Sodium chloride 1.53
• The wavelength of light in a Diamond 2.42
material decreases given by
0
=
n
 Exercise
A light ray strikes an air/water surface at an angle of 460 with
respect to the normal. The refractive index for water is 1.33. Find
the angle of refraction when the direction of the ray is
a.) from air to water and
b.) from water to air.

Solution:
a.) From Snell’s law, n1 sin 1 (1.00) sin 460
sin  2 = = = 0.54
n2 1.33
 2 = sin −1 (0.54) = 330
Since ϴ2 is less than ϴ1, the refracted ray is bent toward the normal.
n1 sin1 (1.33) sin 460
b.) With the incident ray in water, we find that sin 2 = = = 0.96
n2 1.00
 2 = sin −1 (0.96) = 740
Since ϴ2 is greater than ϴ1 , the refracted ray is bent away from the normal.
 Total Internal Reflection

➢ When light passes from a medium of larger refractive index into one of smaller refractive
index, the refracted ray bends away from the normal.
➢As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases.
➢ When the angle of incidence reaches a certain value, called the critical angle ϴc ,the
angle of refraction is 900 .
➢When the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, there is no refracted light.
➢ All incident light is reflected back into the medium from which it came, a phenomenon
called total internal reflection.
 Total Internal Reflection
• Total internal reflection
occurs only when light
travels from a higher-
index medium toward a
lower-index medium
• From Snell’s law, critical
angle is given by Fiber Optic Strands

n2
sin c =
n1
 Total Internal Reflection
The brilliance of
diamonds is due to their
high refractive index, a
measure of how strongly a
transparent material bends
light rays. The skill of the
gem-cutter lies in angling
the facets of the stone so
that each light ray entering
it is reflected many times
before it emerges again.
 Exercise
A beam of light is propagating through diamond (n1 = 2.42) and
strikes a diamond-air interface at an angle of incidence of 280 . Will
part of the beam enter the air (n2 = 1.00) or will the beam be
totally reflected at the interface?
Solution:
The critical angle ϴc for total internal reflection at the diamond-air
interface is given by
n2 1.00
c = sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 ( ) = 24.40
n1 2.42

Because the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle,

there is no refraction, and the light is totally reflected back into
the diamond.
 Image Formation
• Mirrors – reflect light to • Lenses – refract light to
form an image form an image
– e.g. Flat or plane mirrors, – e.g. converging and
spherical mirrors such as diverging lenses
concave and convex
mirrors
 Image Formation: Flat Mirror

An object viewed using

a flat mirror appears to be
located behind the mirror,
because to the observer the
diverging rays from the
source appear to come from
behind the mirror.
 Flat Mirror
The images reflected in flat mirrors have the
following properties:

1.) The image distance q behind the mirror

equals the object distance p from the
mirror
2.) The image height h’ equals the object height
h so that the lateral magnification

3.) The image has an apparent left-right

reversal

4.) The image is virtual, not real!

 Virtual vs Real Image
• Real Image
– one from which all the rays of light
actually emanate
– can be projected onto screen and
films
– are always inverted
• Virtual Image
– one from which all the rays of light
do not actually emanate, they only
appear to have originated there.
– cannot be projected onto a screen
or photographic film
– are always erect
 Application of Plane Mirrors:
Periscope
Periscope
• consists of two
parallel mirrors A and B
facing each other and
each fixed at 450 to the
frame work
Image Formation: Spherical Mirrors
Spherical Mirror – has the shape of a
section from the surface of a sphere

1.) Concave mirror

- inside surface is polished
- used in makeup and concave
shaving mirrors
2.) Convex mirror –
- outside surface is polished
- used as surveillance mirrors in
stores
- side-view mirrors in vehicles
 Spherical Mirrors
• Principal axis, OCFV
– a straight line drawn through the center of
curvature and the middle of the mirror’s surface
• Center of Curvature,C
– center of the circle
• Radius of Curvature, R
– the distance from the center of curvature to the
mirror
• Focal point, F
– point in the principal axis where rays are
focused
• Concave mirror : where rays converge after being
reflected
• Convex mirror: where rays diverge after reflecting
from the mirror
• Focal length, f 1
f = R
– distance between the focal point and the mirror 2
 Ray Tracing: Convex Mirror
Ray tracing – a graphical method that can be used to locate the
image produced by a mirror

Ray 1: This ray leaves the object traveling

parallel to the principal axis. After
reflection from the mirror, the ray
appears to originate from the focal point
of the mirror.
Ray 2: This ray leaves the object and heads
toward the focal point. After reflection,
the ray travels parallel to the principal
axis.
Ray 3: This ray leaves the object and travels
toward the center of curvature. The ray
strikes the mirror perpendicularly and
reflects back on itself.
 Image Formation: Convex Mirror
When the object is at
infinity

The image is
✓ Extremely diminished
✓ Formed at the focus
✓ Virtual
✓ Erect
 Image Formation: Convex Mirror
When the object is
placed between infinity and
the pole of the mirror

The image is formed

between the pole and the
focus
• Erect
• Diminished
• Virtual
 Image Formation: Convex Mirror
Position of the Position of the Size of the Nature of the
object image image image

Extremely
At infinity At focus Virtual and erect
diminished

Between infinity
Between the focus
and pole of the Diminished Virtual and erect
and pole
mirror

A convex mirror always produces a

virtual, erect and reduced image.
 Uses of Convex Mirror
• Rear-view mirror in an
automobile.
- giving a wider field of view

• Vigilance mirror in
departmental stores

• Reflector in street lamps so

as to diverge the light over a
large area
 Ray Tracing: Concave Mirror
Ray 1: This ray leaves the object
traveling parallel to the principal
axis. The ray reflects from the
mirror and passes through the
focal point.
Ray 2: This ray leaves the object and
passes through the focal point.
The ray reflects from the mirror
and travels parallel to the principal
axis.
Ray 3: This ray leaves the object and
travels along a line that passes
through the center of curvature.
The ray strikes the mirror
perpendicularly and reflects back
on itself.
 Image Formation: Concave Mirror

• When the Object is at

Infinity

The image is
• at F
• Real
• Inverted
• Diminished
 Image Formation: Concave Mirror
• When the Object is
Placed Beyond C

The image is
• Between C and F
• Real
• Inverted
• Diminished
 Image Formation: Concave Mirror
• When the Object is
Placed at the Center of
Curvature

The image is
• At C
• Real
• Inverted
• Same size as object
 Image Formation: Concave Mirror
• When the Object is
Between C and F

The image is
• Beyond C
• Real
• Inverted
• Magnified
 Image Formation: Concave Mirror
• When the Object is at
the Focus

The image is at infinity

• Real
• Inverted
• Magnified
 Image Formation: Concave Mirror
• When the Object is
Between the Pole and
the Focus

The image is
• virtual
• erect
• magnified
 Uses of Concave Mirrors
Concave mirrors are used for the following purposes:
Concave Mirror
 Some Notes
• Diverging mirrors (convex mirrors) and
diverging lenses (concave lenses) can never
form real images.
• Real images are always inverted.
• Virtual images are always erect.
 The Mirror Equation and the
Magnification Equation
• Mirror equation • Magnification Equation
– specifies the relation – can be used to determine
between the object the height of the image or
distance p, the image object
distance q, and the focal hi
m=
length f of the mirror ho

– can be used with either – can be used to determine

concave or convex mirrors the image distance or
object distance
1 1 1
+ =
do di f di
m=−
do
 Sign Conventions for Mirrors
Focal Length
f is + for a concave mirror.
f is – for a convex mirror.
Object Distance
do is + if the object is in front of the mirror (real object)
do is – if the object is behind the mirror(virtual object)
Image Distance
di is + if the image is in front of the mirror (real image).
di is – if the image is behind the mirror (virtual image).
Magnification
m is + for an image that is upright with respect to the object.
m is – for an image that is inverted with respect to the object.
These conventions are very crucial in identifying the characteristics of an
image.
 Exercises
1.) A 2.0-cm-high object is placed 7.10 cm from a concave
mirror whose radius of curvature is 10.20 cm. Find (a)
the location of the image and (b) its size.
Ans. di= 18 cm; h’= - 5.1 cm
2.) An object is placed 6.00 cm in front of a concave
mirror that has a 10.0-cm focal length . (a) Determine
the location of the image. (b) The object is 1.2 cm high.
Find the image height.
Ans. di = -15 cm; h’= 3.0 cm
3.) A convex mirror is used to reflect light from an object
placed 66 cm in front of the mirror. The focal length of
the mirror is f= -46 cm. Find (a) the location of the
image and (b) the magnification.
Ans. di =-27 cm; m= 0.41
 Exercises
4.) A spherical Christmas tree ornament is 6.00 cm
in diameter. What is the magnification of an
object placed 10.0 cm away from the ornament?
5.) A 2.00-cm-high object is placed 3.00 cm in front
of a concave mirror. If the image is 5.00 cm high
and virtual, what is the focal length of the mirror?
6.) A convex spherical mirror with a radius of
curvature of 10.0 cm produces a virtual image
one-third the size of the real object. Where is the
object?
 Thin Lenses
Thin lenses
➢devices which produce
converging or diverging light rays
due to refraction
➢typically made of glass or
transparent plastic
➢used in optical instruments such CONVEX LENSES
as cameras, telescopes and
microscopes

Two General Types of Lenses

1.) Convex lenses (Converging lenses)
2.) Concave lenses ( Diverging lenses)
CONCAVE LENSES
 Convex Lenses
• cause parallel light rays
to converge
• are converging lenses
• at least one of its
surfaces is bulging out
at the middle.
Convex lenses are the same as concave mirrors (both are converging)
except for the following:
1) Real images are on the opposite side of the lens as the object
because light travels through the lens and can focus on a screen
behind the lens.
2) Virtual images are on the same side of the lens as the object
because light can't focus in front of a lens and be cast on a screen.
 Concave Lenses
• cause parallel light rays
to diverge
• are diverging lenses

Concave lenses are the same as convex mirrors (both are diverging)
except for the following:
➢The virtual images formed by the lens is on the same side of the
lens as the object because light can't focus in front of a lens and be
cast on a screen.
 Ray Tracing: Convex Lenses
Ray 1: This ray initially travels
parallel to the principal axis. In
passing through the converging
lens, the ray is refracted toward
the axis of and travels through
the focal point on the right side
of the lens.
Ray 2: This ray passes through the
focal point on the left and then is
refracted by the lens in such a
way that it leaves traveling
parallel to the axis.
Ray 3: This ray travels directly
through the center of the thin
lens without any appreciable
bending.
 Image Formation: Convex Lenses
When the Object is
Placed Between F1 and O

The image is
• Formed on the same
side of the lens
• virtual
• erect
• magnified
 Image Formation: Convex Lenses
• When the Object is
placed at 2F1

The image is -
• formed at 2F2
• real
• inverted
• same size as the object
 Image Formation: Convex Lenses
• When the Object is
Placed Between F1 and
2F1

The image is

• formed beyond 2F2

• real
• inverted
• magnified
 Image Formation: Convex Lenses
• When the Object is
Placed at F1

• The image is –

• formed at infinity
• real
• inverted
• magnified
 Image Formation: Convex Lenses
• When the Object is
Placed Beyond 2F1

The image is –

• formed between F2 and 2F2

• real
• inverted
• diminished
 Image Formation: Convex Lenses
• When the Object is
placed at Infinity

The image is -

• formed at F2
• inverted
• real
• highly diminished
 Ray Tracing: Concave Lenses
Ray 1: This ray initially travels parallel
to the principal axis. In passing
through a diverging lens, the ray is
refracted away from the axis, and
appears to have originated from
the focal point on the left of the
lens.
Ray 2: This ray leaves the object and
moves toward the focal point on
the right of the lens. Before
reaching the focal point, however,
the ray is refracted by the lens so
as to exit parallel to the axis.
Ray 3: This ray travels directly
through the center of the thin lens
without any appreciable bending.
 Image Formation: Concave Lens
• When the Object is at
Infinity

The image is -

• formed at F1
• erect
• virtual
• diminished
 Image Formation: Concave Lens
• When the Object is
Placed between O and
F1

The image is –
• formed between O and
F1
• erect
• virtual
• diminished
 Image Formation: Concave Lens
• When the Object is
placed at any Position
between O and infinity

The image is -
• formed between O and
F1
• erect
• virtual
• diminished
 Lens Strength: Diopters
The extent to which rays of light are refracted by a lens
depends on its focal length.
Refractive Power
➢used to describe the extent to which a lens refracts
light
➢measured in units of diopters

1
Refractive power of a lens (in diopters) =
f (in meters)
 Spherical Aberration
• Spherical Aberration
– a situation in which rays
are not focused at the
same location
– causes distortion of
image
 Lens Aberration
Lens aberrations limit the formation of sharp or perfectly focused
images by optical instruments.

Spherical Aberration
• occurs because rays that pass
through the lens are not
focused at the same point
 Lens Aberration
Chromatic Aberration
• occurs because a lens
focuses different colors at
slightly different points
• short wavelengths bend
more than long
wavelengths
 Sign Conventions for Thin Lenses
Focal Length
f is + for a converging lens.
f is – for a diverging lens.
Object Distance
do is + if the object is to the left of the lens (real object)
do is – if the object is to the right of the lens (virtual object)
Image Distance
di is + for an image (real) formed to the right of the lens by a real
object.
di is – for an image (virtual) formed to the left of the lens by a real
object.
Magnification
m is + for an image that is upright with respect to the object.
m is – for an image that is inverted with respect to the object.
These conventions are very crucial in identifying the characteristics of an image.
 The Thin-lens Equation and the
Magnification Equation
• Thin lens equation • Magnification Equation
– specifies the relation – can be used to
between the object determine the height
distance p, the image of the image or object
'
distance q, and the focal h
m == hi
M h
length f of the thin lens h o

– can be used with either – can be used to

concave or convex lenses determine the image
distance or object
11 11 11
+ == distance dqi
dpo qd i f f M ==−−
m
dpo
 Exercises
1.) A person 1.70 m tall is standing 2.50 m in front of a
camera. The camera uses a converging lens whose focal
length is 0.0500 m.
(a). Find the image distance(the distance between the lens
and the film) and determine whether the image is real
or virtual. (Ans. q= 0.051 m)
(b). Find the magnification and the height of the image on
the film.(Ans. m= -0.0204, h’ = -0.0347 m)
2.) An object is placed 7.10 cm to the left of a diverging
lens whose focal length is f=-5.08 cm.
(a). Find the image distance and determine whether the
image is real or virtual. (Ans. q= -2.96 cm, virtual)
(b). Obtain the magnification. ( m= 0.417)
 Optical Instruments
• Endoscopes
– Bronchoscope
– Colonoscope
• Camera
• LCD Projector
• Magnifying Lens
• Compound Microscope
• Telescope
• Human Eye
 Endoscopes
• used to diagnose,
monitor, and surgically
treat various medical
problems
• Examples
– Bronchoscope
– Colonoscope
 MICROSCOPE
Object very close to F0 makes a real inverted larger image.
This image is then viewed & magnified further using the
eyepiece.
MICROSCOPE
 TELESCOPE
Object near infinity forms a real inverted smaller image
near the focal point. Eyepiece is used to magnify this image.
 LCD Projector

LCD – Liquid Crystal

Display
 Camera
• (Clip showing on
Encarta)
 IMAGE FORMATION BY THE EYE

• The eye uses a convex lens system to

project a real image on the retina.
• Both the cornea and lens of the eye act as
convex lenses, projecting a real image on
the light-sensitive retina.
• The center of the image falls on the most
sensitive part of the retina, small region
called the fovea.
• The opening in the iris is the pupil of the
eye. It automatically adjusts to the amount
of light entering the eye.
• The 2 eyes together provide depth
perception. The eyes also sense the
direction in which they point, movements,
and the color of objects and light sources.
 Accommodation
• The eye's lens is flexible and can change its shape in order to focus objects at
different distances
• The image distance must equal the lens-to-retina distance for clear vision.
Because the lens-to-retina distance in the eye does not change, the image
distance must be the same for all objects at all distances. The only way the eye
can do this is to vary its focal length, and hence its strength, to accommodate
various objects distances
 Acuity

VISUAL ACUITY
• sharpness of detail
detectable with the eye
• optical resolution

VISION TESTS
• reading lines of letters on a
chart
 Myopia (Nearsightedness)

• either your cornea is too

curved for the length of
your eye or the eye is too
long for your cornea
• This causes the rays of light
that enter your eyes to
focus in front of the retina,
resulting in clearer near-
vision and blurrier distance-
vision
• Spectacle lens of negative
strength is used
Hyperopia (Farsightedness)

• corneas that are too flat, so

images are focused behind
the retina, distorting their
near-vision
• Spectacle lens of positive
strength is used
Presbyopia
• “old eye”
• ability to accommodate decreases with age
• natural weakening of the crystalline lens causes it to lose the
ability to focus light from close objects on to the retina
 Astigmatism

• unevenly shaped cornea or eye that

causes light rays to separate and focus
at various points on the retina,
producing a "ghost-like" or "fuzzy"
image
• Corrected by using a spectacle lens
with opposite symmetry of the
astigmatic eye
– Concave lens is needed
Cataracts
• Opacity of the lens of the eye
• Cloudy lens must be removed.
Once removed, the patient needs
glasses with a large positive
strength
Physical Optics
 Physical Optics
– also called wave optics
– concerns the study of the polarization, interference,
diffraction, spectral emission, composition and absorption
of light

– Principle of Linear Superposition

– Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
– Thin-Film Interference
– Diffraction
– Resolving Power of an Optical Instrument
– Applications
– Optical Phenomena (Exciting!)
 Diffraction
• Diffraction:
– the bending of
waves around
objects
– spreading out of
waves after going
through an opening
Diffraction
Degree of Diffraction


λ - wavelength of the wave
W W – width of the slit
 Principle of Linear Superposition
– states that when two or more waves are present
simultaneously in the same region of space, the
resultant disturbance is the sum of the
disturbances from the individual waves
– used to explain interference phenomena

• Light – an EM wave, obeys PSL

 Interference
• Interference:
– occurs when two or
more waves overlap
or intersect
– could be constructive
or destructive
 Constructive Interference
• occurs when waves reinforce each other
– e.g. two waves arrive at a point in phase
• crest-to-crest; trough-to-trough
• results to an increased amplitude
– increased brightness

In general, when waves start out in phase,

constructive interference will result at a point P whenever the
distances are the same or differ by any integer number of
wavelengths: l − l = m where m = 0,1, 2, 3, 4,....
2 1
 Destructive Interference
• occurs when waves cancel each other
– e.g. two waves arrive at a point out of phase
• crest-to-trough; trough-to-crest
• results to an decreased amplitude
– decreased brightness ( darkness)

In general, when waves start out in phase, constructive

interference will result at a point P whenever the distances are
the same or differ by any integer number of wavelengths:
1
l2 − l1 = (m + ) where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,....
2
If constructive and destructive interference is to
continue occurring at a point, the sources of the
waves must be coherent sources.

Two sources are coherent if the waves they emit

maintain a constant phase relation.
Examples:
Lasers – coherent
Incandescent light bulbs & fluorescent lamps - incoherent
 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
• demonstrated the wave nature of light by showing
that two overlapping light waves interfered with each
other
• was able to determine the wavelength of light
 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment

Light passes through a pair of closely spaced

narrow slits and produces a pattern of alternating
bright and dark fringes on a viewing screen. The fringes
arise because of constructive and destructive
interference.

Single slit – used to ensure that only light from one direction falls
on the double slit
Double slit – act as coherent sources of light waves that interfere
constructively and destructively at different points on the
screen to produce a pattern of alternating bright and dark
fringes
 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
The fringe (dark or bright) can be
located using the following
equations:

• Bright Fringe
m
sin  = m = 0, 1, 2, 3,....
d
• Dark Fringe
 1 
m +  
sin  = 
2 
m = 0, 1, 2, 3,....
d

where λ is the wavelength of the light

d is the spacing between the slits
Example: Red light (λ = 664 nm in vacuum) is
used in Young’s experiment with the slits
separated by a distance d = 1.20 x 10-4 m. The
screen is located at a distance of L= 2.75 m from
the slits. Find the distance y on the screen
between the central bright fringe and the third-
order bright fringe. ( Ans.: 0.0456 m)
 Thin-Film Interference
Thin film - a layer of material with thickness in the sub-nanometer to micron range

Thin-film interference
– a phenomenon observed when
light interferes in a thin-film
• Both the top and bottom surfaces of
this oil film can reflect light.
• A light ray will pass through different
thickness of oil when the angle of
reflection varies.
• The wavelength corresponding to the
constructive interference also differs
and this causes the reflected light to
have various colors.
• As a result, a rainbow-like color
pattern is shown on the oil surface.
 Thin-film Interference
➢The coatings of a compact disk are less
than 100 nm thick and each coating partially
reflects and partially transmits incident
light.

➢Light rays reflected from different coating

boundaries interfere with each other to
produce the colorful patterns.

➢The reflectance of the CD is not uniform,

because CD disk contains a long string of
pits written helically on the disk. These pits
encode the information stored on the CD.
Interference and Diffraction
 Problem Solving Exercises on Diffraction and
Interference
1.) In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the angle that locates the second-
order bright fringe is 2.00. The slit separation is 3.8 x 10-5 m. What is the
wavelength of the light?(Ans. 660 nm)
2.) In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the wavelength of light used is 520
nm, and the separation between the slits is 1.4 x 10-6 m. Determine the
angle that locates
a.) the dark fringe for which m=0,
b.) the bright fringe for which m =1,
c.) the dark fringe for which m=1, and
d.) the bright fringe for which m=2.
3.) A diffraction pattern forms when light passes through a single slit. The
wavelength of the light is 675 nm. Determine the angle that locates the
first dark fringe when the width of the slit is (a) 1.8 x 10-4 m and (b) 1.8
x 10-6 m. Ans: a.) 0.210 b.) 220
 Dispersion
Dispersion
– the separation of visible light
or other electromagnetic
waves into different
wavelengths
 Polarization
Polarization
- property of wave
that describes the orientation
of its oscillation

Normal light is unpolarized

because the photons oscillate in random
directions. When normal light passes
through a polarizing filter, photons that
oscillate in certain directions are
absorbed, while others that oscillate in
line with the filter pass through.
 Polarization

The effects of a polarizing filter on the sky in a

photograph. Left picture is taken without polarizer. For the
right picture, filter was adjusted to eliminate certain
polarizations of the scattered blue light from the sky.
 Applications: Some Optical
Phenomena
• Scattering of Light
– Mie Scattering
– Rayleigh Scattering
• Crepuscular Rays
• Halo
• Rainbow
 Scattering of Light
Scattering of Light
- light is redirected in many directions

• The sky is bright because molecules and

particles in the air scatter sunlight
produces the brightness and color in
clear skies.

• Light with higher frequencies and

shorter wavelengths is scattered more
than light with lower frequencies and
longer wavelengths.

• The atmosphere scatters violet light the

most, but human eyes do not see this
color, or frequency, well. The eye
responds well to blue, though, which is
the next most scattered color.
 Two Types of Scattering that Occur in the Atmosphere

Mie Scattering
• Large particles in the
atmosphere are able to
scatter all wavelengths of
white light equally.
• When all wavelengths of
white light are scattered
equally, then Mie
scattering is occurring .
• This is why clouds appear
white.
 Two Types of Scattering that Occur in the Atmosphere

Rayleigh Scattering
• the selective scattering of the
shorter wavelengths of visible
light (violet and blue) by
atmospheric gases.
• occurs when certain particles are
more effective at scattering a
particular wavelength of light
• Air molecules, like oxygen and
nitrogen for example, are small in
size and thus more effective at
scattering shorter wavelengths of
light (blue and violet).

• Rayleigh scattering involves much

smaller scattering particles than
Mie scattering .
 Crepuscular Rays
Crepuscular Rays
• are rays of sunlight that appear
to radiate from a single point in
the sky
• due to Mie scattering by haze
and dust
• seen most often near sunrise
and sunset
• often occur when objects such
as mountain peaks or clouds
partially shadow the sun's rays
like a cloud cover. Various
airborne compounds scatter
the sunlight and make these
rays visible, due to diffraction,
reflection, and scattering.
 Halo
Halo
• a ring of light encircling and
extending outward from the
sun or moon
• Light is reflected and refracted
by the ice crystals and may split
up into colors because of
dispersion. The crystals behave
like prisms and mirrors,
refracting and reflecting
sunlight between their faces,
sending shafts of light in
particular directions.
 The Rainbow

A rainbow forms when raindrops separate

white sunlight into a spectrum.
• As sunlight passes through a drop of water, it is
first bent and then reflected from the back surface
of the drop toward the viewer’s eye.
• Red light bends the least and violet light bends the
most.
• Primary rainbows have red on the outside arc; the
colors of secondary bows are reversed.
• Sun must be behind you.
• Rain drops must be ahead of you.
• The angle between your line-of-sight and the
sunlight will be 40°-42°.